Worldwide Cervical Cancer Prevalence 2012

140000
122844
120000

100000

80000
61619
60000

40000
20928 18503 15342
20000

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Indi a Chi na Indones ia Brazi l Rus s i a
Top 5 Hi ghest Inci dence of Cervi cal Cancer by the year 2012

Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer in women and seventh most common
cancer in general. In 2012, 528,000 new cases of cervical cancer were detected. There is
a significant geographical difference in the incidence of cervical cancer. The majority of
these cancers (about 85%) are found in less developed areas Vaccarella et al., 2017. The
incidence and mortality of cervical cancer were found to be the highest in sub-Saharan
Africa, Southeast Asia, Latin America, the Caribbeans, and Central and Eastern Europe. In
Zimbabwe, Malawi and Uganda, the prevalence of cervical cancer is more than twice as
compared to other regions. The lowest prevalence was found in Western Asia Torre et
al., 2016. Five countries had the highest incidence of cervical cancer cases in 2012; they
were India (122,844 cases), China (61,619), Indonesia (20,928), Brazil (18,503), and the
Russian Federation (15,342) Momenimovahed et al.. It was reported, in 2012, that the
age-standardized incidence of cervical cancer was 14 per 100,000 people worldwide,
varying from 8.5 to 25.7 in countries with a high-to-low human development index. The
incidence of cervical cancer shows a decreasing trend in most European and South
American countries, North America and Oceania, and some Asian countries (such as
Japan, China and India) Vaccarella et al., 2013. Indeed, the decrease of cervical cancer
incidence varies across regions Vaccarella et al., 2017.

Cervical cancer is the third leading cause of cancer death among low-income and
middle-income countries. Although rare among high-income countries Torre et al.,
2016, there were still approximately 266,000 deaths from cervical cancer worldwide in
2012, accounting for 7.5% of deaths from cancer in women. Approximately, 9 out of 10
cases of cervical cancer death occur in less developed regions. The mortality rate varies
(up to 18-fold) between different regions of the world; it is less than 2 in 100,000 people
in Western Asia, Western Europe, and Australia/New Zealand, but over 20 per 100,000
people in Melanesia, and Middle and Eastern Africa Vaccarella et al., 2017. A quarter of
the deaths from cervical cancer occur in India. Women in many of the high incidence
areas, including Africa, are less likely to be screened for cervical cancer and, therefore,
are most at risk for developing invasive cervical cancer De Sanjosé et al., 2007.
According to Momenimovahed et al, the mean age-standardized mortality rate for
cervical uterine cancer is 6.8 in 100,000 people (range varies from 2.7 in 100,000 people
to 16.6 in 100,000 people) in countries with a high-to-low human development
index Momenimovahed et al..

There are important variables in the incidence and mortality of cervical cancer in
different regions of the world. These variables that account for observed geographical
differences include access to screening programs (that allow for early detection and
timely treatment of pre-cancerous lesions), prevalence of HPV Torre et al.,
2016Vaccarella et al., 2013, and effective prevention (such as vaccination against
HPV) Torre et al., 2016. In high-income countries where screening programs have been
introduced and implemented over decades, the incidence of cancer has reduced by 4%
annually and by a total of 70%. But the steady rate or even increased incidence of
cervical cancer is still observed in countries with no screening, lack of quality screening,
or low screening coverage Torre et al., 2016. Socioeconomic differences among different
countries play an important role in compliance with the screening programs Monnat,
2014. Limited resources for implementing screening programs, lack of adequate
knowledge, reduced access to health care (due to financial, physical or social
constraints), and psychosocial stress all play an important role in screening and health
promotion programs Akinyemiju et al., 2016. As mentioned earlier, the differing
prevalence of HPV is one of the most important factors for geographical variations in
the incidence of cervical cancer. For instance, HPV is more prevalent in Africa and Latin
America than it is in North America, Europe, and Asia Bruni et al., 2010.

Vaccination against HPV has been introduced for many years to prevent and reduce the
incidence of cervical cancer. However, there are several restrictions on using this
effective method, with the most important being the cost of vaccination among
developing countries Gonçalves et al., 2014. Sex and reproductive factors as well as the
quality of screening programs (laboratory and follow up) can also interfere with
geographical differences Vaccarella et al., 2013. Lack of accurate detection of lesions by
cytology and lack of follow-up of abnormal cytology results are also responsible for
high incidence of cervical cancer in less developed countries
 Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria normally live in
the intestines of people and animals. Most E.
coli are harmless and actually are an important
part of a healthy human intestinal tract. However,
some E. coli are pathogenic, meaning they can
cause illness, either diarrhea or illness outside of
the intestinal tract. The types of E. coli that can
cause diarrhea can be transmitted through
contaminated water or food, or through contact
with animals or persons.

Escherichia coli (abbreviated as E. coli) are a large and diverse group of bacteria. Although most strains
of E. coli are harmless, others can make you sick. Some kinds of E. coli can cause diarrhea, while others
cause urinary tract infections, respiratory illness and pneumonia, and other illnesses. Still other kinds
of E. coli are used as markers for water contamination—so you might hear about E. coli being found in
drinking water, which are not themselves harmful, but indicate the water is contaminated. It does get a
bit confusing—even to microbiologists.

Proteus mirabilis is part of the normal flora of the

human gastrointestinal tract. It can also be found
free living in water and soil. When this organism,
however, enters the urinary tract, wounds, or the
lungs it can become pathogenic. Proteus mirabilis
commonly causes urinary tract infections and the
formation of stones.
The most common infection involving Proteus
mirabilis occurs when the bacteria moves to the
urethra and urinary bladder. Although Proteus
mirabilis mostly known to cause urinary tract
infections, the majority of urinary tract infections
are due to E. coli. One-hundred thousand cfus per milliliter in the urine are usually indicative of a urinary
tract infection. Urinary tract infections caused by P. mirabilis occur usually in patients under long-term
catherization. The bacteria have been found to move and create encrustations on the urinary catheters.
The encrustations cause the catheter to block. Symptoms for urethritis are mild including frequency of
urination and pyuria (presence of white blob cells in the urine). Cystitis (bladder infection) symptoms are
easier to distinguish and include back pain, concentrated appearance, urgency, hematuria (presence of
red blood cells in the urine), and suprapubic pain as well as increased frequency of urination and pyuria.
Pyelonephritis (kidney infection) can occur when the bacteria migrates from the lower urinary tract.
Although it is seen as a furtherance of infections, not all patients have the symptoms associated with
urethritis and cystitis. Pyelonephritis is marked by nausea and vomiting. Proteus mirabilis can enter the
bloodstream through wounds. This happens with contact between the wound and an infected surface.
The bacteria induce inflammatory response that can cause sepsis and systemic inflammatory response
syndrome (SIRS). SIRS has a mortality rate between 20 and 50 percent. P. mirabilis can also, though less
common, colonize the lungs. This is the result of infected hospital breathing equipment and causes
pneumonia. Symptoms for pneumonia include fever, chills, chest pain, rales, and cough. Prostatitis can
occur as a result of P. mirabilis infection, causing fever, chills, and tender prostate in men.

Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive, round-shaped bacterium that is a member of the Firmicutes,

and it is a usual member of the microbiota of the body, frequently found in the upper respiratory
tract and on the skin. It is often positive for catalase and nitrate reduction and is a facultative
anaerobe that can grow without the need for oxygen. [1] Although S. aureus usually acts as a commensal
of the human microbiota it can also become an opportunistic pathogen, being a common cause of skin
infections including abscesses, respiratory infections such as sinusitis, and food poisoning. Pathogenic
strains often promote infections by producing virulence factors such as potent protein toxins, and the
expression of a cell-surface protein that binds and inactivates antibodies. The emergence of antibiotic-
resistant strains of S. aureus such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is a worldwide problem
in clinical medicine. Despite much research and development, no vaccine for S. aureus has been
approved.
Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) are bacteria that normally live in your intestines and feces.

These bacteria are harmless when they’re in your intestines. But if they spread to another part of your
body, they can cause severe infections. The risk is higher if you’re sick

Urinary tract infection

If K. pneumoniae gets in your urinary tract, it can cause a urinary tract infection (UTI). Your urinary tract
includes your urethra, bladder, ureters, and kidneys.

Klebsiella UTIs occur when the bacteria enters the urinary tract. It can also happen after using a urinary
catheter for a long time.

Typically, K. pneumoniae cause UTIs in older women.

UTIs don’t always cause symptoms. If you do have symptoms, you might experience:

 frequent urge to urinate

  pain and burning when urinating

 bloody or cloudy urine

 strong-smelling urine

 passing small amounts of urine

 pain in the back or pelvic area

 discomfort in the lower abdomen

If you have a UTI in your kidneys, you might have:

 fever

 chills

 nausea

 vomiting

 pain in the upper back and side

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common encapsulated, Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that can
cause disease in plants and animals, including humans. A species of considerable medical importance, P.
aeruginosa is a multidrug resistant pathogen recognized for its ubiquity,
its intrinsically advanced antibiotic resistance mechanisms, and its association with serious illnesses
– hospital-acquired infections such as ventilator-associated pneumonia and various sepsis syndromes.
The organism is considered opportunistic insofar as serious infection often occurs during
existing diseases or conditions – most notably cystic fibrosis and traumatic burns. It generally affects
the immunocompromised but can also infect the immunocompetent as in hot tub folliculitis. Treatment
of P. aeruginosa infections can be difficult due to its natural resistance to antibiotics. When more
advanced antibiotic drug regimens are needed adverse effects may result.
It is citrate, catalase, and oxidase positive. It is found in soil, water, skin flora, and most man-made
environments throughout the world. It thrives not only in normal atmospheres, but also in low-
oxygen atmospheres, thus has colonized many natural and artificial environments. It uses a wide range
of organic material for food; in animals, its versatility enables the organism to infect damaged tissues or
those with reduced immunity. The symptoms of such infections are generalized inflammation and sepsis.
If such colonizations occur in critical body organs, such as the lungs, the urinary tract, and kidneys, the
results can be fatal.[1] Because it thrives on moist surfaces, this bacterium is also found on and in medical
equipment, including catheters, causing cross-infections in hospitals and clinics. It is also able to
decompose hydrocarbons and has been used to break down tarballs and oil from oil spills.[2] P.
aeruginosa is not extremely virulent in comparison with other major pathogenic bacterial species – for
example Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes – though P. aeruginosa is capable of
extensive colonization, and can aggregate into enduring biofilms.[3]
Enterococcus faecalis is a gram-positive bacterium that can cause a variety of nosocomial infections of
which urinary tract infections are the most common. These infections can be exceptionally difficult to
treat because of drug resistance of many E. faecalis isolates. ( rod shape usually diplococci )