Mathematics I

Chapter 1: One-Variable Functions. Continuity

Departmento de Fundamentos del Análisis Económico

Universidad de Alicante

2018 - 2019

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The Real Line: Types of numbers
I Natural numbers (N): 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
I Integer numbers (Z): . . . , −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
a
I Rational numbers (Q): , a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0 (there are still holes in the real line, think
b
of π)
√
I Irrational numbers (I): 2 ≈ 10 41, π ≈ 30 14, e ≈ 20 72, . . .
I Real numbers (R): the union between rational and irrational numbers ≡ the full real
line (without holes).

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I Operations with real numbers: sum, subtraction, product, inverse (when does it
exist?), division (when can we divide any two numbers?), exponents (naturals,
wholes, rationals). . .
I The concept of infinity: +∞, −∞ (these are not real numbers), as “limits” of the real
line.

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Open Interval
( a, b) = { x ∈ R : a < x < b}

Closed Interval
[ a, b] = { x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}

Half Open Interval

( a, b] = { x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}; [ a, b) = { x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b}

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Unbounded Intervals
( a, +∞) = { x ∈ R : a < x < +∞}
[ a, +∞) = { x ∈ R : a ≤ x < +∞} = { x ∈ R : a ≤ x }; this interval is closed
(−∞, b) = { x ∈ R : −∞ < x < b} = { x ∈ R : x < b}; open
(−∞, b] = { x ∈ R : x ≤ b}; closed
(−∞, +∞) = { x ∈ R : −∞ < x < +∞} = R

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Absolute Value

Absolute value of a number: three equivalent definitions

Definition 1
For any x ∈ R the absolute value or “modulus” of x is denoted by | x | and is defined as:
1. (
x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x < 0
2. √
| x | = + x2
3.
| x | = max{ x, − x }

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Absolute Value and Intervals

Open interval with center a and radius r:

{ x ∈ R :| x − a |< r } = ( a − r, a + r )

Closed interval with center a and radius r:

{ x ∈ R :| x − a |≤ r } = [ a − r, a + r ]

Complementaries:

{ x ∈ R : | x − a| > r } = R \ { x ∈ R : | x − a| ≤ r } = (−∞, a − r ) ∪ ( a + r, +∞)

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I Plane R2 is the set of ordered pairs of real numbers ( x, y) where x, y ∈ R

I Horizontal axis (abscissa) is formed by the points: X = {( x, 0) : x ∈ R}

I Vertical axis (ordinate) is formed by the points: Y = {(0, y) : y ∈ R}

I The point (0, 0) where axes X and Y cross, is called the origin of the coordinate
system.

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Illustration of Cartesian coordinates

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Lines in the Plane

Definition 2 (Line)
A line is every set in the plane of the form {( x, y) ∈ R2 : Ax + By = c} where A, B, c are
known real numbers, with A, B 6= 0.

Example 3 (Examples:)
Represent the following lines in the plane:
1. x + y = 1
2. y = 2x
3. x = 8
4. y = −2

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Graph of a Line
Obtain two points and join them:
I x + 2y = 1

x=1→y=0
x = −1 → y = 1

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Non-vertical Lines
A c
I Ax + By = c, B 6= 0 ⇒ By = − Ax + c ⇒ y=− x + = mx + n
B B
A
I m=− , slope of the line
B
c
I n=
B

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Slope of a Line
I It is recommended to write the equation of the line in the form y = mx + n, with
variable y to the left hand side of the equality. m indicates steepness of the line (its
slope)
I The larger the steepness, the larger the slope (in absolute value)

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Slope of a Line
If B 6= 0, Slope of the line = ratio between the amount of units variable y grows and the
amount of units variable x grows,
∆y
m=
∆x

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Example 4
Line that goes through points (0, −1) y (2, 5)

∆y 6
∆y = 5 − (−1) = 6; ∆x = 2 − 0 = 2; m= = =3
∆x 2

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Slope of a Line

Vertical Lines
If B = 0 (case of a vertical line), the slope of this line is infinite, i.e., m = ∞.

Equation of a Line when the slope and a point are known

I Point of the line: ( x0 , y0 )
I Slope: m

y − y0 = m ( x − x0 )

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Euclidean Vector
Vector indicating the direction of the line. It is obtained by subtracting two distinct
points in the line.

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Parametric equation
I Point of the line: ( x1 , y1 )
I Euclidean vector: ~u

{( x, y) ∈ R2 : ( x, y) = ( x1 , y1 ) + λ~u, λ ∈ R}

To get the cartesian equation (as usual) of the line, we solve for λ in one of the
coordinates and it is substituted in the other.

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A Snippet of Trigonometry

Given an angle α, the main trigonometric functions are given by:

BA
I sin(α) =
BO
AO
I cos(α) =
BO
sin(α) BA
I tan(α) = =
cos(α) AO

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 α 0 [0◦ ] π/6 [30◦ ] π/4 [45◦ ] π/3 [60◦ ] π/2 [90◦ ]
√ √ √ √ √
0 1 2 3 4
sin(α) =0 = 0.5 =1
2 2 2 2 2
√ √ √ √ √
4 3 2 1 0
cos(α) =1 = 0.5 =0
2 2 2 2 2

The fundamental relationship between sine and cosine is a direct consequence of the
Pythagoras Theorem.

sin2 (α) + cos2 (α) = 1

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Angle between two Lines

| u1 v1 + u2 v2 |
cos(α) = p p
( u1 )2 + ( u2 )2 ( v1 )2 + ( v2 )2

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Parallel Lines
Two parallel lines have the same slope m = m0

Perpendicular Lines
They form a 90◦ angle.
In this case, the cos(θ ) = 0, for which it must be satisfied (if there are no vertical lines)
that the numerator in the formula of the cosine must be 0.
If in the two lines we can solve for y, then it is possible to choose the Euclidean vectors as
~u = (1, m) and ~v = (1, m0 ), where m and m0 are the respective slopes. Substituting in the
cos(·) formula:

| 1 + mm0 | −1
cos(α) = √ p = 0 ⇔ 1 + mm0 = 0 ⇔ m0 =
1 + m2 1 + ( m 0 )2 m

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Two non-parallel lines cross each other in a unique point that can be obtained by solving
a system of two equations with two unknowns given by the equations of the lines.
Example 5
I y = 2x + 1
I y = x−3
These lines cross in (−4, −7)

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Definition 6
A function f is a rule that assigns to each number x in a set D ⊆ R a number in R
denoted by f ( x ). The number y = f ( x ) is called the image of x under f . The pair formed
by each real number x and its image f ( x ) determines a point ( x, f ( x )) in the plane R2 .
The set of all these pairs is called the graph of a function.

G f = {( x, f ( x )) ∈ R2 ; x ∈ D}
Where D is the set where the function is defined, also called domain.

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Domain

The domain of a function is the set of points for which the function can be computed. It
is convenient to recall where the basic functions are defined:
I The sum, subtraction, or product can always be computed.
I The division (quotient), can only be computed when the denominator is different
from zero.
I The square root can be computed for non-negative numbers only.
I Any logarithm can only be computed when the number is (strictly) larger than zero;
we will always use the natural logarithm, typically denoted by ln( x ), and its base is
the irrational number e ≈ 2.72.
I Any exponential operation of the kind a x where a > 0, can always be computed. In
particular, we will use the exponential with base e, e x which is the inverse of the
natural log.

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Absolute Value Function
f ( x ) =| x | domain D f = R

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Parabolic Function
f ( x ) = x2 domain D f = R

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Square Root Function
√
f (x) = x domain D f = R+ = [0, +∞)

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Hyperbolic Function
1
f (x) = domain D f = R r {0} = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞)
x

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Exponential Function
f (x) = ex domain D f = R

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Logarithmic Function
f ( x ) = ln( x ) domain D f = R++ = (0, +∞)

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Sinus and Cosinus Functions

f ( x ) = sin( x ), f ( x ) = cos( x ) domain D f = R

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Tangent Function
f ( x ) = tan( x ) domain D f = R r { x = π
2 + kπ, k ∈ Z}

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Basic Operations with Functions

With functions, we can compute basic operations yielding new functions:

I Sum-subtraction.
I Product.
I Quotient (as long as the denominator is different from zero).
I Exponentiation
I ...

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Shifts

Definition 7
If a fixed constant M ∈ R is added to a function f ( x ), the result is a vertical shift of M
units. The shift will be upwards if M > 0 and downwards if M < 0.

Definition 8
If a fixed constant k ∈ R is added to x, the resulting function f ( x + k ) will be a
horizontal shift of k units. The shift will be to the right if k < 0 and to the left if k > 0.

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Shifts
Example 9
From the parabolic function f ( x ) = x2 , we can deduce the graph of:

f 1 ( x ) = ( x − 1)2 f 2 ( x ) = x2 − 3 f 3 ( x ) = ( x − 3)2 − 4

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Change in the Sign of the Function

Definition 10
A change in the sign of f ( x ), that is, obtaining − f ( x ), has the effect of mirroring over the
X axis. Thus, knowing the graph of f ( x ), the graph of − f ( x ) is immediately obtained.

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Change in the Sign of the Variable

Definition 11
A change in the sign of the variable, that is, obtaining f (− x ) has the effect of mirroring
over the Y axis. Thus, knowing the graph of f ( x ), the graph of f (− x ) is immediately
obtained.

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Scale Changes

Definition 12
A scale change for f ( x ) consists on multiplying f ( x ), x, or both by a constant γ > 0.

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Scale Changes

Definition 13
γ f ( x ) yields a vertical stretching (compressing) of f ( x ) if γ > 1 (γ < 1).

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Scale Changes

Definition 14
f (γx ) yields a horizontal stretching (compressing) of f ( x ) if γ < 1 (γ > 1).

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 q 
f ( x ) = ln sin ( x2 + 7)
√
x 7−→ y1 = x2 7−→ y2 = y1 + 7 7−→ y3 = sin(y2 ) 7−→ y4 = y3 7−→ f ( x ) = y5 = ln(y4 )

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Functions Composition

Definition 15
Given two functions f , g : R → R, the composite function of f with g denoted by
( f ◦ g)( x ) is a new function defined by:

( f ◦ g)( x ) = f ( g( x ))
That is, a new number obtained by first applying g to x and f to the result of that.

Example 16
I f ( x ) = x2 + 1
I g( x ) = 2x − 5

( f ◦ g)( x ) = f (2x − 5) = (2x − 5)2 + 1 = 4x2 − 20x + 25 + 1 = 4x2 − 20x + 26

( g ◦ f )( x ) = g x2 + 1 = 2 x2 + 1 − 5 = 2x2 + 2 − 5 = 2x2 − 3

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Inverse Functions

Definition 17
Two functions f , g are said to be inverse functions if, for every real number x of their
domain:

( f ◦ g)( x ) = ( g ◦ f )( x ) = x
The inverse of a function f (g in the definition) is typically represented by f −1 ( x ).

Example 18
√
I f (x) = x I g( x ) = e x
I f −1 ( x ) = x2 I g−1 ( x ) = ln( x )

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Computation of the Inverse Function

I Write the equation y = f ( x )

I Solve for x
I Change of notation, substituting y by x

Example 19
f ( x ) = 3x − 1
I y = 3x − 1
1
I x = ( y + 1)
3
1
I f −1 ( x ) = y = ( x + 1)
3

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Limit of a Function
Definition 20
Given the function f ( x ) defined in the neighborhood of a point a, we say that

lim f ( x ) = L ⇐⇒ ∀ε > 0 : ∃δ > 0 such that 0 < | x − a| < δ ⇒ | f ( x ) − L| < ε

x→a

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Infinite Limits
Definition 21
Given a function f ( x ) defined in a neighborhood of a point a, it is said that

lim f ( x ) = +∞ ⇐⇒ ∀K > 0 : ∃δ > 0 such that 0 < | x − a| < δ ⇒ f ( x ) > K

x→a
lim f ( x ) = −∞ ⇐⇒ ∀K > 0 : ∃δ > 0 such that 0 < | x − a| < δ ⇒ f ( x ) < −K
x→a

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Limits in Infinity

Definition 22
Given the function f ( x ), it is said that

lim f ( x ) = L ⇐⇒ ∀ε > 0 : ∃ M > 0 such that x > M ⇒ | f ( x ) − L| < ε

x →+∞

lim f ( x ) = L ⇐⇒ ∀ε > 0 : ∃ M > 0 such that x < − M ⇒ | f ( x ) − L| < ε

x →−∞

lim f ( x ) = +∞ ⇐⇒ ∀K > 0 : ∃ M > 0 such that x > M ⇒ f (x) > K

x →+∞

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Lateral (one-sided) Limits

When we study the limit of a function f ( x ) in a finite point a, we can be close to that
point from the left, from the right, or both simultaneously. If we are only interested in those
points to the left of a, ( x < a), we are computing the limit from the left and it is denoted
by:
lim f ( x ) = L−
x → a−

If, otherwise, we are only interested in those points to the right of a, ( x > a), we are
computing the limit from the right and it is denoted by:

lim f ( x ) = L+
x → a+

Important: If L− 6= L+ then the function does not have a limit in that point. Formally:

L+ 6= L− =⇒ @ lim f ( x )
x→a

When the two lateral limits exist and they are the same, then that number is the limit of
the function.

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Asymptotes

Definition 23
The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of f ( x ) when at least one of the following
conditions is satisfied:
I lim f ( x ) = + ∞ I lim f ( x ) = − ∞
x → a+ x → a+
I lim f ( x ) = +∞ I lim f ( x ) = −∞
x → a− x → a−

Definition 24
The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of f ( x ) when at least one of the following
conditions is satisfied:
I lim f ( x ) = b I lim f ( x ) = b
x →+∞ x →−∞

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Properties of Limits

Sum and Subtraction of Functions

I
lim ( f ( x ) + g( x )) = lim f ( x ) + lim g( x )
x→a x→a x→a
I
lim ( f ( x ) − g( x )) = lim f ( x ) − lim g( x )
x→a x→a x→a

Indeterminate forms
I (+∞) − (+∞) = ?
I (−∞) − (−∞) = ?

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Properties of Limits

Product of Functions
I
lim ( f ( x ) × g( x )) = lim f ( x ) × lim g( x )
x→a x→a x→a

Indeterminate form
I (±∞)0 = ?

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Properties of Limits

Quotient of Functions
I
lim ( f ( x )/g( x )) = lim f ( x )/ lim g( x ) lim g( x ) 6= 0
x→a x→a x→a x→a

Indeterminate forms
(±∞)
I
(±∞)
= doubt
I 0 = doubt
0

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Properties of Limits

Exponentials and Composition of Functions

I
 k
lim ( f ( x ))k = lim f ( x )
x→a x→a
I
lim ( g ◦ f ) ( x ) = lim g( x ) where b = lim f ( x )
x→a x →b x→a

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Continuity

Definition 25
A function f ( x ) is continuous in the point x = a if three conditions are satisfied:
1. The function exists in x = a. That is, a ∈ D f with a finite value f ( a).
2. The limit limx→ a f ( x ) = L : L < ∞.
3. f ( a) = limx→ a f ( x ) = L.

The intuition behind the concept of continuity is captured in the following idea: a
function is continuous if we can draw its graph without raising the pencil from the paper.
Definition 26
If the function f ( x ) is not continuous in x = a, we say it is discontinuous in that point.

Definition 27
A function f ( x ) is continuous in an interval if it is continuous in every point in that
inverval. If the interval is closed, [ a, b] in x = a the limit will be computed from the right
and in x = b from the left.

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Types of Discontinuity

Finite jump discontinuity

Lateral limits exist and are finite but different.

Infinite jump discontinuity

Lateral limits are infinite and with different sign. It can also be that one is finite and
another one infinite.

Asymptotic discontinuity
Lateral limits are infinite with the same sign.

Avoidable discontinuity
Both the function and limit exist but they take different values.

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Examples

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Examples

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Functions that are continuous:
I Constant function, f ( x ) = C, D f = R
I Linear functions, f ( x ) = mx + n, D f = R
√
I Square root function, f ( x ) = x, D f = R+ = [0, +∞)
I Absolute value function, f ( x ) = | x |, D f = R
I Exponential function, f ( x ) = e x , D f = R
I Logarithmic function, f ( x ) = ln( x ), D f = R++ = (0, +∞)
I Sine and cosine functions, f ( x ) = sin( x ), f ( x ) = cos( x ), D f = R
The sum, subtraction, product, and composition of continuous functions are continuous
functions.
The quotient of continuous functions when the denominator is not zero is a continuous
function.

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Intermediate Value Theorems

Theorem 28 (Intermediate values theorem)

If f ( x ) is a continuous function in a closed interval [ a, b] and k ∈ [ f ( a), f (b)] then, there exists
at least one real number c ∈ [ a, b] such that f (c) = k.

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Continuous Functions Theorems

Theorem 29 (Bolzano Theorem)

If f ( x ) is a continuous function in a closed interval [ a, b], and f ( a) has opposite sign than f (b),
then there exists at least one real number c ∈ ( a, b) such that f (c) = 0.

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Local and Global Optima

Definition 30
Let f : D → R be a function defined in a domain D ⊆ R. Then,
a) f ( x ) achieves a global maximum in x M ∈ D if f ( x M ) ≥ f ( x ) ∀ x ∈ D
b) f ( x ) achieves a global minimum in xm ∈ D if f ( xm ) ≤ f ( x ) ∀ x ∈ D .

Definition 31
Let f : D → R be a function defined in a domain D ⊆ R. Then,
a) f ( x ) achieves a local maximum in x1 ∈ D if:

f ( x1 ) ≥ f ( x ) ∀ x ∈ D ∩ ( x1 − ε, x1 + ε) for some ε > 0

b) f ( x ) achieves a local minimum in x2 ∈ D if:

f ( x2 ) ≤ f ( x ) ∀ x ∈ D ∩ ( x2 − ε, x2 + ε) for some ε > 0

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Theorem 32 (Weierstrass’ Theorem)
If f ( x ) is a continuous function in a closed interval [ a, b], then f ( x ) achieves a global maximum
and minimum in that interval. That is,
1. ∃ x M ∈ [ a, b] : f ( x M ) ≥ f ( x ) ∀ x ∈ [ a, b]
2. ∃ xm ∈ [ a, b] : f ( xm ) ≤ f ( x ) ∀ x ∈ [ a, b]

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