BASIC

ELECTRICITY
DOCKET

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S. No. Chapter Page

1. Electricity 3
2. Magnetism 5
3. Electromagnetism 8

4. Concepts of AC & DC Current 9

5. Electrical Resistance 13
6. Batteries 15
7. Transformer 17
8. Electrical Safety 20

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Chapter 1
Electricity

1.1 Insulators & conductors

Insulators are those materials, which do not allow electric current to pass through them.

Conductors are those materials, which allow electric current to pass through them. In other
words, conductors are materials that allow electric current to pass.

1.2 Coulomb’s law

“The force of attraction or of repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to the
product of charges and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.”

1.3 Electric field

The space around a charged body in which it attracts or repels other charges is known as it’s
electric field.
1.4 Electrostatic induction

When an uncharged body is approached near a charged body, the uncharged body gets charged.
This phenomenon of uncharged body getting charged just by bringing it near a charged body is
known as electrostatic induction.
1.5 Electric potential

The amount of work done to move a positive test charge from one point to another divided by the
magnitude of the test charge, is called electric potential. Potential difference is a scalar quantity.
Its unit is volt.

Potential difference = Work done / test charge

ΔV=ΔW/q
Where,
ΔV = potential difference (volt)
ΔW= work done (joule)
q= test charge (coulomb)

1.6 Capacitor

It is a device for storing electric charge. It is a system of two (or more) plates on which we can
store electric charge. Capacitor is an electronic device, which is used to store electric charge or
electrical energy. A capacitor stores electric charge on its plates.

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1.7 Unit of capacitor

“The charge stored on a capacitor when unit potential difference is applied across it’s plat is
called capacitance of a capacitor”
Unit of capacitance is “farad”.

1.8 EMF

EMF stands for Electromotive Force. “The force which causes electricity to flow between two
points with different electrical charges or when there is a difference of potential between the two
points.”The unit of emf is volts.

Where,
N = Number of turns of the coil.
ΔΦ/Δt = change of magnetic flux in time Δt.

1.9 Ohm's law

“The current in a circuit is DIRECTLY proportional to the applied voltage and INVERSELY proportional to the
circuit resistance”. Ohm’s law may be expressed as an equation:

As stated in Ohm’s law, current is inversely proportional to resistance. This means, as the resistance in a circuit
increases, the current decreases proportionately.

1.10 Resistance in series

When resistors, can be connected in such a way that the same current flows in them, then they are said to be
connected in series.

1.11 Resistance in parallel

If the resistances are in parallel, the potential difference across each is the same, but the current is not.

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Chapter 2
Magnetism
2.1 Magnetic Materials

Magnetism is generally defined as that property of a material which enables it to attract pieces of iron. A material
possessing this property is known as a MAGNET. Materials that are attracted by a magnet, such as iron, steel,
nickel, and cobalt, have the ability to become magnetized.

2.2 Ferromagnetic Material

Ferromagnetic materials are those which are relatively easy to magnetize, such as iron, steel, cobalt, and the alloys
Alnico and Permalloy.

2.3 Natural Magnets

Magnetic stones such as those found by the ancient Greeks are considered to be NATURAL MAGNETS.

2.4 Artificial Magnets

Magnets produced from magnetic materials are called ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS. They can be made in a variety of
shapes and sizes and are used extensively in electrical apparatus.
Artificial magnets are usually classified as PERMANENT or TEMPORARY, depending on their ability to retain
their magnetic properties after the magnetizing force has been removed.

2.5 Magnetic Poles

The two ends, which are the regions of concentrated lines of force, are called the POLES of the magnet. Magnets
have two magnetic poles and both poles have equal magnetic strength.

2.6 Law of Magnetic Poles

If a bar magnet is suspended freely on a string, as shown in figure, it will align itself in a north and south direction.
When this experiment is repeated, it is found that the same pole of the magnet will always swing toward the north
magnetic pole of the earth. Therefore, it is called the north-seeking pole or simply the NORTH POLE. The other
pole of the magnet is the south-seeking pole or the SOUTH POLE.

A practical use of the directional characteristic of the magnet is the compass, a device in which a freely rotating
magnetized needle indicator points toward the North Pole. The realization that the poles of a suspended magnet
always move to a definite position gives an indication that the opposite poles of a magnet have opposite magnetic
polarity.
The law previously stated regarding the attraction and repulsion of charged bodies may also be applied to magnetism
if the pole is considered as a charge. The north pole of a magnet will always be attracted to the south pole of another
magnet and will show a repulsion to a north pole. The law for magnetic poles is:
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.

2.7 Earth’s Magnetic Poles

The fact that a compass needle always aligns itself in a particular direction, regardless of its location on earth,
indicates that the earth is a huge natural magnet. The distribution of the magnetic force about the earth is the same as
that which might be produced by a giant bar magnet running through the center of the earth. The magnetic axis of
the earth is located about 15º from its geographical axis thereby locating the magnetic poles some distance from the
geographical poles.
The ability of the north pole of the compass needle to point toward the north geographical pole is due to the presence
of the magnetic pole nearby. This magnetic pole is named the magnetic North Pole. However, in actuality, it must
have the polarity of a south magnetic pole since it attracts the north pole of a compass needle. The reason for this

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conflict in terminology can be traced to the early users of the compass. Knowing little about magnetic effects, they
called the end of the compass needle that pointed towards the north geographical pole, the north pole of a compass.
With our present knowledge of magnetism, we know the north pole of a compass needle (a small bar magnet) can be
attracted only by an unlike magnetic pole, that is, a pole of south magnetic polarity.

2.8 Theories of Magnetism (Weber & Domain)

WEBER’S THEORY OF MAGNETISMassumes that all magnetic material is made up of magnetic molecules
which, if lined up in north to South Pole order, will be a magnet. If not lined up, the magnetic fields about the
molecules will neutralize each other and no magnetic effect will be noted.

THE DOMAIN THEORY OF MAGNETISMstates that if the electrons of the atoms in a material spin more in
one direction than in the other, the material will become magnetized.

2.9 Magnetic Fields

The space surrounding a magnet where magnetic forces act is known as the magnetic field.

2.10 Lines of Force

MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE are imaginary lines used to describe the patterns of the
magneticfield about a magnet. These lines are assumed to flow externally from the north pole
and into the south pole.

2.11 Magnetic Effects

MAGNETIC FLUX: The total number of magnetic lines of force leaving or entering the pole of
a magnet is called MAGNETIC FLUX.
FLUX DENSITY: The number of flux lines per unit area is known as FLUX DENSITY.
FIELD INTENSITY: The intensity of a magnetic field is directly related to the magnetic force
exerted by the field.
ATTRACTION/REPULSION: The intensity of attraction or repulsion between magnetic poles
may be described by a law almost identical to Coulomb’s Law of Charged Bodies. The force
between two poles is directly proportional to the product of the pole strengths and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the poles.

2.11 Magnetic Induction

The process by which a substance, such as iron or steel, becomes magnetized by a magnetic
field. The induced magnetism is produced by the force of the field radiating from the poles of a
magnet.

2.12 Magnetic Shielding

MAGNETIC SHIELDING can be accomplished by placing a soft iron shield around the object tobe protected, thus
directing the lines of force around the object.

2.13 Magnetic Shapes

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Because of the many uses of magnets, they are found in various shapes and sizes. However, magnets usually come
under one of three general classifications: bar magnets, horseshoe magnets, or ring magnets.

2.14 Care of Magnets

A piece of steel that has been magnetized can lose much of its magnetism by improper handling. If it is jarred or
heated, there will be a disalignment of its domains resulting in the loss of some of its effective magnetism. Had this
piece of steel formed the horseshoe magnet of a meter, the meter would no longer be operable or would give
inaccurate readings. Therefore, care must be exercised when handling instruments containing magnets. Severe
jarring or subjecting the instrument to high temperatures will damage the device.

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Chapter 3
Electromagnetism

3.1 Ampere’s law

Ampere's Law states that for any closed loop path, the sum of the length elements times the magnetic field in the
direction of the length element is equal to the permeability times the electric current enclosed in the loop.
“The sum of the products of the tangential component of magnetic field of induction and the length of an element of
a closed curve taken in a magnetic field is ‘µo’ times the current which passes through the area bounded by this
curve."
Ampere's Law states that currents generate magnetic fields or in other words, whenever you have a current, there is
a magnetic field circulates around it.

3.2 Faraday’s law

“The magnitude of e.m.f induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the coil.”

3.3 Left Hand Rule

If the left thumb points in the direction of electron current , the fingers of the left hand curl around the wire in the
direction of the magnetic field. Mobile electrons are the actual moving charges in metals.

3.4 Self Induction

Self-induction is that phenomenon in which a change in electric current in a coil produces an induced emf in the coil
itself.

3.5 Mutual Induction

When current is changed in a coil an emf is induced in a neighboring coil this phenomenon is called mutual
induction.

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Chapter 4
Concepts of AC & DC Current

4.1 Basic AC generation

A loop of wire rotating in a magnetic field produces a voltage which constantly changes in
amplitude and direction. The waveform produced is called a sine wave and is a graphical picture
of alternating current (ac). One complete revolution (360º ) of the conductor produces one cycle
of ac. The cycle is composed of two alternations: a positive alternation and a negative
alternation. One cycle of ac in one second is equal to 1 hertz (1 Hz).

4.2 Cycle

One complete positive and one complete negative alternation of a current or voltage, is called cycle.

4.3 Frequency

The number of cycles of ac per second is referred to as the FREQUENCY. AC frequency is measured in hertz. Most
ac equipment is rated by frequency as well as by voltage and current.

4.4 Period

The time required to complete one cycle of a waveform is called the PERIOD OF THE WAVE.

4.5 Wavelength

The distance, usually expressed in meters, travelled by a wave during the time interval of one complete cycle, is
called wavelength. It is equal to the velocity of light divided by the frequency.

4.6 Alternating current value

An electrical current which constantly changes amplitude and changes polarity at regular intervals, is called
alternating value.

4.7 Peak Value

The maximum instantaneous value of a varying current, voltage, or power. It is equal to 1.414 times the effective
value of a sine wave.

4.8 Peak-to-Peak Value

The measure of absolute magnitude of an ac waveform, measured from the greatest positive alternation to greatest
negative alternation, is called peak-to-peak value.

4.9 Instantaneous value

The instantaneous value of a sine wave of alternating voltage or current is the value of voltage or current at one
particular instant of time.

4.10 Average value

The average value of a sine wave of voltage or current is the average of all the instantaneous values during one
alternation. The average value is equal to 0.636 of the peak value.

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4.11 Effective value of a sine wave

The effective value of a sine wave is equal to 0.707 times the peak value. The effective value is also called the root
mean square or rms value.

4.12 Sine wave in phase

When two sine waves are exactly in step with each other, they are said to be in phase. To be in phase, both sine
waves must go through their minimum and maximum points at the same time and in the same direction.

4.13 Sine wave out of phase

When two sine waves go through their minimum and maximum points at different times, a phase difference exists
between them. The two waves are said to be out of phase with each other.

4.14 Ohms law in AC circuits

All dc rules and laws apply to an ac circuit that contains only resistance. The important point to remember is: Do not
mix ac values. Ohm's Law formulas for ac circuits are given below:

4.15 Voltage waveforms

The waveform of voltage or current is a graphical picture of changes in voltage or current values
over a period of time.

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4.16 Electromagnetism

The generation of a magnetic field around a current carrying conductor, is called

electromagnetism.

4.17 Magnetic field around a current carrying conductor

If a compass is placed in the vicinity of a current-carrying conductor, the compass needle will
align itself at right angles to the conductor, thus indicating the presence of a magnetic force.

4.18 Magnetic field of a coil

When wire is wound around a core, it forms a COIL. The magnetic fields produced when current
flows in the coil combine. The combined influence of all of the fields around the turns produce a
two-pole field similar to that of a simple bar magnet.

When the direction of current in the coil is reversed, the polarity of the two-pole field of the coil
is reversed.
The strength of the magnetic field of the coil is dependent upon:
• The number of turns of the wire in the coil.
• The amount of current in the coil.
• The ratio of the coil length to the coil width.
• The type of material in the core.

4.19 Polarity of an electromagnetic coil

When the direction of the current in a coil is known, you can determine the magnetic polarity of
the coil by using the LEFT-HAND RULE FOR COILS. This rule is stated as follows:

Grasp the coil in your left hand, with your fingers "wrapped around" in the direction of the
electron current flow. Your thumb will then point toward the north pole of the coil.

4.20 Strength of an electromagnetic field

The strength or intensity of a coil's magnetic field depends on a number of factors. The main
ones are listed below:
• The number of turns of wire in the coil.
• The amount of current flowing in the coil.
• The ratio of the coil length to the coil width.
• The type of material in the core.

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4.21 Losses in an electromagnetic field

When current flows in a conductor, the atoms in the conductor all line up in a definite direction,
producing a magnetic field. When the direction of the current changes, the direction of the atoms
‘alignment also changes, causing the magnetic field to change direction. To reverse all the atoms
requires that power be expended, and this power is lost. This loss of power (in the form of heat)
is called HYSTERESIS LOSS. Hysteresis loss is common to all ac equipment; however, it
causes few problems except in motors, generators, and transformers.

4.22 AC & DC

Alternating current is current which constantly changes in amplitude, and which reverses direction at
regular intervals. You learned previously that direct current flows only in one direction, and that the
amplitude of current is determined by the number of electrons flowing past a point in a circuit in one
second. If, for example, a coulomb of electrons moves past a point in a wire in one second and all of the
electrons are moving in the same direction, the amplitude of direct current in the wire is one ampere.
Similarly, if half a coulomb of electrons moves in one direction past a point in the wire in half a second,
then reverses direction and moves past the same point in the opposite direction during the next half-
second, a total of one coulomb of electrons passes the point in one second. The amplitude of the
alternating current is one ampere. The preceding comparison of dc and ac as illustrated. Notice that one
white arrow plus one striped arrow comprise one coulomb.

4.23 Disadvantages of DC compared to AC

When commercial use of electricity became wide-spread, certain disadvantages in using direct
current in the home became apparent. If a commercial direct-current system is used, the voltage
must be generated at the level (amplitude or value) required by the load. To properly light a 240-
volt lamp, for example, the dc generator must deliver 240 volts. If a 120-volt lamp is to be
supplied power from the 240-volt generator, a resistor or another 120-volt lamp must be placed
in series with the 120-volt lamp to drop the extra 120 volts. When the resistor is used to reduce
the voltage, an amount of power equal to that consumed by the lamp is wasted.
Another disadvantage of the direct-current system becomes evident when the direct current (I)
from the generating station must be transmitted a long distance over wires to the consumer.
When this happens, a large amount of power is lost due to the resistance (R) of the wire. The
power loss is equal to I2R.
However, this loss can be greatly reduced if the power is transmitted over the lines at a very high
voltage level and a low current level. This is not a practical solution to the power loss in the dc
system since the load would then have to be operated at a dangerously high voltage. Because of
the disadvantages related to transmitting and using direct current, practically all modern
commercial electric power companies generate and distribute alternating current (ac).

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Chapter 5
Electrical Resistance

5.1 Factors that affect resistance

The magnitude of resistance is determined in part by the "number of free electrons" available within the material.
Since a decrease in the number of free electrons will decrease the current flow, it can be said that the opposition to
current flow (resistance) is greater in a material with fewer free electrons. Thus, the resistance of a material is
determined by the number of free electrons available in a material.

5.2 Type of material

Depending upon their atomic structure, different materials will have different quantities of free electrons. Therefore,
the various conductors used in electrical applications have different values of resistance.
Depending on the metal, at least one electron, sometimes two, and in a few cases, three electrons per atom exist in
this state. In such a case, a relatively small amount of additional electron energy would free the outer electrons from
the attraction of the nucleus. At normal room temperature materials of this type have many free electrons and are
good conductors. Good conductors will have a low resistance.
Materials of this type are poor conductors and therefore have a high resistance.
Silver, gold, and aluminum are good conductors. Therefore, materials composed of their atoms would have a low
resistance.
The element copper is the conductor most widely used throughout electrical applications. Silver has a lower
resistance than copper but its cost limits usage to circuits where a high conductivity is demanded.
Aluminum, which is considerably lighter than copper, is used as a conductor when weight is a major factor.

5.3 Effect of cross-sectional area

The RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO ITS CROSS-SECTIONAL
AREA.

5.4 Effect of conductor length

THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO ITS LENGTH.

5.5 Effect of temperature

If for an increase in temperature the resistance of a material increases, it is said to have a POSITIVE
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT. A material whose resistance decreases with an increase in temperature has a
NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT. Most conductors used in electronic applications have a positive
temperature coefficient. However, carbon, a frequently used material, is a substance having a negative temperature
coefficient. Several materials, such as the alloys constantan and manganin, are considered to have a ZERO
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT because their resistance remains relatively constant for changes in temperature.

5.6 Electrical resistors

The electrical component which offers resistance to the flow of current is called electrical resistance.

5.7 Composition of resistors

One of the most common types of resistors is the molded composition, usually referred to as the carbon resistor.
Carbon resistors, as you might suspect, have as their principal ingredient the element carbon. In the manufacturer of
carbon resistors, fillers or binders are added to the carbon to obtain various resistor values. Examples of these fillers
are clay, bakelite, rubber, and talc. These fillers are doping agents and cause the overall conduction characteristics to
change.

5.8 Fixed and variable resistors

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There are two kinds of resistors, FIXED and VARIABLE. The fixed resistor will have one value and will never
change (other than through temperature, age, etc.).
There are two types of variable resistors, one called a POTENTIOMETER and the other a RHEOSTAT. An
example of the potentiometer is the volume control on your radio, and an example of the rheostat is the dimmer
control for the dash lights in an automobile.

5.9 Wattage rating

THE WATTAGE RATING OF A RESISTOR is related to the resistor’s physical size, that is, the greater the surface
area exposed to the air, the larger the rating.

5.10 Standard color code system

THE STANDARD COLOR CODE for resistors is used to determine the following:
1. Ohmic value
2. Tolerance
3. Reliability level (on some resistors)

5.11 Simplifying the color code

Black — Bad
Brown — Boys
Red — Run
Orange — Over
Yellow — Yellow
Green — Gardenias
Blue — Behind
Violet — Victory
Gray — Garden
White — Walls

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Chapter 6
Batteries
6.1 Introduction

Batteries are widely used as sources of direct-current electrical energy in automobiles, boats, aircraft, ships, portable
electric/electronic equipment, and lighting equipment. In some instances, they are used as the only source of power;
while in others, they are used as a secondary or standby power source.
A battery consists of a number of cells assembled in a common container and connected together to function as a
source of electrical power.

6.2 Cell

A cell is a device that transforms chemical energy into electrical energy. The cell is the fundamental unit of the
battery. A simple cell consists of two electrodes placed in a container that holds the electrolyte.

In some cells the container acts as one of the electrodes and, in this case, is acted upon by the electrolyte.
The cell cannot be recharged or reused, is called primary cell.
The cell can be recharged after it becomes dead by passing direct current and the cell can be used over and again,
is called secondary cell.

6.3 Electrodes

The electrodes are the conductors by which the current leaves or returns to the electrolyte. In the simple cell, they
are carbon and zinc strips that are placed in the electrolyte; while in the dry cell, they are the carbon rod in the center
and zinc container in which the cell is assembled.

6.4 Electrolyte
The electrolyte is the solution that acts upon the electrodes.
The electrolyte, which provides a path for electron flow, may be a salt, an acid, or an alkaline solution. In the simple
galvanic cell, the electrolyte is in a liquid form. In the dry cell, the electrolyte is a paste.

6.5 Container

THE CONTAINER holds the electrolyte and provides a means of mounting the electrodes.
The container which may be constructed of one of many different materials provides a means of holding
(containing) the electrolyte. The container is also used to mount the electrodes. In the voltaic cell the container must
be constructed of a material that will not be acted upon by the electrolyte.

6.6 Electrochemical action

ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTION is the process of converting chemical energy into electrical . energy.
A cell is a device in which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. This process is called
ELECTROCHEMICAL action.

6.7 Primary Cell Chemistry is the process in which electrons leaving the cathode to the load cause a positive
charge which attracts negative ions from the electrolyte. The negative ions combine with the material of the cathode
and form a substance such as lead-sulfate. Electrons from the load to the anode create a negative charge which
attracts positive ions (hydrogen) from the electrolyte.

6.8 Secondary Cell Chemistry is the process in which the electrolyte acts upon and chemically changes both
electrodes. This process also depletes the amount of active material in the electrolyte. A charging current applied to
the cell reverses the process and restores the cell to its original condition.

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6.9 Polarization of the cell

Polarization is the effect of hydrogen surrounding the anode of a cell which increases the internal
resistance of the cell. Polarization can be prevented by venting the cell, adding a material rich in
oxygen, or adding a material that will absorb hydrogen.

6.10 Local action

LOCAL ACTION is the continuation of current flow within the cell when there is no external load. It is caused by
impurities in the electrode and can be prevented by the use of mercury amalgamated with the material of the
electrode.

6.11 Primary dry cell

The dry cell is the most popular type of primary cell. It is ideal for simple applications where an inexpensive and
noncritical source of electricity is all that is needed.
The dry cell is not actually dry. The electrolyte is not in a liquid state, but is a moist paste. If it should become
totally dry, it would no longer be able to transform chemical energy to electrical energy.

6.12 Construction of a dry cell

DRY CELL is the type commonly referred to as the "flashlight battery." Since the electrolyte is not in liquid form,
but is a paste, the term dry cell is used. In most dry cells the case is the cathode.

6.13 Series-connected cell

SERIES CONNECTED CELLS provide a higher voltage than a single cell, with no increase in current.

6.14 Parallel-connected cells

PARALLEL CONNECTED CELLS provide a higher current than a single cell, with no increase in voltage.

6.15 Series-Parallel-connected cells

SERIES-PARALLEL CONNECTED CELLS provide a higher voltage and a higher current than a single cell.

6.16 Battery construction

A battery is a voltage source that uses chemical action to produce a voltage. A BATTERY is a voltage source in a
single container made from one or more cells.

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Chapter 7
Transformer

7.1 Introduction

A transformer consists of two coils known as a “Primary” & “Secondary” coils, respectively. It
works on the principle of “Mutual induction”. It is used either to step up or step down an
alternating e.m.f. A TRANSFORMER is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit
to another by electromagnetic induction (transformer action).There are two types of transformer:
Step up transformer
Step down transformer

7.2 Basic operation of a transformer

The primary winding is connected to a 60 hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux)
builds up (expands) and collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and
contracting magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding and induces
an alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating current to flow through
the load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the design of the primary and
secondary windings.

7.3 Components of a transformer

Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In some cases the
coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In effect, the core
material is air and the transformer is called an AIR-CORE TRANSFORMER. Transformers used
at low frequencies, such as 60 hertz and 400 hertz, require a core of low-reluctance magnetic
material, usually iron. This type of transformer is called an IRON-CORE TRANSFORMER.
Most power transformers are of the iron-core type.
The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:
• The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.
• The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source.
• The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary
winding and delivers it to the load.
• The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture,
and mechanical damage.

7.4 Core characteristics

The composition of a transformer core depends on such factors as voltage, current, and
frequency. Size limitations and construction costs are also factors to be considered. Commonly
used core materials are air, soft iron, and steel. Each of these materials is suitable for particular
applications and unsuitable for others.
Generally, air-core transformers are used when the voltage source has a high frequency (above
20 kHz).

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Iron-core transformers are usually used when the source frequency is low (below 20 kHz).

7.5 Hollow-Core transformers

There are two main shapes of cores used in laminated-steel-core transformers. One is the HOLLOWCORE, so
named because the core is shaped with a hollow square through the center. Notice that the core is made up of many
laminations of steel. Figure illustrates how the transformer windings are wrapped around both sides of the core.

7.6 Shell-Core transformer

The most popular and efficient transformer core is the SHELL CORE, as illustrated in figure. As shown, each layer
of the core consists of E- and I-shaped sections of metal. These sections are butted together to form the laminations.
The laminations are insulated from each other and then pressed together to form the core.

7.7 Transformer windings

The winding that is connected to the source is called the PRIMARY WINDING. The winding that is connected to
the load is called the SECONDARY WINDING.

Schematic symbols for transformers

7.8 How a transformer works

A TRANSFORMER is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by electromagnetic
induction (transformer action).

7.9 No load condition

A no-load condition is said to exist when a voltage is applied to the primary, but no load is connected to the
secondary. Because of the open switch, there is no current flowing in the secondary winding. With the switch open
and an ac voltage applied to the primary, there is, however, a very small amount of current called EXCITING
CURRENT flowing in the primary.

7.10 Producing a counter EMF

An electromotive force (voltage) induced in a coil that opposes the applied voltage, is called counter EMF.

7.11 Inducing a voltage in the secondary

As the exciting current flows through the primary, magnetic lines of force are generated.
During the time current is increasing in the primary, magnetic lines of force expand outward from the primary and
cut the secondary.
A voltage is induced into a coil when magnetic lines cut across it. Therefore, the voltage across the primary causes a
voltage to be induced across the secondary.

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7.12 Transformer losses and efficiency

TRANSFORMER LOSSES—Transformer losses have two sources-copper loss and magnetic loss.
Copper losses are caused by the resistance of the wire (I 2R). Magnetic losses are caused by eddy currents and
hysteresis in the core. Copper loss is a constant after the coil has been wound and therefore a measureable loss.
Hysteresis loss is constant for a particular voltage and current. Eddy-current loss, however, is different for each
frequency passed through the transformer.

TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY—The amplitude of the voltage induced in the secondary is dependent upon the
efficiency of the transformer and the turns ratio. The efficiency of a transformer is related to the power losses in the
windings and core of the transformer. Efficiency (in percent) equals Pout/Pin × 100. A perfect transformer would
have an efficiency of 1.0 or 100%.

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Chapter 8
Electrical Safety
8.1 Introduction to safety

Safety means keeping yourself and others free from harm or danger. The condition or state of being protected;
freedom from danger or hazard; exemption from hurt, injury, or loss, is called safety.
Safety is defined as saving men and equipment from any possible accidents and danger.
The safety rules must be adopted before starting of any work on equipment.
Safety precautions must always be observed by persons working around electric circuits and equipment to avoid
injury from electric shock.

8.2 Basic Safety Rules

a. Specific warnings and cautions should be pasted upon concerned equipment.

b. Have sufficient knowledge of Fire Fighting and First Aid.
c. Follow standard engineering practices.
d. Before starting your work have sufficient knowledge of equipment. e. Always work seriously, calmly and
carefully.
f. Electrical equipment must always be grounded.
g. Where electricity is involved, never work on wet floor and with wet hands.
h. Use insulated shoes and rubber gloves where required.
i. Keep away from alive circuits, if you can avoid doing so.
j. Must inform your concerned department about your work.
k. Always work under the supervision of your senior.
l. Do not work alone (Your companion must know, what all you are doing).
m. Must know the proper use of tools.
n. Tag out on your working area.
o. Eyes must always be protected.
p. Never bypass any safety devices, unless extreme requirement/emergency
q. Keep away from moving equipment/parts.

8.3 Electric hazards

Electricity is now-a-days a necessity, however, at times it can be very harmful/dangerous for men and material both.
Probably more deaths onboard ship occurs by electrical shock then from any other type of accident. Similarly
sparking in electrical circuits may result in a very serious tire. However, these and other such electrical hazards can
be avoided by taking necessary actions/precautions while working on electrical equipment (DEAD OR ALIVE) and
strict compliance of the safety rules.

8.4 Electric shock

Electric shock is one of the main electric hazards, which may become the cause of death or partial damage to human
body. Electric shock never gives any warning and does not take much time to damage. So, it should always be
remembered that all electrical equipment are to be handled/treated with utmost care.

8.5 Causes of Electric Shock

There can be various causes of getting an electric shock. Some of the general causes are as under:
a. Un-authorized modification on the equipment.
b. Failure to observe the applicable safety precautions during operation/maintenance of the equipment.
c. Careless operation of equipment.
d. Less knowledge of safety precautions.
e. Fiddling and playing with the electrical equipment.

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f. Access of un-authorized person to the equipment and working area.

8.6 Precaution of Electric Shock

a. Be sure the condition of equipment (operational/non-operational).

b. Never remove the grounding probe.
c. Do not work on wet floor.
d. Always work with dry hands.
e. Do not work alone.
f. Always work and move calmly and slowly.
g. Try to work with right hand and avoid using the left hand as mush as possible.
h. Never completely rely upon safety devices (fuses, interlocks, relays etc).

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