KIN 491 Exercise Physiology

Chapter 6
Measurement of Work, Power,and Energy
Expenditure
Chapter 15
Work Tests to Evaluate Cardiorespiratory Fitness

Chapter 20
Work Tests to Evaluate Performance

UNLV
UNIVERSITY OF NEVADA LAS VEGAS
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY: Theory and Application
to Fitness and Performance, 5th edition
 Objectives

• Define the terms work, power, energy, and

mechanical efficiency
• Define the following terms: kilogram-meter, kilopond-
meter, MET, joule, watt
• Calculate work performed during: step exercise, cycle
ergometer exercise & treadmill exercise
• Describe the procedure for a GXT
• Identify common measures taken during a graded
exercise test (GXT)
 Objectives

• List the criteria for having achieved VO2 max

• Explain the procedure for estimating VO2 max from
submaximal tests
• Explain the concept of “specificity of VO2 max“
• Discuss the use of field tests to estimate VO2 max
• Discuss the measurement of exercise economy
• Describe several tests that are useful in assessing
anaerobic power
• Discuss the techniques used to evaluate strength
 Definitions

• Energy – oxygen consumption - heat

– Indirect calorimetry vs direct calorimetry
– Units are calories or joules
• Work = force x distance
• Power = work/unit time or (force x distance)/min
• Mechanical efficiency = work ÷ energy expenditure
 Units of Measure

• System International units or SI units

– Standardized terms for measurement of:
• Mass kilogram
• Length meter
• Volume liter
• Energy joule calorie
• Work joule kg·m
• Power watt kg·m/min
 Conversion Factors

• 1 kg·m = 9.81 joules, 1 joule = 0.101 kg·m

• 427 kg·m = 1 kcal
• 1 kcal = 4.186 kjoules
• 1 liter O2 = 5 kcal
• 1 watt = 1 joule/sec = 6.12 kp·m/min = 0.102 kp·m/sec
• 1 MET = 3.5 ml/kg/min
 Work

Work = force x distance

Lifting a 5 kg weight up a distance of 2 m
5 kg x 2 meters = 10 kg·m

Person stepping up a 50 cm step

70 kg x 50 cm step = 70 x 0.5 m = 35 kg·m

Kg – measure of mass, not force

Kp = force acting on a mass of 1 kg at normal gravity
 Power

Power = work / unit time

Lifting a 5 kg weight up a distance of 2 m, 30x / min

Power = 5 kg x 2 m x 30/min = 300 kg·m/min or
2.94 kilojoules/min or
Power = 5 kg·m/sec

SI Units: 1 Watt (W) = 0.102 kg·m/sec

Power = 49 W or
Power = 2.94 kj/min = 49 j/sec = 49 W
 Measurement of Work and Power
Bench Step
70 kg person steps up a 50 cm step 30x / min for 1
minute
Work = body weight (kg) x distance/step x steps/min x
min

Work = 70 kg x .5 m x 30 = 1050 kg·m/min = 10.3 kj

Watts = 0.102 kg·m/sec = 6.12 kg·m/min
Watts = 1050 kg·m/min
= 171.6 W
6.12 kg·m/Watt
 Measurement of Work and Power
Cycle Ergometer
70 kg person pedals a cycle ergometer for 1 minute at
60 rpm with a resistance of 1.5 kp
Work = resistance (kp) x distance/revolution x
revolutions/min
Work = 1.5 kp x (6m/rev x 60 revolutions)
= 540 kpm/min
Watts = 540 kpm/min
= 88.2 W
6.12 kpm/Watt
 Measurement of Work and Power
Treadmill
• Although running horizontal on a treadmill requires
energy, calculation of work performed while a subject
runs or walks on a treadmill is not generally possible
when the treadmill is horizontal – there is no vertical
component ie distance through which the weight is
lifted

• Quantifiable work is being performed when walking or

running up a slope
Determination of Percent Grade on a
Treadmill

Fig 6.2
 Measurement of Work and Power
Treadmill
• Incline of the treadmill is expressed in percent grade -
the amount of vertical rise per 100 units of belt travel
ie 1% grade = 1 foot rise in 100 feet

Vertical displacement = % grade x Distance

Treadmill speed = 200m/min
Percent Grade = 7.5% or 0.075
Total vertical distance traveled in 1 minute
= 200m/min X 0.075 x 1 min = 15 m
For a 70 kg person, work = 70 kg x 15 m = 1050 kg·m or
10.3 kjoules
Measurement of Energy Expenditure

• Unit of measure is the Calorie (kcal) or joule

– 1 kcal = 4.186 kilojoules
• Direct calorimetry
– Direct measurement of heat production as an
indication of metabolic rate
• Indirect calorimetry
– Measurement of oxygen consumption as an
estimate of metabolic rate
 Exercise Efficiency

• Assume oxygen consumption of 1 liter/min

• 1 liter O2 = 5 kcal
• 5 kcals x 4.186 kjoule/kcal = 21 kjoule
• 1Watt = 60 joules/min
• 21,000 joules x 60 joules/Watt = 350 Watts
• BUT, VO2 = 1 liter/min @ 65 Watts on cycle
ergometer, so efficiency = 65/350 = 19%
• 19% of energy expended to work, 81% to heat
 Calculation of Exercise Efficiency
Work output
% Net Efficiency = x 100
Energy expended
above rest
kg·m
% ME =
(VO2 exercise - VO2 rest)

Problem: need for common units

Answer: 427 kg·m = 1 kcal and

1 liter O2 consumed = 5 kcal
 Mechanical Efficiency
Lifting a 5 kg weight up a distance of 2 m, 30 x / min
5 kg x 2 meters x 30/min= 300 kg·m/min
Assume VO2 = 3.75 L/min for exercise and 0.25 L/min
for rest

300 kg·m/min x 1 kcal / 427 kg·m

ME = x 100
(3.75 L/min – 0.25 L/min) x 5 kcal/min

0.7 kcal
ME = = 4%
17.5 kcal
 Mechanical Efficiency

• 70 kg person, stepping up a 50 cm step, 30 x /min for 1

minute
• 70 kg x 0.5 m x 30 = 1050 kg·m/min

1050 kg·m/min x 1 kcal/427 kg·m

ME = X 100
(2.6 L/min - .25 L/min) x 5 kcal/L

2.46 kcal
ME = = 21%
11.75 kcal
 Factors That Influence Exercise
Efficiency
• Exercise work rate
– Efficiency decreases as work rate increases
• Speed of movement
– There is an optimum speed of movement and any
deviation reduces efficiency
• Fiber composition of muscles
– Higher efficiency in muscles with greater
percentage of slow fibers
 Arm Crank Ergometry

Fig 6.8
Fig 6.9
Fig 6.10
 Factors that Influence Exercise
Efficiency
• Training and technique
– Varying stride length from self-selected preferred
stride results in increased VO2
– Energy cost is inversely related to ability
– Activity specificity – in swimming, different strokes
have different costs
• Load carrying
– Energy cost varies in proportion to mass of load,
regardless or speed or size of animal
– Disposition of load results in minor variations of
cost
Stride Length & Efficiency
 Energy Expenditure & Walking Speed

Efficiency considerations
require a transition from
walking to running between
4 and 5 mph
VO2 Cost of Level Walking & Running

Fig 6.5
 Running Economy

• Not possible to calculate net efficiency of horizontal

running
• Running Economy
– Oxygen cost of running at given speed
– Lower VO2 (ml•kg-1•min-1) indicates better running
economy
• Gender difference in running economy
– No difference at slow speeds
– At “race pace” speeds, males may be more
economical that females
Efficiency of Running & Walking
Efficiency of Gait Changes in the Horse

Each gait has an optimum

speed where energy cost is
the lowest

Running economy is the

same for each gait, even
though speed is different
Comparison of Running Economy Between
Males and Females

Fig 6.11
 Tests to Determine Running Economy

Measurement of the oxygen

cost of running at various
speeds – greater running
economy reflected in lower
oxygen cost

Higher economy means that

less energy is expended to
maintain a given speed

Fig 20.7
 Graded Exercise Test: Protocols

• Consider purpose of test

– Diagnose coronary heart disease
– Determine effectiveness of treatment
– Determine symptom limited work level
• Consideration of the population tested
– Submaximal vs maximal test
– Starting work rate & rate of change
– Mode of exercise
• Treadmill
• Cycle ergometer
• Step test
Step-wise Increases in Work Load
 Graded Exercise Tests:
Measurements
• Heart rate
– By palpation, ECG, or monitor
• Blood pressure
– By auscultation
• ECG
– Can diagnose arrhythmias or ischemia
• Rating of perceived exertion (RPE)
– Subjective measure of fatigue
– ACSM guidelines
 VO2 Max

• The gold standard measure of cardiorespiratory

fitness
• Estimation from last work rate
– Use equations to calculate estimated VO2 max
• Estimation from submaximal heart rate
– Extrapolate measured submaximal HR to age-
predicted maximal HR to estimate VO2 max
– Careful measurement of HR is required
Determining VO2 Max

Fig 20.2
 Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power

• VO2 max testing

– Should be specific to athlete’s sport
– Should use large muscle groups
– Optimal test length: 10-12 minutes
• Criteria for reaching VO2 max
– Respiratory exchange ratio ≥1.15
– HR in last stage ±10 beats•min-1 of HRmax
– Plateau in VO2 with increasing work rate
– Blood lactate > 8 mmol/liter
VO2 Max and Exercise Time
 VO2 Max Calculation

• VO2 = VE (FIO2 – FEO2)

• VE is minute ventilation in liters/min
• FIO2 is fraction of O2 in inspired air = .2093
• FEO2 is fraction of O2 in expired air
• Assume VE = 86 L/min and FEO2 = .1628
• VO2 max = 86 x (.2093 - .1628)
= 86 x .0465 = 4.0 liters/min
• For an 80 kg body wt, VO2 max = 50 ml/kg/min
 Estimation of VO2max From
Submaximal HR Response
• Estimation based on linear relationship between
heart rate and work load
• The test is stopped when the subject reaches 85% of
maximal HR
• A line is drawn through two HR points measured
during the test and is extrapolated to the age-
adjusted estimate of maximal HR
• Another line is dropped down from that point to the x-
axis, and the VO2max is identified
• Can be done using treadmill or cycle ergometer
VO2 Max Estimation from Submax HR

Fig 15.4
 Cycle Ergometer

• Body weight is supported

– Can accommodate subjects with orthopedic
limitations or grossly overweight individuals
• Estimating VO2max
– Based on extrapolating submaximal HR
– YMCA protocol
The Y’s Way to
Physical Fitness
Cycle Ergometer
Protocol

Fig 15.6
YMCA Protocol to Estimate VO2 MAX

Fig 15.7
 Treadmill

• Use natural activities

– Walking and running
• Can accommodate a wide range of subjects
– Least fit to most fit
– Variable workloads based on speed and percent
grade
• Estimating VO2 max
– Based on extrapolating submaximal HR
Estimation of VO2
Max From
a Submaximal
Treadmill Test

Heart rate must be

in linear range

What is VO2 max

in ml/kg/min?

Fig 15.1
 Step Test

• Simple, inexpensive equipment

• Protocols differ in:
– Step height
– Step rate
• Estimating VO2 max
– Based on extrapolating submaximal HR
• Limitation
– No way to increase workload
– Load is individual’s body weight
 Step Test Prediction of VO2 Max

Fig 15.9
 Field Tests for Estimating
Cardiorespiratory Fitness
• Use natural activities
– Walking, running, or stepping
• Can test large numbers of people at low cost
• Physiological responses may be difficult to measure
• Motivation plays an important role in test results
 Maximal Run Tests

• Measure how far a person can run in a set time or

how fast they can run a set distance
– Cooper’s 12-minute run and 1.5 mile run
– AAPHERD’s 1-mile run/walk
• VO2max estimates based on the linear relationship
between running speed and oxygen cost of running
Estimated Cost of Treadmill Running

Horizontal component: VO2 (ml/kg/min) =

0.2 ml/kg/min per m/min x meters/min + 3.5 ml/kg/min
Vertical component: VO2 (ml/kg/min) =
0.9 ml/kg/min per m/min x meters/min x % grade

For 70 kg person running at 160 m/min up 10% grade

horizontal cost = (0.2 x 160 ) + 3.5 = 35.5 ml/kg/min
vertical cost = 0.9 x 160 x .10 = 14.4 ml/kg/min
Total cost = 35.5 + 14.4 = 49.9 ml/kg/min
 Walk Tests

• Requires only simple measurements

– Walking time
– HR
• VO2max is based on:
– Age, weight, sex, time, and HR
• As fitness improves, HR and/or time will be lower
– Results in higher estimated VO2 max
Estimated Cost of Treadmill Walking

For horizontal walking, VO2 (ml/kg/min) =

0.1 ml/kg/min per m/min x meters/min + 3.5 ml/kg/min
For vertical cost, VO2 (ml/kg/min) =
1.8 ml/kg/min per m/min x meters/min x % grade

For 70 kg person walking 80 meters/min at 5% grade

horizontal cost = (0.1 x 80) + 3.5 = 11.5 ml/kg/min
vertical cost = 1.8 x 80 x .05 = 7.2 ml/kg/min
Total cost = 11.5 + 7.2 = 18.7 ml/kg/min
 Laboratory Tests to Predict
Endurance Performance
• Lactate threshold
– Exercise intensity at which blood lactic acid begins
to systematically increase
– Blood samples taken during incremental exercise
• Critical power
– Speed at which running speed/time curve reaches
plateau
• Peak running velocity
– Highest speed that can be maintained for > 5 sec
Critical Power

Fig 20.6
Predicting Performance From Peak
Running Velocity

Fig 20.5
Determination of Maximal Anaerobic
Power
Ultra short-term tests Short-term tests
• Tests ATP-PC system • Tests anaerobic
• Examples glycolysis
– Margaria power test • Examples
• Stair running – Cycling tests
– Jumping power tests • Wingate test
– Running power tests
– Running tests
• Series of 40-yard
dashes – Sport-specific tests
– Cycling power tests
 Margaria Power Test

Subject runs up flight

of steps as quickly as
possible – three steps
at a time
Timed between 3rd
and 9th step: 2 meters

For 75 kg subject, power output is (75 kg x 2 m) ÷ 0.65 sec = 238.8 kg·m/sec

Fig 20.10
 Wingate Test
• Peak anaerobic power and mean power output over
30 sec
• After subject reaches peak pedal speed (2-3 sec),
resistance gauged to exceed VO2 max by 20-60% is
applied
• Pedal rate is recorded every 5 sec for 30 sec
• Highest power output in first 5 sec is peak power
• Lowest power output is usually last 5 sec
• (Peak power – lowest power output) ÷ peak power =
percent decline in power
• (600 W – 200 W) ÷ 600 W = 67% decline in power
output
Series of Ten Timed 40-yard Dashes to
Test Anaerobic Power

Fig 20.11
 Muscle Strength

• Muscle strength: maximum force generated in a

single contraction (1 repetition max)
• Purpose of test
– Sport specific vs generalized strength
– Muscles involved
– Movement pattern: static vs dynamic
– Velocity of contraction
 Evaluation of Muscular Strength

• Isometric measurement
– Static force of muscle using tensiometer
• Isotonic measurement
– Constant tension
– 1 RM lift, handgrip/back-lift dynamometer
• Isokinetic measurement
– Variable resistance at constant speed
• Variable resistance devices
– Variable resistance to give constant force over
entire range of motion
 Isometric
Measurement
Using Cable
Tensiometer

Fig 20.12
 Isotonic
Measurement
Using
Dynamometry

Fig 20.13
Isokinetic Measurement of Strength Using
Cybex Dynamometer

Fig 20.14
Printout From Isokinetic Dynamometer

Fig 20.15