Community Ecology

Amity Institute of Environmental Sciences
M.Sc. Env. Sc., Semester I

Community Ecology
Dr. Kartikeya Shukla
Vocabulary
1. Population  A group of individuals of a certain species in a
given area at a given time: blue crabs in the Halifax river
2. Community  Interacting groups of populations in an area:
the scrub community on campus
3. Species  A group of individuals who can interbreed to
produce fertile, viable offspring: FL panthers
4. Niche  The role of an organism in its environment
(multidimensional): nocturnal predator of small mammals in
the forest
5. Habitat  Where an organism typically lives: mangrove
swamps
6. Competition  is an interaction between organisms or

species in which both the organisms or species are harmed.
Limited supply of at least one resource (such as food, water,
and territory) used by both can be a factor.
7. Mutualism  (Interspecific Cooperation) is the way two
organisms of different species exist in a relationship in which
each individual benefits from the activity of the other. Similar
interactions within a species are known as co-operation. It
plays a key part in ecology.
8. Parasitism  is a relationship between species, where one
organism, the parasite, lives on or in another organism, the
host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this
way of life.
Community Structure
Consider the spatial distribution of organisms
• Physical Appearance: Size, stratification, distribution of

populations and species
• Species Diversity & Richness: number of different species

• Species Abundance: number of individuals of each species
• Niche Structure: number, uniqueness and interaction of

niches available
Comparison of types, sizes and stratification of species in

different terrestrial communities (complexity)
Community Differences
• Aquatic systems  deep ocean, sandy beach, lakes, rivers, wetlands
• Physical structure varies
– Most habitats are mosaics, vegetation patches
– Sharp edges or broad ecotones (transition zones)
– Physical properties differ at edges = edge effect
– Forest edge may be sunnier, drier, warmer
• different species at the edge
• Many wild game species found here
• Edges can fragment habitat  vulnerability & barriers
What is a niche?
• The organisms role in its environment
• How it responds to the distribution of resources
• Many dimensions to it – therefore an n-dimensional
hyper-volume
• No two species can occupy the same niche for any period
of time
• If a niche is vacant organisms will quickly adapt to fill it
• Fundamental Niche  Everything that the

organism could possibly do given a competitor
free environment
• Realized Niche  Everything the organism

does after competition limits them
Biodiverse Communities
• Top species rich environments are tropical rainforests, coral
reefs, deep sea, large tropical lakes
• Usually high diversity but low abundance
• Factors for increased diversity
1. Latitude: most diverse near equator
2. Depth: marine communities peak about 2000m
3. Pollution: more pollution  less species
On land increases in solar radiation, precipitation, seasonal
variation, decreased elevation
200 1,000
Species Diversity
Species Diversity
100 100
0 10
90ºN 60 30 0 30ºS 60 80ºN 60 40 20 0
Latitude Latitude
Effects of Latitude
© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning
25 25
Snails Tube worms
20 20
Species diversity
15 15
10 10
5 5
Coast Deep Sea Coast Deep Sea
0 0
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 0 2,000 4,000 6,000
Depth (meters) Depth (meters)
Effects of Depth
Communities have different “Types” of Species

• Native species = species that normally live and thrive in a
particular community
• Nonnative species = species that are accidentally introduced

into an area
• Keystone species = species that are more important than their

abundance or biomass suggest
• Indicator species = species that serve as early warnings of

damage in a community
Nonnative Species
• Also called exotics, aliens, or introduced sp.
• FL examples include fire ants, hydrilla, potato vine, peacock

bass, …
– Occupy niches excluding native organisms
– Reproduce rapidly in absence of natural predators
– Usually are very adaptable to human disturbed

environments
Indicator Species
• Mostly species that respond quickly to changes in the
environment
• Birds indicate tropical forest destruction
• Trout indicate pollutant presence in water
• Amphibians are a classic indicator
– Frog decline and deformities
Keystone Species
• Strong interactions with other species affect the health

and survival of those species
• They process material out of proportion to their
numbers
• Roles include: pollination, seed dispersion, habitat
modification, predation by top carnivores, efficient
recycling of animal waste
Keystone Species II
• Habitat modification
– Elephants – knock over trees in savannah to promote grass

growth & recycle nutrients
– Bats & birds – regenerate deforested areas by depositing

plant seeds in their droppings
– Beavers – create ponds forming habitats for many pond

dwelling species like fish, ducks, & muskrats
Keystone Species III
• Top predators  exert stabilizing effect by feeding on

and regulating certain species
– Wolves, leopards, lions, gators, sharks, otters
• Over 300+ species are found on the wolf kills made in

Yellowstone
Waste Removal
• Dung beetles – remove bury
and recycle animal waste
• Establish new plants
• Aerate soil
• Reduce disease causing
microorganisms
Species Interactions
• Interactions may be harmful, beneficial, or have no
effect at all
• Competition: Intraspecific or Interspecific
• Predation, Mutualism (Symbiosis), Commensalism,

Parasitism
Intraspecific Competition
• Competition between members of the same species for a
common resource
• Resource: food, space, mates, etc.
• Territoriality
– Organisms patrol or mark an area
– Defend it against others
– Good territories have
o Abundant food, good nesting sites, low predator pop.
– Disadvantage = Energy, Reduce gene pool
Interspecific Competition
• 2 or more different species involved
• Competing for food, space, sunlight, water, space, nesting
sites or other limited resource
• If resources abundant, they can be shared but in nature they
are always limited.
• If fundamental niches overlap  competition
• One of the species must…
1. Migrate if possible
2. Shift feeding habits or behavior = Evolve
3. Suffer a sharp population decline
4. Become extinct
Connell’s Barnacles
Methods of competition
1. Interference
• One species limits access of others to a resource,
regardless of its abundance
• Hummingbird territoriality, Desert plant
allelopathy
2. Exploitation
• Species have equal resource access, differ in speed
of use
• Quicker species = more of it & hampers growth,
reproduction and survival of other species
Allelopathy
Allelopathy is a biological phenomenon by which an
organism produces one or more biochemical that influence
the germination, growth, survival, and reproduction of
other organisms. These biochemicals are known
as allelochemicals and can have beneficial (positive
allelopathy) or detrimental (negative allelopathy) effects
on the target organisms and the community.
Competitive Exclusion Principle

• One species eliminates another in an area through competition
for limited resources
– Two Paramecium species
– Identical conditions grown apart both do well
– Grown together one eliminates the other
• The niches of two species cannot overlap significantly for a

long period of time
Avoiding Competition
• Resource partitioning = dividing of scarce resources to
species at different
– Times
– Methods of use
– Different locations
• Species occupy realized niche, a small fraction of their
fundamental niches
– Lions vs leopards, hawks vs. owls
Predation
• Members of one species feed directly on all
or part of a living organism of a different
species
• Individuals  predator benefits, prey harmed
• Population  prey benefits: take out the
weak, greater resource access, improved
gene pool
• Predator plays important ecological role
Predation strategies
1. Herbivores – sessile prey, no need to
hurry
2. Pursuit – speed (cheetah), eyesight

(eagles), cooperation (wolves)
3. Ambush – camouflage for hiding (praying

mantis), lures (anglerfish)
Prey defenses
• Camouflage – change color, blend with
environment,
• Chemical warfare – produce chemicals which
are poisonous, irritating, bad smelling or
tasting
• Warning coloration – bright colors advertise
inedibility (mimics take advantage of this)
• Behavioral strategies – Puffing up, mimicking
predators, playing dead, schooling
Parasitism
• One species feeds on part of another
organism (the host) without killing it
• Specialized form of predation
• Parasite Characteristics
1. Usually smaller than the host
2. Closely associated with host
3. Draws nourishment from & slowly weakens host
4. Rarely kills the host
• Examples = Tapeworms, ticks, fleas, fungi
Parasites
Malaria
According to the World Health Organization
there are 300 to 500 million clinical cases of
malaria each year resulting in 1.5 to 2.7
million deaths
The disease kills more than one million

children - 2,800 per day - each year in
Africa alone. In regions of intense
transmission, 40% of toddlers may die of
acute malaria.
In the early 1960s, only 10% the world's

population was at risk of contracting
malaria. This rose to 40% as mosquitoes
developed resistance to pesticides and
malaria parasites developed resistance to
treatment drugs. Malaria is now spreading
to areas previously free of the disease.
Mutualism
• Symbiotic relationship where both species
benefit
• Pollination, Nutrition, Protection are main
benefits
• Not really cooperation, both benefit by
exploiting the other
Mutualism II
Examples
1. Lichens – fungi & algae living together
 food for one, structure for the other
2. Plants and Rhizobium bacteria  one
gets sugars the other gets nitrogen
3. Oxpeckers and Rhinos  food for one,
less parasites for the other
4. Protists and termites  break down
wood for one, nutrients for the other
Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros
Clown fish and sea anemone

Human Intestinal Symbionts

Commensalism
• One species benefits the other is
neither harmed nor helped
– Examples
1. Herbs growing in the shade of
trees
2. Birds building nests in trees
3. Epiphytes = “Air plants” which
attach themselves to the trunk
or branches of trees
-they have a solid base to grow
on and better access to
sunlight & rain

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Amity Institute of Environmental Sciences

Amity Institute of Environmental Sciences

M.Sc. Env. Sc., Semester I

6. Competition  is an interaction between organisms or

• Physical Appearance: Size, stratification, distribution of

• Species Diversity & Richness: number of different species

• Niche Structure: number, uniqueness and interaction of

Comparison of types, sizes and stratification of species in

• Fundamental Niche  Everything that the

• Realized Niche  Everything the organism

Depth (meters) Depth (meters)

Communities have different “Types” of Species

• Nonnative species = species that are accidentally introduced

• Keystone species = species that are more important than their

• Indicator species = species that serve as early warnings of

• FL examples include fire ants, hydrilla, potato vine, peacock

– Occupy niches excluding native organisms

– Reproduce rapidly in absence of natural predators

– Usually are very adaptable to human disturbed

• Strong interactions with other species affect the health

– Elephants – knock over trees in savannah to promote grass

– Bats & birds – regenerate deforested areas by depositing

– Beavers – create ponds forming habitats for many pond

Keystone Species III

• Top predators  exert stabilizing effect by feeding on

– Wolves, leopards, lions, gators, sharks, otters

• Over 300+ species are found on the wolf kills made in

• Competition: Intraspecific or Interspecific

• Predation, Mutualism (Symbiosis), Commensalism,

Competitive Exclusion Principle

– Two Paramecium species

– Identical conditions grown apart both do well

– Grown together one eliminates the other

• The niches of two species cannot overlap significantly for a

2. Pursuit – speed (cheetah), eyesight

3. Ambush – camouflage for hiding (praying

The disease kills more than one million

In the early 1960s, only 10% the world's

Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros

Clown fish and sea anemone

Human Intestinal Symbionts

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