Diamond as an

electronic material
The combination of extreme electronic and thermal properties
found in synthetic diamond produced by chemical vapor deposition
(CVD) is raising considerable excitement over its potential use as a
semiconductor material. Experimental studies have demonstrated
charge-carrier mobilities1 of >3000 cm2V–1s–1 and thermal
conductivities2 >2000 Wm–1K–1. The material has been predicted
to have a breakdown field strength in excess of 10 MVcm–1. These
figures suggest that, providing a range of technical challenges can be
overcome, diamond would be particularly well suited to operation as a
semiconductor material wherever high frequencies, high powers, high
temperatures or high voltages are required.
Chris J. H. Wort* and Richard S. Balmer
Element Six Ltd, King’s Ride Park, Ascot, SL5 8BP, UK
*E-mail: chris.wort@e6.com

Diamond is a wide-bandgap semiconductor (Egap = 5.47 eV) with
tremendous potential as an electronic device material in both
active devices, such as high-frequency field-effect transistors
(FETs) and high-power switches, and passive devices, such as
Schottky diodes. Its properties potentially enable devices that
are beyond the scope of current systems in terms of operating
frequency, power handling capacity, operating voltage, and
operating environment.
While diamond has significant potential, it possesses a number
of features that present challenges. Device designs in which holes
are the only available charge carrier are required because of the
absence of a convincing n-type dopant. The hardness and chemical
inertness of the material require the development of novel fabrication
processes.
We review the properties of diamond relevant to electronic
applications and how these compare with competitor materials. The
commercial drivers that are currently seen to justify the development
of diamond as an electronic material are discussed. We take a look at
the issues that have thus far inhibited the development of diamond
devices and show how they are being overcome. Finally, we consider
some of the device designs that have been proposed to exploit the
properties of diamond.
Properties of diamond
Diamond is one of the most exceptional naturally occurring materials,
endowed with a number of extreme physical properties that enable
a broad range of applications, particularly when these properties
are combined. Aside from the fact that diamond is the hardest of

22 JAN-FEB 2008 | VOLUME 11 | NUMBER 1-2 ISSN:1369 7021 © Elsevier Ltd 2008
 Diamond as an electronic material
all materials, which has lead to its exploitation in a broad range of
mechanical applications, its optical properties (including transmission
across the ultraviolet to microwave wavelength range), in combination
with its high thermal conductivity and low coefficient of thermal
expansion make it a superb window material2,3.
While natural diamond exhibits these unique properties4, they are
rarely all present in the same stone. This variability and rarity puts too
many obstacles in the way of the researcher to give natural diamond
any practical commercial potential for many applications, including
semiconductor devices.
Diamond synthesis by the high-pressure, high-temperature
processes and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) has been responsible
for its commercial use in numerous engineering applications. These
synthesis routes have enabled specific material properties important
for such applications to be precisely and reproducibly controlled.
CVD diamond synthesis processes are of particular significance for
the development of the more ‘high-tech’ engineering applications.
Such applications currently include diamond’s use as precision optical
components for high-power lasers, detector material for high-energy
physics research, and heat spreaders for the telecommunications
industry.
Measured properties relevant to electronic devices
Until the advent of single-crystal diamond synthesized by CVD
processes, most measurements of electronic properties were made
on rare, carefully selected Type IIa natural diamonds (Type IIa
diamonds are very rare in nature and have the lowest levels of
nitrogen impurity as measured by spectroscopic techniques, below
1017cm-3, and no specific optical absorptions arising from H or B).
These measurements have provided benchmarks against which CVD
diamond can be compared.
Carrier mobility
Single-crystal CVD diamond exhibits both the highest electron and hole
mobilities at room temperature of any wide-bandgap semiconductor,
which is clearly an immensely attractive property. Electron and hole
mobilities of about 4500 cm2V–1s–1 and 3800 cm2V–1s–1, respectively,
have been measured1 in intrinsic, single-crystal CVD diamond at room
temperature. Corresponding values for 4H-SiC are 900 cm2V–1s–1 for
electrons and 120 cm2V–1s–1 for holes. Published data1,5,6 indicate that
the hole mobility in diamond drops as T–1.5 in the interval 300–400 K,
which is generally considered to be indicative of acoustic phonon
scattering in high crystallographic quality, intrinsic samples as assessed
by Isberg et al.1. However, Somogyi7, points out that this reduction in
mobility as a function of temperature (in this temperature range) could
also be the result of scattering from incomplete ionization of common
impurities within the diamond material. At temperatures above about
400 K, hole mobility falls more rapidly with an exponent in the range
–2.5 to –3.66. Even so, mobilities of µh > 2000 cm2V–1s–1 at 400 K
REVIEW
and µh > 1000 cm2V–1s–1 at 500 K have been measured, making high-
temperature device operation a possibility.
Impurity scattering causes the mobility to drop with increasing
dopant concentration. Fox et al.8 have measured hole mobility
dropping from ~1500 cm2V–1s–1 to ~1000 cm2V–1s–1 in B-doped CVD
samples with B concentrations in the range 5 x 1016 – 2 x 1018 cm–3.
Unpublished data9 on Element Six samples have shown a hole Hall
mobility of 450 cm2V–1s–1 for a B concentration of ~1019 cm–3.
Thus even highly B-doped diamond can exhibit good hole mobility.
Of course, in devices where the active region consists of purely
intrinsic diamond, the drop in mobility with dopant concentration is
not relevant; however, the challenge is then to achieve impurity-free
material.
Saturation velocity
In high electric fields, the conductivity is determined by the saturation
velocity rather than by the mobility. The velocity of charge carriers
is saturated at high fields by the generation of optical phonons in
the crystal lattice. A high saturation velocity is advantageous for the
performance of FETs operating at high frequencies. The saturation
velocity, vs, is given by10 eq 1:
8E opt
vs = tanh(E opt / 2kT ) (1)
3π m*
where Eopt is the energy of (k = 0) optical phonons and m* is the
effective mass of the charge carriers. High optical phonon energies
thus tend to give a high saturation carrier velocity. Diamond has the
highest optical phonon energy Eopt = 160 meV11 of any semiconductor.
Experimentally determined values of vs vary significantly in the
literature (see for example Nava et al.12 and Reggiani13) but
most measurements indicate vs = 0.85–1.2 x 107 cms–1 and
vs = 1.5–2.7 x 107 cms–1 for holes and electrons, respectively.
Of the other wide-bandgap semiconductors, only SiC reaches
values comparable to those of diamond. However, diamond has a
real advantage in that its saturation velocity is reached in fields of
~10 kV/cm, whereas for SiC, the velocity saturates at fields close to
its practical electrical breakdown strength. Such high fields can be very
difficult to approach in devices.
Carrier lifetime
Carrier lifetime is important in designing bipolar (minority carrier)
components. It is equally important for devices where electron-hole
pairs are generated by radiation, such as radiation detectors.
For unipolar devices, the recombination lifetime is of less interest.
However, a high carrier lifetime is an indication of a low impurity and
defect concentration, and thus an important material quality indicator.
Carrier lifetimes of more than 2 µs have been measured in single-
crystal CVD diamond1, which is similar to the best data in 4H-SiC14,15 .
In natural diamond, lifetimes of less than a nanosecond are typical.
JAN-FEB 2008 | VOLUME 11 | NUMBER 1-2 23
REVIEW Diamond as an electronic material

Dielectric breakdown field
For many devices, a semiconductor material with a high electric
breakdown field is desirable. This is true not only for power devices,
such as diodes and switches intended to block several kilovolts, but
also for high-frequency FETs. The reason is that, if higher electric fields
can be tolerated, the devices can be designed with smaller dimensions,
which results in faster switching.
Intrinsic breakdown in semiconductors is inherent to the material.
It results from impact ionization and subsequent avalanche breakdown.
On the other hand, extrinsic breakdown at defects is dependent on
crystalline quality and improves with better quality material.
Diamond exhibits the highest predicted breakdown field (Ebr) of any
semiconductor with values in the range 5–10 MVcm–1 to be reasonably
expected16. In contrast, 4H-SiC and GaN exhibit measured breakdown
fields of 3 MVcm–1 and 5 MVcm–1, respectively.
Thermal properties
Diamond has the highest thermal conductivity (Tc) of any material
known. High-purity, single-crystal CVD diamond has a Tc in excess of
2200 Wm–1K–1 at room temperature, falling to around 700 Wm–1K–1
at 773 K. Table 1 shows the thermal properties of diamond as a
function of temperature.
The extremely high thermal conductivity of diamond enables
diamond-based devices to handle high powers more simply. This is
because the first stage of thermal management, getting any heat away
from the point at which it is produced, is facilitated by the device itself
rather than by an add-on solution.
Comparison of diamond with competitor materials
The potential of diamond can be seen by comparing its properties
with those of competing materials for high-frequency17,18 and high-
power electronic device applications19, namely GaN and SiC (Table 2).
The figures of merit for diamond clearly show the effect of its extreme
properties compared with other wide-bandgap materials. Diamond
electronic devices, such as power diodes, switches, and high-frequency
FETs, might thus be expected to deliver outstanding performance
because of the material’s excellent intrinsic properties.
Commercial drivers for diamond electronic
devices
While Si and GaAs devices dominate the solid-state microwave
device market, they cannot match the power performance of the
vacuum tube. One driver for diamond as a semiconductor stems
from an interest in replacing vacuum tubes in niche applications. The
development of a solid-state alternative would have many benefits
including small size, low weight, low operational voltage (compared
with vacuum tube devices), and greater robustness.
Current vacuum tube designs, such as magnetrons, klystrons, and
traveling-wave tubes (TWT) are usually bulky, often fragile, and
expensive (with the exception of magnetrons for microwave ovens,
which are manufactured in huge volumes and cost only $10–20/kW).
If the intrinsic properties of diamond could be fully exploited through
novel device design and fabrication, it could compete not only with
existing wide-bandgap devices (based on SiC and GaN) but also with
TWTs in the entire radio frequency (RF) generation market up to 100
GHz.
The control of power at high voltages19 is another potential use
of diamond. Theoretically, a single diamond switch could be used to
switch power at voltages approaching 50 kV. This is not currently
achievable with any other electronic material. Electronic devices
fabricated in diamond could drastically reduce the size and cost of
electronic control nodes, which are an essential requirement within any
electrical power system. Such nodes would be of particular importance
and relevance for future ‘alternative energy’ power systems, which

Table 1 Thermal properties of diamond as a function of temperature13. (Note: values in italics are extrapolated values.)

Temperature Cp α Density Diffusivity Tc

(˚C) (J.kg–1.K–1) (ppm.K–1) (g.cm–3) (mm2.s–1) (W.m–1.K–1)
–100 138 0.37 3.51539 9275.982 4500
0 428 0.8 3.515 1659.111 2496
20 495 1 3.514789 1304.732 2270
25 512 1 3.514736 1245.87 2242
50 596 1.4 3.514262 956.3141 2003
100 763 1.65 3.513261 677.0827 1815
200 1066 2.3 3.510154 353.9656 1324.477
300 1304 3.1 3.505211 228.2192 1043.144
400 1475 3.65 3.499649 165.406 853.8229
500 1586 4 3.493994 129.6695 718.5601

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 Diamond as an electronic material REVIEW

Table 2 Intrinsic material properties and figures of merit (normalized to Si = 1) at room temperature for Si, 4H-SiC,
GaN, natural and synthetic CVD diamond1. 4H is the polytype of SiC that is considered best suited for power electronic
devices as it has the highest mobility.
Si 4H-SiC GaN Natural CVD Potential device application benefit
Diamond Diamond

Bandgap (eV) 1.1 3.2 3.44 5.47 5.47 High temperature

Breakdown field (MVcm–1) 0.3 3 5 10 10 High voltage

Electron saturation velocity (x107 cm s–1) 0.86 3 2.5 2 2 High frequency

Hole saturation velocity (x107 cm s–1) n/a n/a n/a 0.8 0.8

Electron mobility (cm2 V–1 s–1) 1450 900 440 200–2800 4500

Hole mobility (cm2 V–1 s–1) 480 120 200 1800–2100 3800

Thermal conductivity (Wcm–1 K–1) 1.5 5 1.3 22 24 High power

Johnson’s figure of merit 1 410 280 8200 8200 Power-frequency product

Keyes’ figure of merit 1 5.1 1.8 32 32 Transistor behavior thermal limit

Baliga’s figure of merit 1 290 910 882 17200 Unipolar HF device performance

would typically comprise a number of small, variable power generators semiconductors tend to have higher ionization energies than those in
(solar, wind, and wave, for example) distributed within a network. narrow-bandgap semiconductors, resulting in low activation at room
These are some reasons why there is such interest in diamond for temperature. In the case of diamond, known dopants have even higher
these small, but significant niche markets. ionization energies. The most common dopants used in diamond are
listed in Table 3 with their associated ionization energies.
Challenges of working with diamond Reports suggesting that S or O constitute reasonably shallow
Natural diamond, as already noted, is too variable in its properties donors remain to be substantiated. As B is readily incorporated into
to be considered as a viable electronic material for commercial CVD diamond as a dopant impurity during growth (the implantation
applications. and diffusion doping techniques used with conventional semiconductor
Fortunately, recent advances in CVD synthesis processes to grow materials are ineffective in diamond), much activity has been focused
free standing single-crystal intrinsic and B-doped diamond mean that on unipolar devices using B22,23. However, as B acceptors are only
the desirable electronic properties exhibited by a few, very rare natural weakly activated at room temperature (because of ionization energy
diamonds can now be achieved in an engineered diamond material.
The realization of the significant potential of diamond devices over
existing device technology depends on completing a number of key
objectives, in particular providing: (a) access in volume to high-quality,
ultrahigh purity, semiconductor quality material; (b) the capability of
providing carriers by doping the material in a controlled manner; and
(c) the ability to process thin layers and structures.
‘Electronic grade’ single-crystal CVD diamond plates (Fig. 1) are now
commercially available20 and are suitable as the basis for electronic
devices, such as Schottky diodes and FETs.
With respect to the second objective for realizing diamond
devices, i.e. the capability of providing carriers by doping the material
in a controlled manner, a considerable amount of effort has gone Fig. 1 Commercially synthesized electronic-grade single-crystal CVD diamond
into the search for suitable dopants21. Dopants in wide-bandgap plates20.

JAN-FEB 2008 | VOLUME 11 | NUMBER 1-2 25

REVIEW Diamond as an electronic material
Table 3 Common dopants in CVD diamond.
Element Activation
Energy (eV)
n-type Nitrogen 1.7
Phosphorous ~0.6
p-type Boron 0.37
is 0.37 eV), considerable effort has been focused on research into
novel unipolar designs18,22 based on B doping to realize functional
semiconductor devices in CVD diamond.
Briefly, the ability to process nanoscale layers and structures
is the final, and one of the most challenging, aspects for creating
active electronic components in diamond18. This is a highly specialist
technology and falls outside the scope of this article. Suffice to say, a
number of research projects at various universities and other programs
such as the UK Department of Trade and Industry (DTI)-funded
Micromachined Diamond Device Initiative (MIDDI)24, are currently
contributing to the rapid development of electronic processing
technologies for diamond.
Diamond device concepts
In this section, we review two of the niche applications where the
advantages offered by diamond are expected to be of greatest impact,
high-power and high-frequency electronics.
Diamond high power electronics
Power semiconductor devices have seen a doubling of efficiency
every three years for the last 18 years. The target is always to make a
power semiconductor faster, smaller, lighter, more reliable, and with
consequent reductions in overall system cost19. In many cases, systems
have been optimized within the constraints of Si technology; however,
the intrinsic properties of diamond make it possible to satisfy the needs
of the growing market beyond the scope of Si technology.
The ideal power semiconductor device combines zero conduction
losses with zero switching losses, thus maximizing the efficiency of
power electronics systems. Si unipolar power devices, such as the
metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET) or Schottky diode, offer
near-ideal switching characteristics because of an absence of stored
charge. However, conduction losses effectively limit the maximum
voltage rating of Si Schottky diodes to just 250 V, while Si MOSFETs
are rarely used above 600 V.
At higher voltages, Si bipolar devices, such as isolated gate bipolar
transistors (IGBTs), are used. Bipolar device operation involves
charge injection, which gives low conduction losses, but leads to
relatively high switching losses. Bipolar devices are essentially a
performance compromise and are far from ideal. The advent of wide-
bandgap materials now makes high-voltage unipolar devices a viable
proposition. While SiC technology is more advanced than diamond,
the material properties of single-crystal CVD diamond ultimately offer
26 JAN-FEB 2008 | VOLUME 11 | NUMBER 1-2
higher critical electric fields, thermal conductivity, and higher carrier
mobility. This equates to higher power densities and higher efficiency
systems.
As a result of the current limitations in dopants available for
diamond, a number of different device concepts have been proposed
and developed for both transistors and diodes1,18,23,25.
Diamond diodes
A high-temperature diode was one of the first diamond-based power
devices to be reported in which the operating temperature of a
Schottky diode structure was pushed to 1000°C26. The diode structure
consisted of Si-based Schottky material deposited onto a homoepitaxial
B-doped diamond surface.
Work carried out under the Carbon Power Electronics (CAPE)
consortium project (supported by the UK DTI) resulted in the
fabrication of various Schottky barrier diodes (SBDs) from single-
crystal CVD diamond27–29. Brezeanu and co workers29 have revealed
details of a metal-intrinsic-semiconductor diode structure (a so-called
M-i-P diode). The M-i-P SBD structure is able to compensate for
the lack of carriers in the drift region (with the high hole mobility
in intrinsic diamond) and could withstand breakdown voltages of a
few kilovolts with thin drift regions (less than 25 µm) as a result of
the high critical field strength of diamond. The intrinsic theoretical
performance of diamond, coupled with careful device design29,
suggest that diamond could become an important component in
power conversion devices19,28. Such devices may well be capable of
operating at voltages in excess of 10 kV and at higher temperatures
than other semiconductor materials28–30, providing both efficient
Schottky contacts and low-resistance ohmic contacts to diamond can
be achieved.
High-power diamond switches
The electrical characteristics of diamond permit the design of high-
power switches with very low dynamic losses. It should be possible
to make 1.7 kV and 6.5 kV switches that operate at several kilohertz
and with currents in the range suitable for traction applications. Such
devices will be far better than existing technology, as switching losses
will be reduced from 3% to an estimated <1%, and thus dramatically
reduce the motor losses caused by harmonics. In addition, the excellent
thermal characteristics of diamond permit the manufacture of devices
able to operate up to 400°C. An active cooling system will no longer be
needed, improving the overall system efficiency. Finally, the allowable
current density will be far higher than in Si devices and the required
area of the semiconductor will be dramatically reduced, leading to a
large reduction in component and system size (and hence cost) of the
power converter system as a whole.
In terms of power devices, a desirable goal is to produce an
efficient, 20 kV switch (FET and/or radiation-activated switch)31,
capable of replacing thyristors and IGBTs in, for example, high-voltage,
 Diamond as an electronic material
Fig. 2 Proposed structure for a vertical high-power MESFET in diamond.
direct-current (HVDC) and traction applications. Diamond is now being
considered as a serious contender in this area.
High-power FETs are normally vertical devices to ensure a large
crosssection for the current flow (Fig. 2). Vertical devices typically
require highly complex processing steps, such as deep-trench etching
and the provision of high aspect ratio features. Methods suitable for
volume production of such features are still in development24.
High-frequency diamond devices
The figures of merit for diamond as a device material (Table 1) have
resulted in considerable efforts aimed at novel transistor designs by
groups worldwide, notably in Germany32–34, Japan35,36, and the UK37.
In contrast to vertical FET devices, where the current flows through
the bulk of the semiconductor material, most high-frequency FETs are
lateral devices. In lateral FET operation, carriers flow along a channel
from a source to a drain near the surface. The gate voltage modulates
the carrier conduction.
A number of device concepts for diamond-based transistors have
been considered, taking into account the current lack of a shallow
n-type donor. This means that diamond-based electronic devices are
unipolar (p-type) and are based on the metal semiconductor FET
(MESFET) concept22,33,35. However, the high ionization energy of
B-doped diamond means that conventional device designs are unlikely
to work well for diamond. Rather than use the constraints of Si device
constructs, new types of device have been proposed to exploit the
numerous material advantages of diamond.
In diamond, the drift velocity of charge carriers reaches saturation
at relatively low fields. This property can be exploited effectively
by separating the carriers from the ionized acceptors, or by taking
advantage of the unique surface conduction phenomenon for
H-terminated diamond surfaces25,35.
Fig. 3 Fundamental design of a surface-conduction FET.
REVIEW
The surface-conduction FET (Fig. 3) makes use of a diamond
surface terminated with H atoms35. The hydrogenated surface causes
a two-dimensional hole channel to form in the diamond layer several
nanometers below the surface. To date, the mechanism that produces
this channel formation is still under debate, although it has been
suggested that atmospheric contamination, especially condensation of
water vapor onto the hydrogenated surface, plays a key role in creating
the conductive channel below the surface38.
While reported results are promising25,35, there are some issues
to be resolved, such as the long-term stability of these surface FETs,
particularly at elevated temperatures and in harsh environments.
Other groups have investigated alternative design concepts (Fig. 4).
The p-i-p metal-intrinsic-semiconductor FET (MISFET) design is similar
to the basic FET design, apart from the fact that a trench is etched
through the doped conducting channel. The gate dielectric and metal
are deposited into the trench as shown in Fig. 4a. This design was
pioneered by Kobe Steel36 based on space-charge ideas discussed
by Ikeda et al.39. In this design, the current that flows around the
gate is space-charge limited and, therefore, not ideal for high-power
transistor operation. In addition, successful operation requires very
precise etching of the gate trench because the source-drain current is
highly sensitive to the effective gate length (Leff). Early prototype p-i-p
transistors have been fabricated that demonstrate full ‘pinch-off’ and
basic transistor action even at significantly elevated temperatures (as
shown in Fig. 5 at ~500 K)6.
A more attractive design (Fig. 4b), pioneered by the University of
Ulm33,40 and now being further optimized by Diamond Microwave
Devices, is the delta-doped FET. This design includes a degree of
separation between the holes and ionized acceptors by incorporating
a ‘delta’ doping layer. This was a technique originally demonstrated
in Si devices and is commonly used in III-V devices. The delta layer
is a very thin (ideally just a few monolayers), highly B-doped region
sandwiched between undoped intrinsic diamond layers. Conduction
occurs both in the delta layer and in the intrinsic layers because of the
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4 MESFET design concepts: (a) p-i-p MISFET and (b) delta MESFET.
(Courtesy of Diamond Microwave Devices.)
JAN-FEB 2008 | VOLUME 11 | NUMBER 1-2 27
REVIEW Diamond as an electronic material

low, in the region of 1–10 cm2V–1s–1, whereas in the undoped material

the mobility may approach that of intrinsic diamond. The challenge
for groups like Diamond Microwave Devices is to develop techniques
further to maximize the overall carrier mobility in the layered
structure18,22,33.

Conclusion
Steady progress has been made since 2002 on developing all the
necessary building blocks (electronic materials, device design, and
fabrication techniques) to realize stable diamond-based electronic
devices. During 2007, efforts to create functioning electronic
components in CVD diamond have intensified. This progress is
expected to significantly accelerate as the technology is ‘derisked’,
confidence increases, and development activity is further ramped up.
Fig. 5 Early prototype p-i-p diamond-based transistors demonstrate ‘pinch-off’
and transistor action, even at elevated temperatures (~500 K). (Courtesy of To date, diamond-based Schottky diodes and MESFET device designs
Ulm University.) have already been modeled and experimentally demonstrated18,33.
The next two years may be critical in moving this technology forward
out-diffusion of holes from the narrow delta-doped layer. The mobility by giving a clear demonstration of electronic devices with commercial
in the delta layer with a doping concentration of 1020 cm–3 is very potential.

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