Vehicle Dynamics

University of Novi Sad
FACULTY OF TECHNICAL SCIENCES
Basics of Automotive Engineering

Part 3:
Basics of Vehicle Dynamics

Dr Boris Stojić, Assistant Professor
Department for Mechanization and Design Engineering
Chair for Engines and Vehicles
Introduction
Introduction
Basic overview
• Tasks and contents of vehicle dynamics

Some basic topics: to study...
...interaction between vehicle and its surroundings, w/ or w/o driver
...how forces influence vehicle motion and vice versa
...what the vehicle response will be in certain driving situation
...how design changes will affect vehicle behavior
etc.
Introduction
Basic overview
carthrottle.com
• Approaches and assumptions
Full vehicle model, general driving situation:
Many degrees of freedom
Many inputs and outputs, complex relationships
System of coupled non-linear differential equations
Not appropriate for analytical study
newslincolncounty.com
Experimental approach, CAE modeling and simulations

carsim.com
popularmechanics.com
Introduction
Basic overview

Simplified models, restricted driving maneuvers:
Less DOF
Restricted number of I/O’s
Possibility of ODE linearization
Manageable math, appropriate for analytical study
Gaining insight into main physical relationships
Some aspects of basic engineering analysis carried out easily
Introduction
Basic overview

Longitudinal vehicle dynamics
Forces and motions in longitudinal direction, smooth road surface
Predicting top speed, acceleration and braking performances, gradeability, fuel
consumption...
ni.com
Introduction
Basic overview

Lateral vehicle dynamics
Forces and motions mainly in lateral direction
Predicting cornering performances, handling, stability...
tut.fi
Introduction
Basic overview

Vertical vehicle dynamics
Forces and motions mainly in vertical direction
Ride, vibration behavior, tyre/road contact...
scielo.br
Introduction
Basic overview
• Examples of usage in engineering and everyday life

Let’s name a few...
What is the maximum velocity of the vehicle?
How many horsepower does the vehicle need?
What will be the fuel consumption of the vehicle?
How long does it take for the vehicle to come to stop?
What happens if shock-absorbers don’t work?
How to re-gain lost adhesion of the tyre?
What happens when the brake is suddenly applied during cornering?
Understanding active vehicle safety!
And so on and on and on... 
Introduction
Overview of Newtonian laws of motion
• 3rd law
• Reaction forces, Free-body diagram
• Important application: no action without reaction!
• 1st law: body equilibrium
• Net force
• 2nd law: force, mass, acceleration
• Rotational motion: torque, moment of inertia, angular acc.
Introduction
Overview of Newtonian laws of motion
• Some important reaction forces:

Ground force
Friction (adhesion) force F
FT
FT
Introduction
Engine-to-wheel torque transmission

ninput Transmission power loss:
ig   Definition of gear ratio
noutput Poutput = Pinputg
Transmitted torque: Toutput = Tinputigg
Vehicles:
Input element: Transmission Output element:
ENGINE WHEEL
itr, tr
ne, Te nw, Tw
ne
nw  Tw = Teitrtr
i tr
Introduction

Transmission  system of gear pairs connected in series
Passenger car: transmission = gearbox + final drive
k-m-p.nl
otomoto.com.au k-m-p.nl
itr = ig  if
tr = g  f
ne
nw 
itr
Tw = Teitrtr
car-mri.com
Introduction
ig = iI, iII, iIII, iIV, ... – FOR EVERY GEAR

GEAR APPROPRIATE GEAR RATIO
LOWER GEAR LARGER GEAR RATIO
E.g. iI = 4.05 | iII = 2.82 | iIII = 1.75 | iIV = 1.04 | iIV = 0.80
Forces acting on the vehicle

Overview of forces
• Gravity effects
• Aerodynamic forces
• Tyre-road interaction
• Tyre peculiarities
• Side slip – very special property of pneumatic tyre
• Load dependence – importance of CG position
Gravity force – vehicle weight
• Causes axle loads hCG


• Motion resistance on the
graded road (vector
decomposition) Wf  W
a
MA = 0  Wf·l = W·cos· b – W·sin·hCG b

l A
Zi = 0  Wf + Wr = W·cos
Wr
b h
Wf   W cosα  CG  W sinα
l l b
Wf   W
l
a h  = 0:
Wr   W cosα  CG  W sinα a
l l Wr   W
l
Aerodynamic forces
  v2
• Motion resistance FW  c W  A
2
• Lift force Rill
• Lateral force
racingcardynamics.com
Tyre behaviour: rolling resistance
• Contact pressure distribution of non-moving tyre

• Rolling tyre: hysteresis effect


WT
FX
rD
Internal elastic force

RZ RX
e
Internal friction force
• Rolling tyre: hysteresis effect


RX = frWT – rolling resistance of a single free-
rolling tyre
WT fr – rolling resistance coefficient
FX
rD
RZ RX
e From: Genta/Morello
Dependency of fr on velocity (example)

Tyre behaviour: longitudinal slip
• Definition of slip

Theoretical wheel speed: vt = rD
Real speed: v
v = vt: NO SLIP v
v < vt: DRIVE WHEEL
rD
v > vt: BRAKE WHEEL
v v t r ω
BRAKE WHEEL s 1 D T s=1: car moving, wheel locked
v v
vt  v v
DRIVE WHEEL s 1 s=1: car standing, wheel sliding
vt rD  ω T
s=0: wheel rotating freely

• Definition of slip
Rigid wheel: just a geometric interpretation!
FREE WHEEL BRAKING DRIVING
vs=0 vs vs
 Real tyre: pronounced elasticity  far more complex slip mechanism!

• Slip mechanism and longitudinal force generation

• Looking at the single particle of tyre contact patch
• Undeformed at the beginning
• Longitudinal deformation increases as the particle
“travels” through the contact patch
• Particle tip “glued” to the ground due to adhesion
• (i) Deformation propagates with the velocity vS
• (ii) Local longitudinal force increases with the growth
of the deformation

• (i) Deformation u(x) propagates with the velocity vS
u(x)

vS
rD
rD - vS
x
vS
No sliding of the particle at the ground but slip exists (vvt)!


• (ii) Local longitudinal force increases with the growth of the deformation
u(x)
Ftan(x)
x
x
Ftan(x)
Local force distribution
Net longitudinal force – sum of elementary (local) tangential forces

Proportional to the area under the line
Low torque High torque

Low deformation High deformation
Low slip High slip
Low longitudinal force High longitudinal force
Net  Where does this non-

non-
R
longitudinal X linearity come from??
force
We said: particle tip remains “glued” to the road!
s
Wheel slip
This can not be true all the time –
there is not enough adhesion at
the end of the patch!
Local vertical Maximum AVAILABLE

force distribution local longitudinal force =
= Local vertical force  Friction coeff.
0 A B
x
Required long. force Zone of local particle sliding
(zone of stick)
Available long. force

1 2
Area increases  force increases

Not linearly with slip anymore!
RX
Torque increases
Deformation increases
Slip increases
Further slip increase –

what will happen now?
s

PEAK POINT
Net R • Further slip increase – whole contact patch slides
longitudinal X
• Tyre friction decreases with sliding velocity increase
force
• Net force decreases
s
Wheel slip Chassis Handbook
• Introduction of adhesion coefficient 

RX  longitudinal force

WT  tyre/axle load (vertical force)
Sometimes we use approximation: traction FT

force FT instead of real longitudinal force RX:

WT TW
 What’s the difference? 
TW e WT F
RX    WT X
rD rD
rD
RX
FT fr
WT
frWT = Frol e
RX = FT – Frol When FT >> Frol  RX  FT

• Introduction of adhesion coefficient 


MAX
s<MAX
MAX will
decrease with
load increase!
RXMAX
WT s
s10-15% s=100%
• Some example values of adhesion coefficient 
s (%)
From: Wallentowitz
Tyre behaviour: side slip
• Introduction of tyre side slip angle
When subjected to side force, tyre rolls at

an angle with respect to longitudinal axis
LATERAL TYRE TRAVELLING

FORCE
DIRECTION
LONGITUDINAL
DIRECTION
• Lateral tyre deformation due to side force

Vehicle pushes tyre with FY
Tyre particles deform sideways
Net ground lateral force arises – RY
 v  RY acts behind wheel centre
tP – “pneumatic trail”
FY  - wheel side slip angle
x
tP
y RY

Tyre structure elasticity additionally
affects deformation path
v

FY
RY
Side slip angle Lateral deformation distribution

FY Force from vehicle
tP Pneumatic trail
RY Ground reaction
RYtP = ALIGNING MOMENT

• Pneumatic trail / aligning moment behaviour
stanford.edu
• Lateral force and aligning moment vs. slip angle

fromThe Automotive
Chassis Vol. 1
MS
Pneumatic trail decreases when

from Chassis  increases!
Handbook Notice vertical load (FZ) impact!
• Non-linear tyre behavior
Zone of pronounced non-linearity
Linear approximation: FY = c

Applies for small 
c - tyre lateral stiffness (depends on vertical load!)

• Factors affecting lateral force / side slip dependency:

Vertical load
Pressure
Camber angle
Longitudinal force
wikipedia
etc.
• Impact of tyre load WT

Source: Wallentowitz
Vertical load increase

Side force Fy
Contact length increases  larger Fy

for the same 
For same Fy -  decreases when WT

increases  c increases with WT
Relation between WT and c is

Side slip angle  degressive
Tyre behaviour: combined slip
• Simultaneous presence of longitudinal and side force
Wheel lock or full

slide: no side
force available!
Realized longitudinal FX
force FR
  
FR  FX  FY Free rolling tyre:
FY
maximum side
FR2 = FX2 + FY2 force available!
Available side
FRMAX = WT· MAX force
FX2 + FY2 = (WT· MAX)2 = const
Overall tyre behaviour and modelling issues
• ...
Performances: acceleration, top
speed, gradeability
Vehicle performances
Introduction
• Summary of motion resistances, impact of velocity

• Engine torque curve
• Powertrain parameters
Summary of motion resistances
GRADE RESISTANCE F = Wsin
ROLLING RESISTANCE Frol = frW
  v2
WIND RESISTANCE FW  c W  A
2
• Velocity impact: comparison rolling vs. aerodynamic

resistance (force, power)
• Impact of grade resistance
Infinitesimal work =
F ds
Definition of power: P  Force F  infinitesimal displacement ds
dt Velocity v
Rate at which energy is utilized

P = F
Fv i.e.
Velocity at which we can overcome resistance force
P = T
T - for rotary motion [radians/sec]
 = 2n/60
n [RPM]
• Numerical example: generic car
E.g.
m = 1400kg  W = 14000N
cW = 0.3
A = 2.8 m2
technical-illustration.com
• Numerical example: generic car Net resistance 12% grade

Net resistance 5% grade
motion resistance forces (N)
6000 6000 6000

Aerodynamic 12% Grade
5000 resistance 5000
resistance
5000
4000 4000 4000

5% Grade
Rolling
3000 3000 resistance 3000
resistance
2000 2000 2000
1000 1000 1000
0 0 0
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
velocity (km/h)

 500 kW car
500
450
400
motion resistance power (kW)
350
300
250
200
150
 100 kW car
100
50
 20 kW car
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
velocity (km/h)

90
80 Net resistance 12% grade
70
motion resistance power (kW)
60
50 Net resistance 5% grade

40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
velocity (km/h)
Longitudinal dynamics: equation of motion
• Applying Newton’s Second Law:

MASS  ACCELERATION = NET FORCE
Actual mass of the
researchgate
vehicle
meff = m + meq
Effective mass
that has to be Equivalent mass of the
accelerated on rotational inertia
Caution: rotational elements also account of lumped at vehicle’s CG
have to be accelerated! engine torque
We adopt approach of “effective mass” and Equivalent mass i.e. effective mass can be calculated
“equivalent mass” empirically or analytically.

meff a = Fi
Forces acting in longitudinal
direction:
FT – traction force
FW – aerodynamic
resistance
Wsin - grade resistance
Frol,f/r – front and rear
rolling resistance

meff a = FT – FW – Frol – Wsin 1
Frol = frWcos
TW
FT 
rD
TW - net drive
torque at all drive
wheels
Frol = Frol,f + Frol,r – net rolling resistance


Finally we obtain:
TW
TRACTION FORCE FT 
rD
FT = FW + Frol + Fin + F
GRADE RESISTANCE F = Wsin
INERTIA RESISTANCE Fin = meff a
ROLLING RESISTANCE Frol = frW
  v2
WIND RESISTANCE FW  c W  A
2
Traction force diagram
• Starting from engine torque curve

• Engine torque transforms to traction force
• Engine RPM transforms to velocity
Sum for all drive wheels
Tw Te  ig  if  ηtr
Engine FT  
Gearbox rD rD
ig,g Final drive
if,f
Te,ne Wheel ne
Tw,nw nw 
ig  i f
itr = ig  if
tr = g  f v = rDw = rDnw/30
 = 2n/60
Traction force diagram

180
Engine torque FT
160 8000
Traction force FT
140
120 Final drive: if=3.85
100 7000
80 1st gear: ig=iI=3.3
60
40 6000
20
2nd gear: ig=iII=1.99
0
Engine RPM ne
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
5000
3rd gear: ig=iIII=1.36
4000
Te  ig  if  ηtr 4th gear: ig=iIV=1.00
FT 
rD 3000
5th gear: ig=iV=0.79
  rD  ne 2000
v
30  ig  i f 1000
Vehicle velocity km/h

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Performance determination: graphical approach

8000 Traction force
7000
1st
FT FT = FW + Frol + Fin + F
6000
5000
4000
Net resistance
2nd 12% grade
3000 Fin (12% grade)
3rd
Net resistance
F 0% grade
2000
4th
1000 5th
FW + Frol
v km/h
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Maximum velocity at 0% grade

Acceleration performance
FT  FW  Frol  W sin
meff a = FT – FW – Frol – Wsin  a 
meff
3,00
a(m/s^2)
2,50
2,00
1,50
1,00
0,50
v (km/h)
0,00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Acceleration performance
• Calculating acceleration time

v
dv dv 1
a dt  t   dv
dt a a
0
1/a
2
1/a V (s /m)
2
(s /m)
V
IV
IV
III
III
II
II
A 13
A 14
A 10
A 12
A 11
I A4 A5 A6 A 7 A8 A9
A1 v(km/h)
A2 A3
v2 v4 v6 v8 v10 v12 v14
v(km/h) v1 v3 v5 v7 v9 v11 v13 v15
Dynamic axle loads
lf+lr=l
Wf, dyn = Wf,stat  Win - FLf hCG W
ΔWin   a lr h
l g Wf,stat   W  cosα CG  W  sinα
Wr, dyn = Wr,stat ∓ Win - FLr l l
lf h
Neglecting contribution of rotating Wr,stat   W  cosα CG  W  sinα
l l
mass and rolling resistance
Braking performances
Basics of braking process
• 3 main phases of braking

1 Delay
Time (s)
2 System activation
Deceleration (m/s2)
3 Full deceleration
1 2 3
• 3 main phases of braking
t2 t3
t1
tS – Stopping time
tS
tL – Lost time
tB – Braking time
APPROXIMATION: tL tB
• Approximated by 2 phases
tL tB
Braking time:
Lost time:
a=aF=const
v=v0=const
- full deceleration
tS
Stopping time: tS = tL + tB
Stopping and braking distance
• Lost distance: Lost time:

sL=v0tL
0.51 sec
v 20
• Braking distance: sB 
2  aF
v 20
• Stopping distance: s S  v 0  tL 
2  aF
Stopping and braking distance
v 20
sB 
2  aF
v 20
s S  v 0  tL 
2  aF
sL=v0tL
bbc.co.uk
Theoretical maximum deceleration

FBA
Adhesion coefficient for braking case: 
WA
 =MAX FBA – net brake force on axle (front or rear)
WA – axle load
Maximum possible braking force (at axle):
s FBA,MAX=MAXWA
Vehicle equation of motion – 2nd Newton’s law for braking:

(On level road, neglecting rotational inertia and wind resistance; with maximum braking forces
both front and rear; rolling resistance comprised by braking forces)
maMAX = MAXWf + MAXWr aMAX – theoretically possible maximum deceleration

Wf, Wr – front and rear axle weights
juniordesigner.com
Maximum braking force rear

Wr Wf
Maximum braking force front
Theoretical maximum deceleration
maMAX = MAXWf + MAXWr
maMAX = MAX(Wf +Wr) = MAXW= MAXmg
aMAX = MAXg
v 20
Braking distance would then be: sB 
2  MAX  g
Adhesion utilisation
• What does full deceleration aF depend on?

Maximum braking force  maximum deceleration  minimum braking distance
Two axles braked
Optimal goal – maximum adhesion utilization on both axles
 
s s
This is rarely possible!

• Brake force distribution should match that of ground forces
 
s s
Ground forces distribution varies depending on deceleration

Sophisticated control system required to account for this – not always present
and not always fully efficient
• Adhesion not fully exploited on both axles!
 
s s
Net braking force less than physically possible  braking distance increases
We introduce braking efficiency B:
aF aF
B   1
aMAX MAX  g
Braking efficiency impact on braking distance
• Braking distance is now:
v 20
sB 
2  MAX  g B
• Defined by law regulation:

Braking efficiency has to provide certain minimum requirements concerning
braking performances, in certain driving conditions (e.g. 75%).
Optimal distribution of braking forces
• ...

Vehicle Dynamics

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University of Novi Sad

FACULTY OF TECHNICAL SCIENCES

Basics of Automotive Engineering

Basics of Vehicle Dynamics

• Tasks and contents of vehicle dynamics

Experimental approach, CAE modeling and simulations

• Approaches and assumptions

• Approaches and assumptions

• Approaches and assumptions

• Approaches and assumptions

• Examples of usage in engineering and everyday life

Overview of Newtonian laws of motion

Overview of Newtonian laws of motion

• Some important reaction forces:

Engine-to-wheel torque transmission

Transmitted torque: Toutput = Tinputigg

Engine-to-wheel torque transmission

Engine-to-wheel torque transmission

ig = iI, iII, iIII, iIV, ... – FOR EVERY GEAR

LOWER GEAR LARGER GEAR RATIO

Forces acting on the vehicle

Gravity force – vehicle weight

• Causes axle loads hCG

MA = 0  Wf·l = W·cos· b – W·sin·hCG b

Tyre behaviour: rolling resistance

• Contact pressure distribution of non-moving tyre

Tyre behaviour: rolling resistance

• Rolling tyre: hysteresis effect

Internal elastic force

Tyre behaviour: rolling resistance

• Rolling tyre: hysteresis effect

Dependency of fr on velocity (example)

Tyre behaviour: longitudinal slip

s=0: wheel rotating freely

Tyre behaviour: longitudinal slip

 Real tyre: pronounced elasticity  far more complex slip mechanism!

Tyre behaviour: longitudinal slip

• Slip mechanism and longitudinal force generation

Tyre behaviour: longitudinal slip

• Slip mechanism and longitudinal force generation

No sliding of the particle at the ground but slip exists (vvt)!

Tyre behaviour: longitudinal slip

• Slip mechanism and longitudinal force generation

Local force distribution

Net longitudinal force – sum of elementary (local) tangential forces

Tyre behaviour: longitudinal slip

• Slip mechanism and longitudinal force generation

Low torque High torque

Tyre behaviour: longitudinal slip

• Slip mechanism and longitudinal force generation

Net  Where does this non-

We said: particle tip remains “glued” to the road!

Tyre behaviour: longitudinal slip

• Slip mechanism and longitudinal force generation

Local vertical Maximum AVAILABLE

Tyre behaviour: longitudinal slip

• Slip mechanism and longitudinal force generation

Available long. force

Tyre behaviour: longitudinal slip

• Slip mechanism and longitudinal force generation

Area increases  force increases

Further slip increase –