Sect i) TL) R. Munro-SmithContents Preface Glossary Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Index Factors in Design Owners requirements, trading patterns, building costs, world merchant fleet, analysis by types, propulsion analysis Basic Design Parameters Problems in ship design, preliminary design, displace- ment, deadweight, dimensions, coefficients, cargo ships, bulk carriers, tankers, container ships, hydro- static curves, trimmed waterline, variations with draught Lightship Weight and Power Estimation Assessment of lightship weight, methods for steel weight, wood and outfit, machinery weight, pre- liminary power assessment Estimation of Cargo Capacity Hydrostatic Particulars and Stability Block coefficient, etc., bending moment, methods of estimation, stability Hull Form Design Areas of immersed sections, midship area Crew and Passenger Accommodation Classification, Specifications and Contracts Freeboard, Subdivision and Tonnage Choice of Propelling Machinery Steam, diesels, electric, gas turbines, nuclear power Powering and Propellers Ship and Marine Engineering Research 33 43 53 67 17 93 103 117 125 135 143Glossary It is imperative in the study of this subject to have a clear understanding of the meaning of the various terms, abbreviations and symbols used. Forward Perpendicular (F.P.)—A vertical line through the intersection of the load waterline and the stem contour (Fig. G.1). ” - Length overall [LOA] — >! Sheer forward See Levin voter tat) ——— tly _—s ' = 4 Fig.G.1 Terms used in Naval Architecture. After Perpendicular (A.P. )—where the aft side of sternpost meets the load waterline. Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP)—the horizontal distance between the A.P. and F.P. and is denoted by Lop Amidships1}—The midway point between the perpendiculars. Midship Section—The transverse section of the ship at amidships. Breadth Moulded (B mld.)—Measured at amidships and is the maximum breadth over the frames (Fig. G.2). Draught Breadth moulded <_< 2 Rise of floor Ft Moulded base tine of kee! Fig.G.2 Terms used in Naval Architecture.x Elements of Ship Design Depth Moulded (D mld.)—The vertical distance at amidships from top of keel to top of the deck beam at side or underside of deck plating at the ship side; the deck to which the depth is measured should be stated. Draught Moulded ( mld.}—The distance of the top of the kee] below the waterline. Draught (H)—The distance of the lowest point of the keel below the water- line. Moulded Base Line—This is a horizontal line which passes through the top of the keel at amidships. It acts as the datum or base line for all hydrostatic calculations. Sheer—The longtitudinal curvature given to decks. It is measured by the difference in height of ship side at any point and the height at amidships. The amount of sheer at the FP is often twice the sheer at the AP Camber—This is the curvature given to a deck transversely. It is measured by the difference between the heights of the deck at side and centre. The camber amidships is frequently one-fiftieth of the breadth (B) of the ship. Rise of Floor—The rise of the bottom shell plating measured trans- versely amidships at the moulded breadth line. Tumble Home—The fall in of the ship sides amidships. Flare—The outward curvature of the forward sections above the water- line. Rake—The departure from the vertical of any line in profile such as the stem. Trim—The longitudinal inclination of a ship is measured by the difference between the draughts forward and aft, When the draughts are the same for- ward and aft the ship is said to be "on an even keel". "Down by the head" when the draught forward is greater than that aft. "Down by the stern” when the draught aft is greater. Heel—The angle of the inclination of the ship in the transverse direction measured in degrees and usually given the symbol 8. Yaw—The movement from the mean course of a ship in the horizontal plane, measured in degrees. Middle Line Plane—Ships have only one plane of symmetry, called the middle line plane and it is the principal plane of reference. The shape of the ship given by this plane is known as the profile.Glossary xi Waterplanes—Planes at right angles to the middle line plane; they are sym- metrical about the middle line plane. Waterplanes looked at edge on in the profile are called waterlines. ‘Transverse Planes perpendicular to the middle line plane show the shape of vertical sections of the ship. Freeboard—The vertical distance between the actual or permissible water- line and the upper surface at side of the deck to which is measured, Fur- ther details in Chapter 9. Load Line Mark—All merchant ships, with a few exceptions, must be marked with a load line. The upper edge of this line indicates the maximum per- missible draught. The load lines are set off amidships, on both sides of the ship, at specified distances below a deck line. Further details in Chapter 9. Fore Body—The immersed body forward of the midship section, After Body—The immersed body aft of the midship section. Further details of these, together with parallel middle body, entrance and run are given in Chapter 6. Centre of Flotation (CF or F)—The centroid of the waterplane area, For small angles of trim consecutive waterlines pass through the C.F. Centre of Buoyancy (8)—The centroid of the underwater volume of the ship and is the point through which the total force of buoyancy can be assumed to act. Its position is defined thus: (a) KB (b) LCB the vertical distance above base the longitudinal distance from amidships (Fig. G. 3) " ‘The same appcabe to 6 Fig.G.3 Location of Centre of Buoyancy. Centre of Gravity (G)—The point through which the total weight of the ship may be assumed to act. The position is defined thus: (a) KG (0) LCG the vertical distance above base the longitudinal distance from amidships. Tonnes per Centimetre (TPC) of a waterplane—The weight required to effect a change in the mean draught at that waterline of 1 em.«ti Elemenis of Ship Design The TPC in sea water (SW) = Area of waterplane (A) x To x 1,025 where A is in m2 Displacement— The amount of water displaced by a floating vessel is termed the displacement and may be expressed as a volume (V) in cubic metres of as a weight in tonnes, The displacement is frequently denoted by 4 or W in tonnes. Sea water is taken as 1025 kg/m? Fresh water is taken as 1000 kg/m3 Lightweight—This is the displacement of the ship when complete and ready for sea but no crew, passengers, baggage, stores, fuel, water or cargo on board, Boilers, if any, are filled with water to working level. Deadweight—This is the difference between the displacement at any draught and the lightweight. ‘Total Deadweight—The difference between the load displacement and the lightweight. The load displacement is that at the maximum permissible draught. The deadweight includes crew, passengers, baggage, stores, fuel, water and cargo. The cargo portion of the deadweight is often referred to as the "pay- load". Thus Displacement = Lightweight + Deadweight Metacentre (Transverse) Fig. G.4. When a ship floats freely at rest in still water the following forces act upon it: Fig.G.4 Transverse Metacentre.Glossary xiii (1) the weight (7) acts downwards through the centre of gravity (4). (2) the buoyancy which equals (W/) acts upwards through the centre of buoyancy (B) These two forces must, for equilibrium, act on the same line and counteract each other. Consider the ship to float originally at waterline WL and then to be heeled through a small angle @ to float at a new waterline W,L,. The centre of buoyancy initially at B moves to B,. The verticals through B and B, inter- sect at M the transverse metacentre. GZ is perpendicular to the vertical through B, and is known as the righting lever. Metacentric Height (GM) The transverse metacentric height is equal to the distance between the transverse metacentre M and the centre of gravity G and is represented by GM. If M is above G the metacentric height is considered as positive and the ship is in a condition of stable equilibrium. If Mis below G then GM is considered negative and the ship is in a con- dition of unstable equilibrium. For all ships in any condition of loading GM should always be positive. For angles up to about 15° GZ = GM sin 6 and the couple acting on the ship is. W x GZ or W X GM sin 6 Distance of Transverse Metacentre above the Centre or Buoyancy (BM) The position of the metacentre M for a ship floating freely and at an inclina- tion not greater than about 15° is given by BM, = - The suffix T is added to indicate the transverse con- dition. where I = moment of inertia of waterplane about the middle line in m2m2 V = volume of displacement in m$ Longitudinal BM (BM) This arises from the inclination of a ship in the fore and aft direction and results in trim, Trim is the difference between the draughts forward and aft and a change of trim can be brought about by moving weights, already on board, in a fore and aft direction or by adding a weight to the ship at any point other than the centre of flotation (CF or F).xiv Elements of Ship Design If the displacement of the ship remains constant and the angle of inclination is small the two waterlines will intersect at the CF. Fig. G. 5 shows the change of trim caused by moving a weight w tonnes already on board from aft to forward (h). The centre of buoyancy moves from 2 and B, and verticals through B and B, intersect at M the longitudinal metacentre. Fig.G.5 Longitudinal Metacentre and Moment to Change Trim, Distance of Longitudinal Metacentre above the Centre of Buoyancy (BV 1} 1 BM, = The suffix L is added to indicate the longitudinal condition where 1,,= the moment of inertia of the waterplane about a transverse axis passing through the centre of flotation. T = the volume of displacement 1,18 determined by using the parallel axis theorem which states 1=1,+ Ay2 where 1 = the moment of inertia about a transverse axis passing through amid- ships A = the area of the waterplane .) = the distance between the centre of flotation and amidships.Glossary xv Longitudinal GM (GM,) The longitudinal metacentric height Gi is the distance between the centre of gravity (G) and the metacentre (/) as indicated in Fig. G.5. GM =KB + BM —KG. Since the longitudinal BM is large when compared with KG it is often assumed in trim calculations that GM, = BM, Moment to Change Trim 1 cm. (MCT 1 cm.) ‘This is defined as the moment which must be imposed on a ship in order that the trim will be changed by 1 cm. It can be shown that Ax GM, MCT 1 cm = ———— tonne metres (tm) 100 Z where 4 =displacement of ship in tonnes GM, = longitudinal metacentric height in metres L =LBP in metres Approximations to the value of the moment to change trim 1 cm are given by (@) MCTicm= no tm for general cargo ships UTPC)2 B (2) MCT 1cm= tm where B = breadth of ship in metres. Change of Trim Change of trim = Moment changing trim MCT 1 cm For the condition as shown in Fig. G.5 change of trim = “1X 100L A X GM, where w and Aare in tonnes; h, L and GM, are in metres.Chapter 1 Factors in Design ‘The decision by a shipowner to have a ship or ships built is only made after consideration of many factors. Shipowners are in business to make a profit as well as to give a service; there is a large variety of ship types for which the design, construction and operation has to be adjusted to take account of likely developments and changes during the life of the ship— which may be in the region of 25 years. There are also essential vessels, such as dredgers and other public service craft, which may not directly earn money for the owners but permit other ships to earn money for theirs. OWNER'S REQUIREMENTS The development of the requirements of the owner which are to be finally presented to the shipbuilder is quite an extensive process. It is essential to have the details and results of market research. This aspect of ship operation is fundamental to the formulation of the requirements. The ship- owner has to compute with reasonable accuracy the cost of the ship over its entire life and set this against his estimate of what the ship can earn, ‘This is a complex calculation and includes: (a) Cost at delivery; (b) Depreciation; (c) Running costs—fuel, wages, docking and harbour dues; (4) Maintenance and refit costs; (e) Supporting service costs. Costs which occur in sea transport can be divided into three classes: (1) Capital costs—including depreciation, loan interest taxes, profit; (2) Running costs and wages—stores, maintenance, insurance; (3) Voyage costs—fuel, dues, cargo handling. BUILDING COSTS The cost to the shipbuilder is not, of course, the purchase price to the shipowner; the difference being made up by the builder's profit-sometimes a loss—and the items supplied by the owner together with the cost of super- vising staff. The building costs, excluding profit margin, for a large bulk carrier or tanker are approximately indicated as follows:2 Elements of Ship Design Item. Material Labour Percentage Percentage Shipbuilder: (Steel 21 13 ! Outfit 20 6 Machinery Builder: (Machinery (including installation) 25 Overheads 15 81 19 TRADING PATTERNS Other essential features of the requirements for a ship are the intended trade and trade routes in which the vessel will be engaged. The trade defines the general type of ship required, which may be special service— tanker, bulk carrier, container ship, ferry—or general purpose as a general dry cargo carrier, The trade route defines the oceans, seas and harbours in or from which the ship will operate. The climate determines the need for air-condition- ing, ete. Certain routes involve passage through canals or similar water- ways such as the Panama Canal, Manchester Ship Canal, St. Lawrence Seaway. The Suez Canal may well again come into this category quite soon. Such waterways may place restrictions on overall dimensions oi the ship and the terminal ports may have a direct effect on the cargo handling facilities required. ; WORLD MERCHANT FLEET The world merchant fleet has increased from 118M gross in 1958 to 311M gross in 1974. These figures are indicative of the increased trade between nations and the importance of shipping. This increased trade is apparent particularly in the shipment of bulk materials such as oil, ores and food. Table 1.1 gives some particulars of the world fleet. Quite considerable changes have taken place in world trade over the past two or three decades with resultant adaptations in both type and size of ship and in port equipment. International trade, in the main, consists to a great extent of trading raw materials from underdeveloped countries with goods produced from these materials in the more developed countries. Oil is the world's major source of energy and with the on-shore oilfields ofFactors in Design 3 Table 1.1 World Merchant Fleet, 1974* Million Tons — Million Tons Ship Types | Number Gross Deadweight Steamships 6,124 113.0 Motorships 55,070 198.3 World total 61,194 311.3 493.9 * Taken from "Lloyd's Register of Shipping Statistical Tables", 1974 Texas and Louisiana in decline and the discovery of oil in Alaska and the North Sea, there is bound to be an effect on the demand for tonnage to transport the oil. Shipowners in the United Kingdom and Europe have invested hundreds of millions of pounds in the building of new ships and new types of ships— container ships, special tankers, etc.—on the assumption that there will be a continuation in the growth of world seaborne trade. The pattern of world trade could be changed by various facets in the continuation of the present energy crisis and more importantly if oil were discovered, say, off the Eastern seaboard of U.S.A. or off the coasts of Japan, The exploitation of the ofl and gas resources of the pacific continental shelf could have a very great effect on sea transport. The reopening of the Suez Canal with greater depth of water could alter the economics of sea transport between the Atlantic and the East, This is particularly true with regard to the transportation of oil. Again, the pro- posed new Panama Canal could have a direct effect on the size of tankers and bulk carriers, These two canals link the three major oceans. SHIP TYPES AND PROPULSION The economics of sea transportation have without question led to specialisa~ tion in ships not only in type but also in size, These include ships that can carry cargo in containers or on trailers that can be driven on at one terminal and driven off at another. Combined ore/oil carriers; gas carriers (LPG and LNG); chemical carriers to handle corrosive, poisonous and volatile cargoes; ships which carry barges or lighters (LASH and SeaBee); car ferries; etc. In the 1950's a 30, 000 dwt tanker would have been designated a "super tanker" Modern tankers are approaching 500, 000 deadweight (dwt). There has also been an increase in the size of bulk carriers. A decade ago bulk goods were transported in vessels of 20, 000 dwt. Today, a number of such vessels are over 100, 000 dwt. This increase in size has created problems in matters related to ports and dry docks. Tankers in many instances use4 Elements of Ship Design off-shore buoy terminals. Specialised ports are now available for con- tainer ships and offer highly sophisticated loading and unloading machinery. Table 1.2 gives an analysis of the world fleets by principal ship types. Table 1.2 World Fleets—Analysis by Principal Types 1974* Million Tons Ship Type Number Gross Oil tankers 6, 607 115.4 Liquefied gas carriers 374 2.3 Chemical tankers 250 0.6 Miscellaneous tankers 91 0.1 Bulk/Oil Ore/Oil 349 19.5 Ore and bulk 2, 954 53.1 General cargo 21,389 69.5 Miscellaneous cargo 240 0.6 Vehicle carriers 103 0.4 Livestock carriers 43 0. 08 Fish factories and carriers 680 3.3 Fishing 16, 374 7.0 Passenger liners 147 3.0 Ferries 2,336 4.2 Supply ships 898 0.5 Tugs 4,174 La. Container ships 394 5.9 Lighter carriers 20 0.6 Dredgers 502 0.8 Cable ships 47 0.1 Icebreakers 68 0.2 Research ships 346 0.4 Miscellaneous non-trading 1,220 1.2 World total 59, 606 290 * Taken from "Lloyd's Register of Shipping Statistical Tables", 1973.Factors in Design 5 Table 1.3 shows a propulsion analysis of the world fleet. The gross and net tonnages—covered by Regulations 3 and 4, respectively of the International Conference on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969—will no longer be expressed in the time honoured unit of the "ton" of 100 ft (2.83 m3); the new unit is a function of cubic metres. Under the Convention, a ship will be described as having "Gross Tonnage 1234" or "Net Tonnage 1234", the word "tons" no longer being used. Table 1.3 Propulsion Analysis, 1973* Million Tons Ship Types Number — Gross Steamships Reciprocating 2,927 5.1 Reciprocating and turbine 259 0.9 Turbine 3, 062 94.6 Turbo-electric 234 3.0 Motorships Diesel 52,251 184.3 Diesel-electric 873 2.0 World total 59,606 290.0 * Taken fram "Lloyd's Register of Shipping Statistical Tables", 1973. CONCLUSION has always been accepted that Modern ship design is a complex and systematic process. The large variety of ship types, each with its own special problems, the number of alternative design features in hull form, propelling machinery systems, cargo handling, etc. have complicated the work of the designer. However, the large computers have made possible the exploration of many design alternatives. The basic role of the computer is to reduce design time and examine alternatives.Chapter 2 Basic Design Parameters In ship design there is, in general, no simple solution to any given project. The result is a compromise between many requirements which need correct evaluation, Ship design is a diverse enterprise. Many items have to be co-ordinated to create an acceptable unit. Such items are propelling machinery, equipment, cargo handling, accommodation, and not least, earning capacity. Merchant ships require reliable and economical propelling machinery; they generally operate at a constant speed. The choice is normally one of steam or diesel machinery. Until the middle of the 18th century the design and building of ships was wholly a craft, the expertise as it developed being passed down the genera- tions, In the United Kingdom it was not until the second half of the 19th century that science had any appreciable effect on the design and building of ships Isaac Newton and other outstanding mathematicians of the 17th century laid the foundations of many sciences, including naval architecture. How- ever the real father of naval architecture was Pierre Bougucr, who in 1746 published "Traité du Navire" in which was laid the foundations of many aspects of naval architecture. These were developed later by Bernoulli, Euler, Lagrange and many others, but the outstanding figure was a Swede, Frederick Chapman, who pioneered work on ship resistance, This led to the great work of William Froude who may be regarded as the pioneer of the modern experimental method of studying ship resistance. In the middle of the 19th century, the introduction of iron and steel hulls and the replacement of sails by steam propelling machinery created new problems. Propulsion and the power required for a given speed were matters of great importance. Theories were available but not the means to put them to the test. Testing full-sized vessels after they were built was impractical. In addition to the underwater form requiring the minimum of power, there was the accurate assessment of the power required and the design of a marine screw to produce the desired speed, Much research was and is still necessary to satisfy these problems. As stated in the Preface, there are three problems to be faced in ship design—bouyancy, stability and strength. An outline of each of these is now given, BUOYANCY It was Archimedes in 250 B.C., who came upon the principle of buoyancy in8 Elements of Ship Design that a body partially or completely immersed in a fluid is supported by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. In spite of the ease with which Archimedes’ principle could be upheld, the advocates of iron ships were looked upon as dreamers in the late 18th and 19th centuries. However, in 1787 the 70 ft barge Trial, constructed of iron did float and in 1821 the 106 it Aaron Manby, the first iron steamer, crossed the English Channel. In the face of such evidence the sceptics were silenced. For a ship to float is not in itself enough. The vessel must be able to remain afloat under all probable conditions which are likely to arise in service. Thus, the hull is divided into compartments by watertight trans- verse bulkheads so that if one section of the hull is flooded, the buoyancy of the other compartments will keep the vessel afloat. The tanker, due to its trade, is extensively sub-divided, and there are instances where, as a result of collision, the vessel has been cut in two and the individual parts remained afloat. STABILITY Stability is the quality of returning to the upright position when the disturb- ing forces are removed. When a ship floats freely at rest in still water the following forces act upon it (see Fig. 2.1): Fig.2.1 Forces on Ship.Basic Design Parameters 9 (1) The weight acts downwards through the centre of gravity (G); (2) The buoyancy acts upwards through the centre of buoyancy (B); For equilibrium, the buoyancy force and weight must be equal and the two forces must act along the same straight line. For a floating body this line must be vertical. When a ship heels the centre of buoyancy (B) is transferred laterally to say B,. The intersection of the middle line by the vertical through B, at small angles of heel is called the transverse metacentre (M). If B, is beyond G towards the immersed side, the forces of weight and buoyancy will form a righting couple tending to restore the equilibrium; if however G is on the immersed side of B,, then the weight and buoyancy will produce an upsetting couple. The couple acting on the ship is W x GZ where W is the displacement and Z is the foot of the normal from G to the line of action of the buouancy force (Fig. 2. 2). Sop, “set % is ig utr, “— wa pS w “ye 7 f f lege / " “ wfc Gy Hs / : / f | ody J ly / . , 3 f / ‘ / ‘ stove Unstavle eat leben) (Gebowm) (cones wth 4) (a) (b) Fig. 2.2 Conditions of Equilibrium. Thus, for a ship floating freely at rest in the upright condition when: (a) Gis below M-Stable equilibrium (b) Gis above M—Unstable equilibrium (c) Gand M are coincident—Neutral equilibrium The distance between M and G is taken as a measure of a ship's initial stability. This distance GM, known as the metacentric height, is a matter of prime importance. If GM is small the ship will make long slow rolls. If GM is large the vessel will be a stiff ship and return violently to the upright, with possible damage to cargo and injury to passengers and crew. This evaluation of stability was introduced by Pierre Bouguer a French mathematician and as stated previously, a founder of modern naval archi- tecture.10 Elements of Ship Design Further details of stability are given in Chapter 5 The length of GM is not the sole criterion in stability. Consideration must be given to range of stability, the maximum value of the righting level GZ and the angle at which it occurs. The centre of gravity is dependent upon the distribution of weight in the ship. Consequently, it moves with each addition or unloading of cargo or ballast and each fuelling and consumption of fuel at sea. The position of B and M are dependent only on the geometry of the ship and the waterplane at which it is floating. The metacentric diagram in Fig. 2.3 is a convenient way of showing the variation in the height of the metracentre with variation in draught. The heights of the ship's centre of gravity for certain definite conditions of loading are usually given on the diagram. Curve of metecenires Draught Carve of centre of buoyeney Fig. 2.3 Metacentric Diagram. STRENGTH Adequate strength is obviously a very important quality for the safety of a ship on a sea voyage. The structure of a ship is subject to strain which can be classified as: (a) strains tending to bend the ship in a fore and aft direction; (b) strains tending to change the transverse form of the ship. ‘The loading on a ship derives from two sources, gravity and water pressure and in a seaway the loading is changing continuously. There is thus anBasic Design Parameters 11 uneven loading along the ship and so it bends as it is an clastic structure. ‘The forces of buoyancy are continuously changing as waves pass along the length of the ship. With crests at the bow and stern the hull sags; with a wave crest amidships the ship hogs. It is supposed that a ship never meets a sea which imposes more severe bending on the ship than that caused by a single wave of length equal to the ship's length with: (a) crest amidships, hollow at each end causing maximum hogging; (b) hollow amidships, crest at each end causing maximum sagging. (For an illustration of these points, see Fig. 8. 2) This is the basis of the standard calculation carried out as a means of comparing the structural strength of different ships. The thickness of the steel plating and the dimensions of the frames, beams, girders, etc.—generally called the scantlings—of the main structure neces- sary to give the required strength to the ship are prescribed by the rules of the classification societies. These societies are authorised under the Merchant Shipping Acts to assign to a vessel a maximum permissible draught in association with their rules. From the view-point of owners and underwriters, a degree of uniformity of standard of standard of strength for maximum displacement is essential as a warranty for seaworthiness. In general, a ship can be said to be seaworthy when it is in all respects fit to carry the cargo in good condition, as far as protection from the sea is concerned, and deliver it at the terminal port. This is a simplified definition as the term "seaworthiness* embraces the main elements of ship design and ship operation in strength, stability, freeboard, propelling, machinery, steering gear, etc. SPEED The speed of ocean-going ships has not increased at anything like the rate of other modes of transport. Since their inception rail, motor and air speeds have increased about tenfold. Ship speeds have increased less than threefold. In the 1860's the Great Eastern crossed the Atlantic at about 14 knots. ‘Today the fastest ocean liner may average about 32 knots. The h increases wi speed of the ship. Thus high speeds in waves would substantially increase the ship's response to waves and the result would be undesirable for cargo, passengers and the ships complement. Preliminary design work is more or less inevitable for the development of the specified requirements. For the economics of the proposed ship an accuracy within 5 per cent is desirable. For, say,a cargo ship—where the12 Elements of Ship Design deadweight, speed and machinery type have already been specified—the parameters to be considered are, displacement, principal dimensions (length, breadth, depth, draught), form coefficients, cargo volume, length of machinery space and bunker requirements. With few exceptions, deadweight and capacity; this is so in order that a number of midship tanks can be kept empty in order to reduce the sagging stresses in the loaded condition. This reduction in stress allows reduced scantling, resulting in a lower steel weight than that of the corresponding smaller ship. : The choice of preliminary dimensions is important in the development of the design and the technical and economic success of the final product depends on the final choice of dimensions. The three fundamental requirements in the choice of dimensions for a ship are deadweight, capacity and speed. Associated with these are the two secondary requirements, strength and stability (already mentioned). There may be restrictions on the ship in a particular trade in that the depth of water at a port may be limited, or the vessel may have to pass through canals or locks causing a limit to length or breadth of the design. The shipowner normally specifies the type of ship, type of propelling machinery, deadweight, stowage of cargo, speed on service or trial and radius of action, For a passenger ship the complement is specified as well as the class of accommodation required. The owner requires a ship that will give the best possible returns for the initial investment and running costs. This means that the specified requirements are made after taking into account not only existing economic conditions, but an assessment of those likely to develop within the life of the ship, which may be about twenty years. The naval architect makes. considerable use of data from previous ships and igetinmenmniny Sch 2 ship is designated the type or basis ship and from it good approximations to the desired particulars of the new design can be obtained by considering the changes from the basic ship. The naval architect is, of necessity, a master of approximations and collects and uses approximate formulae and methods that have a scientific WED appgenopiaiedomth- data. ph ohipe-motaliy,huilt..+ Frequently the time available for the preparation of the design and the necessary preliminary calculations is short and a method or methods which enable results with a reasonable degree of accuracy to be obtained quickly are very desirable. . *Basic Design Pavameters 13 To have reliable recorded data of ships already built is essential. Inthe > e-and the This The displacement and dimensions of a ship are items that must be deter- mined in the early stages of design. The ee must be such that, in must be a reasonable relation between the volume available for the cargo and the cargo deadweight, or payload. The relationship is between the volume and the cargo weight. In many cases the stowage rate is also a specified requirement. Adequate provision must be made to accommodate 3 ae ’ The displacement on the chosen dimensions must be such as to take the total deadweight without exceeding the adopted draught. The power required for the assessed displacement at the specified speed is related to the underwater finenss of the hull and its distribution. The length and fulness to be chosen for economical propulsion at a given speed are closely associated. In general, it is desirable to keep the length dimension to a minimum since it has a definite influence on the hull weight and, hence, on the cost. DISPLACEMENT A ship floating freely displaces a mass of water equal to its own mass and this mass is known as the ship's displacement. The load displacement is at the maximum permisible draught and is made up of the mass of the ship itself—the light mass of lightship~and the deadweight or deadload. Thus Load displacement = Lightship + Total deadweight eee light mass is the displacement of the ship complete and ready » no crew, passengers, baggage, stores, fuel, water or cargo on ‘Bollensss! any, Sappliedmsth watemts: workingsevel» DEADWEIGHT is the difference between the displacement at any draught and the light- ship; total deadweight is thus the differece between the load displacement and the lightmass; thus deadweight includes fuel, water, cargo, stores, crew, passengers and baggage. a design can be estimated hy14 Elements of Ship Design Deadweight Coefficient The ratio of the deadweight at the load draught to the corresponding dis- placement is termed the deadweight coefficient, Cg, c,, — Potal Deadweight ‘@~ Load Displacement :. Load displacement = Total a ht Typical values of the deadweight coefficient are: General cargo ship 0.62 to 0.72 Ore carrier 0.72 to 0.77 Bulk carrier 0. 78 to 0.84 Oil tanker 0. 80 to 0.86 The above table indicates considerable variation in the deadweight coef- ficient even in similar ships. The coefficient is affected by a number of factors such as: (1) The range in speeds and block coefficients: (2) The draught being specified at a value less than the maximum possible; ) The variety of propelling machinery types; (4) The change in construction methods; (5) The variation in outfit specification. DIMENSIONS An analysis of data of previous designs can give guidance as to how various dimensions are related. A typical example is the relationship between breadth (B) and length (L) which can be expressed as B = Ltt where n * 0.61 to 0, 64 for general cargo ships and for very large crude carriers (VLCC) n * 0.66 to 0. 68, BLOCK COEFFICIENT This coefficient, Cy, is the ratio of the volume of displacement in m? (V) to a given waterline and the volume of the circumscribing block of constant rectangular section having the same length (L) breadth (B) and draught (#) as the ship z. co = —+—_ LxBxa Thus, displacement in tonnes (seawater) = L x B x H X Cy x 1.025.Basic Design Parameters 15 The following expression indicates the maximum block coefficient that should be adopted for service conditions. Cy = 1.00—0.23V/VE for general cargo ships For special types such as tankers, Cp =1.00— 0.19 VE-¥72, For VLCC, Cy = 1,00 ~ 0.175 VE-1/2, Methods Method (1) An analysis of a large number of cargo ships shows that breadth, in general, varies within Bat +6to7.5m For tankers Bait 5to 6.5 m For VLCC Bak +12t015 mor B=£ —14m The foregoing relationship, in conjunction with the expression for the block coefficient, can be used to determine approximate dimensions for a design. There are several methods adopted to obtain ship dimensions. EXAMPLE 2.1 Estimate the dimensions for a dry cargo ship of 13, 000 tonnes dwt at a maximum draught of 8.0 m and with a service speed of 15 knots. Assume Cq = 0.67 and B= 1/9+6m Displacement = Be = 19, 400 tonnes Page? = LIL/o + 6) x 8.0 x Cy sothat Cy = 49,400 w L(L/9 + 6) x 8.0 1.02516 Elemenis of Ship Design also Cy = 1.00 ~ 0.23 V/VE_ (2) For = L(m) Cy) Coe) 140 0.784 0.708 150 0.696 0.719 160 0.622 0.728 By plotting these values of Cy!) and Cy@ on a base of L as in Fig. 2.4, L=147.5m B=£+6= 224m 9 Cy= 0.715 As a check, 147.5 x 22.4 x 8.0 x 0.715 = 1.025 = 19, 400 tonnes 147.5 Assuming an L/D value of 11, then depth, D = "5" = 13.4 m 0.80- leurs os 0. 140 abo 460 L, metres Fig.2.4 Example 2.1.Basic Design Parameters 17 METHOD (2) A plot of the product L x B ona base of deadweight/H has indicated, a useful relationship which can be defined by the expression Ln Ox Se where, for general cargo ships, C = 0.6 to 0.26 for tankers, C = 0.18 to 0, 16 for VLCC, C = 0.140 to 0.136 This simple expression makes possible a first approximation to hull dimen- sions for a given deadweight and draught. The length and breadth can be ascertained by a suitable choice of L/B or B/H ratio. Ship L/B B/H #/D General cargo ships 6.3t06.8 2.1to 2.8 0.66 to 0,74 Tankers 7.1to 7.25 2.4 to 2.6 0.76 to 0.78 VLCC 6.5 to 6.4 2.4 to 2.6 0.75 to 0.78 EXAMPLE 2.2 Estimate the dimensions for a dry cargo ship of total deadweight 11, 600 tonnes on a maximum draught of 8.25 m Assume L/B = 6.7 and H/D = 0.66 From 0.1 LB = 0.26 x Seadwelght = 0,26 x M600 ~ 366 The from L/B=6.7 L2 = 366 x 67 and L = 156.6 m B=— > =23.4m orfromB= 1/9+6 then B= 158-6 5 6 = 23,4m From H/D = 0.66 D=H/0.66 = 12.5m In this case from B= L" 23.418 Elements of Ship Design METHOD (3) Ship data is frequently recorded in the form of ratios ‘such as L/B,B/H or H/B and hence displacement (A) can be written as 4 = L/B x H/B x B3 x Cy X 1.025 tonnes EXAMPLE 2.3 For a displacement of 19, 400 tonnes, Cy = 0.715, L/B = 6.6 and H/B = 0. 356. Determine the length, breadth and draught of the ship. From the above, A= L/BX H/BX B3 x Cy x 1.025 19, 400 = 6.6 x 0.356 x BS x 0.715 x 1.025 Bs 19, 400 6 x 0.356 x 0.715 x 1.025 B= 22.4 m From L/B= 6.6 L= 147.5 m H/B = 0.356 H=8.0m Thus preliminary dimensions are: Length 147.5 m Breadth = 22.4 m Draught = 8.0m Bulk Carriers ‘The bulk carrier, in addition to meeting the basic requirements for dead- weight, speed and radius of action, should have large hatches, with the holds smooth-walled and self-trimming; this ensures speed in unloading with grabs and conveyors. There are additional minimum stability requirements for grain carriers. In an ore carrier it is desirable to have a high centre of gravity in order to reduce the metracentric height (GM), and thus provide an easy rolling period. Approximate relationships are as follows: Cp= 0.78 to 0,84 H=0.66D+0.9m B=L/9+6m Cy = 1.00— 0.17 V/VE- p= B=3.y 5 EXAMPLE 2.4 Estimate the dimensions for a bulk carrier of total deadweight 22, 000 tonnes with a service speed of 15 knots: assume C p = 0.80.a Let Basic Design Parameters 19 Displacement = crt nt 22) = 27, 500 tonnes L= 145 155 165 m B=L/9+6 22.1 23,2 24.3 m teen 3. Dea 1257 18.5 14.2m H=0.66D + 0.9 9.3 9.8 10.3 m Cp = 1.00 — 0.17 V~-/2 0. 788 0.795 0.80 a= 24,000 28,700 33, 800 tonnes lal 145 x 22.1 x 9.3 x 0.788 x 1.025 = 24, 000 tonnes 34000 32000} 300004 280004 260004 “5 135 165, Lymetres Fig. 2.5 Example 2.4. From Fig. 2.5, L=152.5m then B= 23.0 m20 Elements of Ship Design D=13.3m H=9.6m Cy = 0.794 Check: 152.5 x 23 x 9.6 x 0.794 x 1.025 = 27, 500 tonnes Figure 2.6 shows broadly the linear relationship between the principal dimensions. 40) 304 Breede arnt ruht, metres ko 180 20 260 Lipp» metres Fig.2.6 Linear Relationship. Tankers EXAMPLE 2.5 Estimate the dimensions for a tanker of total deadweight 130, 000 tonnes with a speed of 16 knots at a maximum draught of 16.75 m. From 0,122 = ¢ Seadwelght © srom table in method (2) = say 0.138 = 0,138 x 130.000 = 1070.Basic Design Parameters 21 Assume L/B from table in method (2) = 6.5 2 Then 0.1 2 = 1070 L = 264m B= 264/6.5= 40.7 m From H/D = 0.76 D = 18:15 = 22 m For a deadweight coefficient of 0. 86 Ae Ape = 151, 000 tonnes. Also A= LX BXKHX Cy X 1,025 151, 000 ae OE 000 se Co = Wea AO. TX 16,75 <1. 005 ~ 82 or Cy, * 1.00—0.175 V/L 16 _ 1.00 — 0.175 355 = Thus first approximation to dimensions gives Length = 264 m Breadth = 40.7m Depth = 22m On a draught of 16.75 m the displacement = 151, 000 tonnes with a block coefficient of 0. 62 In the discussion on a paper by Conn,* certain formulae derived from data of megaton tankers were suggested by Barras for such ships. The expres- sions were given in Imperial units. Similar values in S.I. units are approxi- mately 1 = 262 + 0,26 Seatwelght om 1.00 — 0.173 = 0,827 x B=L/5—12.5m H = 31.3 L/100 — 3. 13(1/100)? — 50 m D = 1.43H to 1.33H * Conn, F. J.C. 1970. "Mammoth Ships—Some Considerations in the Design, Construction and Operation of Very Large Vessels". Trans. [ESS, 113, p. 263.22 Elements of Ship Design EXAMPLE 2.6 Estimate the dimensions for a tanker of 220, 000 tonnes deadweight 220, 000 L = 262 + 0.26 x “TGg9— m = 262 + 57 = 319m B=L/5—12.5m 219 5 — 12,5 = $1.3 m H = 31.3 L/100 — 3.13 (L/100)2 — 50m = 100— 31.8— 50m =18.2m Container Ships The design procedure for a container ship is rather different from that adopted for other merchant ship types in that it is essential to have certain details of the cargo containers before the ship dimensions can be assessed ‘The containers are in general built to the International Standards Organisa- tion (ISO) requirements, Details of some containers are given below: External Dimensions (m) Module Length Width Height 1c 6.05 2.43 2.43 1B 9.12 2.43 2.43 1A 12.19 2.43 2.43 Weights (kg) and Capacities (m3) Module Gross Weight Useable Capacity 1c 20, 321 30.75 1B 25, 401 46.84 1A 30, 481 62.92 Ships that carry containers can range from the full container ship to the convertible container type, where some of the cargo space can also be so used, The commonly accepted type is a single purpose vessel where the containers are carried in vertical cells arranged in the holds. The cellsBasic Design Parameters 23 are formed by vertical steel angles arranged around each corner of the containers which are stacked one on top of another. These angles acting as guides extend from the tank top to the hatch coaming. Each vertical row of containers, determined by the four guides forms a cell and the cargo portion of a container ship consists of a number of these vertical cells. A very important factor in the design procedure for the container ship is the clearance between the containers and the cell guides, as well as the gaps between the guides themselves. Figures 2.7 and 2.8 show the cells in a cross-section and plan view. It is clear from these that there is a con- siderable loss of volume between the containers; the container ship has less volume available for cargo than a general cargo ship of the same dimen- sions. To regain a part of this loss in cargo volume, it is normal practice to carry containers on deck on top of the hatches. These deck containers may be three high; this is controlled by the stability characteristics of the ship under review. The deck containers are lashed in position to prevent movement while at sea and also to prevent racking of the containers. eu. Fig.2.7 Container Cell Guides. In order that the containers mayslide freely in the cells, there must be a clearance between the container and the guides. The average clearance is about 20 mm at each end and 12,5 mm at each side. As the hatch opening is normally from 80 to 85 per cent of the ship's breadth, longitudinal strength is provided by the fitting of wing tanks and the resulting fore and aft bulkhead. Adequate transverse strength is provided by a series of cross ties as shown in Fig. 2. 8.24 Elements of Ship Design Wing tank, port end starboard Fig.2.8 Container Cells. For preliminary design work it can be assumed that to make allowance for clearance and cross-ties the length required for each container is about 2+1.5)m where / = length of container Since the container cells must be in the most rectangular part of the ship, it is essential to avoid loss of space by the hull form that the propelling machinery be placed right aft. The space below deck forward of the con- tainer portion can be used for water ballast, oil fuel, general cargo. DIMENSIONS Length between perpendiculars (LBP) The LBP of the ship L,,, is the sum of the container portion, engine room, and portion forward. Thus Lpp = Le + Le + Ly where Le n container portion = (i + 1.5) where number of containers in the lengthBasic Design Parameters 25 Le = length of engine room and after peak tank Lg = length of fore peak tank and spaces forward of container length As a first approximation the length of the after peak tank can be taken as 0.035 x Lip. The length of the engine room (LER) from published data is given below. LBP Deadweight = Machinery Output LER 220m =: 22, 500 tonnes 29, 000 Py, 32.5 m 192m 19,600 tonnes 37, 500 P, 27 m 206m 27,000 tonnes 32,000 P, 33.5 m Length of fore peak tank can be taken as 0,05 Ly, and length of space forward of container length can be taken from ships already built. Breadth Containers have a standard width of 2.43 m, However, each container requires an allowance for clearance, guides, etc. of about 240 mm so that each container requires a width of 2.67 m. Thus the number 2 of cells located transversely in the ship require 2. 67” (metres). Since the width available for containers is about 80 per cent of the ship's breadth (8), then 0. 80B = 2.67 and B= 3.34n Depth A container ship is not a deadweight carrier and the service draught of the container ship is normally much less than is possible by the Statutory Rules. The depth (D) of the ship is in general controlled by the number of containers to be carried in the height. Thus D=N)H + Db where N; = number of tiers of containers in holds H = height of container (2.43 m) Dy = depth of double bottom EXAMPLE 2.7 Estimate the dimensions for a container ship to meet the following re- quirements: 1400 containers 6,05 x 2.43 x 2.43 m made up by 1000 in holds and 400 on deck26 Elements of Ship Design Service draught of 9.0 m Service speed of 23 knots Assume the containers are 7 high in each cell with 9 cells across the ship, Length Number of cells in length = 190 7x9 However, due to the shape of the ship forward and aft not all sets of cells will take 63 containers. This loss of space is about 10 per cent so that number of cells = 15.8 X 1.10 = 18. = 15.8 Each container requires a length of 6.05 + 1.5 = 7.55 m Hence, cargo length = 18 x 7.55 = 136m Aft peak tank = 10 Engine room = 35 Fore end space = 21 Fore peak tank = 13 Lpp = 215 m Breadth With 9 cells transversely Breadth = 3,34 9m 30 m Depth With 7 containers in depth and each container 2. 43 m in height: Depth for containers = 7 x 2.43 =17.0m Depth of double bottom =15m Depth, D =18.5m ‘Thus, a first approximation to dimensions gives: LENGTH = 215m BREADTH = 30m DEPTH = 18.5m Block Coefficient Assume = Cy = 1,00 — 0.23 VE~1/2 = 1,00— 0.23 3 v2i5- = 0.64Basic Design Parameters 27 ‘Then Displacement = 215 x 30 x 9.0 x 0.64 x 1,025 = 38, 000 tonnes HYDROSTATIC CURVES The displacement, tonnes per centimetre (TPC) and centres of buoyancy are calculated with some accuracy during the early design stages, to a series of equally spaced waterlines, This hydrostatic data is presented either in tabular form or as a set of curves as in Fig. 2.9. Such a presenta- tion is known as the hydrostatic curves, Item Displ. [Tonnes] KB{m] Moment (Tonne m] Main Hull 9070 3-98 36100 ‘Appendage 1310 0-67 878 Total Disp. = 10380 36978 36978 Centre of Buoyancy above base [KB] = ———- = 3-56 m 10380 4 Draught (metres) & ol Fig.2.9 Hydrostatic Curves. A rapid method of estimating the hydrostatic particulars over the complete range of draughts from the length, breadth, draught and load displacement of a design is given in Chapter 5 ‘The curve of displacement may not give the required accuracy at inter- mediate waterlines. To determine the displacement at an intermediate waterline the procedure can be as follows. To the nearest tabulated dis- placement is added or substracted the integral of the TPC curve between the tabulated waterline and the required waterline. EXAMPLE 2.8 The hydrostatic data for a ship gives the following:28 Elements of Ship Design Draught 1.25 8.00 8.75 m Displacement 15, 025. 16,776 18, 622 tonnes TPC 23.15 23.64 24.10 The TPC curve gives values of 23.71 and 23. 80 at draughts 8.16 and 8.32 m Draught TPC Simpsons function, f Multiplier 8.00 23.64 1 23. 64 8.16 BOL 94. 84 8.32 23.80 1 23.80 142. 28 100 A of addition = 142.28 x 4, x 0.16 x x 1.025 = 758, 8 tonnes 1. 025 ‘Then displacement at 8.32 m draught = 16,776 + 759 = 17, 535 tonnes A reasonably accurate answer in this instance could be obtained by assum- ing the TPC constant at its 8, 16m value linearly interpolated between the two top waterplanes, thus 23,644 0-32 x 0,46 = 28.84 Then A= 16,776 +32 x 23.84 = 17,536 tonnes DISPLACEMENT AT A TRIMMED WATERLINE The trimmed waterline results from the fact that the draughts forward and aft are not identical, In general, the displacement calculation is made for a series of waterlines parallel to the base line and the displacement curve is drawn using this information. In practice, when it is necessary to obtain the displacement of a ship from a curveor displacement scale, the draughts are seldom the same forward and aft and, consequently, the condition is not the same as the calculation and a correction must be made. It is necessary to have a horizontal waterline enclosing the same displace- ment as the actual waterline, This is a waterline passing through the centre of flotation (CF); it is usual to accept the CF of the mean draught waterline which is Hy +H, aBasic Design Parameters 29 a = ie 1 | Fig. 2.10 Displacement to a Trimmed Waterline. where H = dravght aft Hy, = draught forward For the displacement from the curve the true mean draught is the arithn tic mean draught plus h, where k is the depth of the correcting layer between parallel waterlines W’L’ and W,L, From Fig. 2. 10 where d = distance of CF on W'L' from amidships a ld so that hk = 7 EXAMPLE 2,9 For a ship of length 137 m at an even keel draught of 8.0m, the CF is 2m abaft amidships. The measured draughts are 8.52 m aft and 7.48 m for- ward. Determine the true mean draught and the correction to the displace- ment at the measured mean draught. Measured mean draught = H,- H y= 8.52 — 7.48 = 1.04 m = trim () td _ 1,04 x 2.0 Depth of correcting layer h =< = “p> = 0.0152 m= 1.52 em True mean draught = 8.0 + 0.015 = 8.015 m1 Elements of Ship Design At TPC of 23. 64, the error by reading off the displacement curve or scale at the measured mean draught = 23,64 x 1,52 = 36 tonnes Variation of Block Coefficient (Cy) with Draught (#) 0A = AOH x 1,025 da _ SF = LBCy X 1.025 also A= LBHCy * 1,025 in sea water da dH From (1) and (2) A) 1,025 ia(cy +P (2) a dp Cy = Cy + Ha dy | Co aoc H sosuming from analysis of ship data that Cy = Cy + 0.1 dCy Cp +0.1—Cy dH ~ H 1 : "= qpjp = the change in Cy per metre of draught EXAMPLE 2.10 If Cy = 0.72 at a draught H = 7.32 m ‘Then the change in Cy per metre of draught = wer = 0.0137 Thus, Cy at, say, 6.10 m draught 72 — (1, 22 x 0. 0137) }. 703. ‘An expression due to Riddlesworth gives the displacement (4) at any draught in terms of the draught and block coefficient at any known position Ho\ Ws A= LBH X 1.025 [1 —(1— Cy) (47, EXAMPLE 2, 11 For a ship of block coefficient 0.74 at 8. 54 m draught the coefficient at 6. 10 m draught becomesBasic Design Parameters ss 1 10.74) ($54) = 1-— 0.26 x 1,12 = 0.709 and the corresponding displacement = LBH x 1.025 x 0.709 tonnesChapter 3 Lightship Weight and Power Estimation LIGHT SHIP WEIGHT The estimation of the light ship weight is one of considerable importance in the initial stages of ship design due to its bearing on the displacement and cost estimation. There are several methods of estimating the quantities involved in the light ship weight, and as the time available for the preparation of the design is frequently rather limited, it is essential that the methods adopted be sound, flexible and rapid. LIGHT WEIGHT This is the ship complete and ready for sea but no fuel, fresh water, feed water, stoves, ballast, cargo and passengers on board. It is the hull weight plus the propelling machinery weight. ‘A broad subdivision of the hull weight can be made by two groups, namely steel and wood and outfit; thus Light Ship Weight = S + WO + M where S = weight of steel built into the ship with hull forgings and castings, weight of accommodation and all equipment, M = weight of propelling machinery. STEEL WEIGHT The steel weight S is of primary importance as it forms the main part of the hull weight and may indeed be more than 85 per cent of the light ship weight. The Steel weight actually built into the ship is known as the net steel. To produce the finished ship a considerable greater weight of steel is used and is known as the invoiced weight. This invoiced weight represents the steel purchased and is very much the concern of the cost estimator. The difference between the invoiced weight and the net steel weight is the serap made up of cuttings from sides and ends of plates, punchings from manholes, drainholes, ete. The scrap percentage is based on the invoiced weight and may be about 8 per cent.34 Elements of Ship Design Recorded data for ships already built constitutes the backbone of most estimating methods and such data for weights should clearly define what is included and excluded in the weight. Methods of Estimation Several methods are in use to estimate the hull steel weight and three of these are based on proportioning from a basis ship, weight per metre length and a difference method. Proportion Initially, this method estimated the steel weight by using the cubic number obtained from the product of length, breadth and depth. So that steel weight = C 2? where C is a coefficient obtained by dividing the steel weight of a basis ship by its cubic number. If the use of the cubic number is confined to a narrow range of length, breadth and depth, then reasonable results are possible. Regard must, of course, be paid to differences in structural arrangement. A superior method is to obtain proportionate dimensions for the new design, assess the steel weight on the ratio of the lengths cubed and then correct for breadth and depth and adjust for differences in structural lay-out. Thus, let W, tonnes be the steel weight for a basis ship 145 m x 23 m x 12,5 m and the steel weight is required for a similar type ship 155 m 23m x 13 m. Proportionate dimensions are 155 m X 24,5 mx 13.4 m. 3. Thus, steel weight = W. [33] with reductions for 0.5 m in breadth and 0. 4 m in depth, together with adjustment for differences in design. The corrections for breadth and depth are given under the Differences method Weight per Metre Length In this the weight for metre length in way of a frame is calculated from the midship sections of both the basis and proposed design. The structure dealt with is taken to the uppermost continuous deck but longitudinal material, which is not continuous, is exeluded. The weight per metre of a dry cargo ship of length 135 m obtained in the above manner was 12.6 tonnes. Let steel weight for basis ship = W, and the LBP = L Weight per metre length amidships of basis = w Weight per metre length amidships of proposal = 1, and LBP = L, Then corresponding weight of proposal will be approximatelyLightship Weight and Power Estimation 35 The method assumes that the ships have proportionate sheer, extent of decks, etc. Corrections must be made for this and for differences in structural arrangements Differences This is a reliable method since it must be based on a ship already built and for which the data relating to steel weights are available. Fundamentally, the procedure is simply an addition to or deduction from the basis vessel for all the differences between the two ships. The method relies on data relating to weight per metre of length, breadth and depth, together with rates for superstructure decks, deckhouses, bulkheads, form, ete. The correction for dimensions is based on the assumption that of the steel weight 85 per cent is affected by length, 55 per cent by breadth and 30 per cent by depth. Thus, for a ship 125 m x 17.2 m, with a steel weight of 2480 tonnes, the rate per metre of length = 2480 x ae =16..9itonnes breadth = 2480 x 9-58 — 79.3 tonnes 17.2 0.30 depth = 2480 x —— = 74,4 tonnes 11.3 The procedure by this method for the steel weight for a proposed design is as follows: Basis dimensions 125 by 17.2 by 11.3m Proposed design 130 by 18.0 by 12.0m Difference +5 +0.8 +0.7 Rate per metre 16.9 79.3 74.4 +84 +63 +52 = + 199 tonnes Adjustments must be made for differences in design and this is accomp- lished by using rates per metre length or per square metre such as L=120m 150 m Poop 2.6tons/m 3.1 tons/m Bridge 2.8tons/m 3.9 tons/m Forecastle 3.0 tons/m 3.7 tons/m36 Elements of Ship Design Deeks inside hull 120 kg/m? Deckhouses side and ends 78 kg/m? Casings 68 kg/m? Tunnel 97 kg/m? House tops 58 kg/m? Bridge front 98 kg/m? Tankers An approximate formula for the steel weight of large tankers is given by Sato, * Co_)% 4 108 ws =|. |? |s.11 29-8 B/p + 2.56 22(B + Dp] EXAMPLE Estimate the steel weight for a tanker of length 265 m breadth 41.25 m, depth 22 m and block coefficient 0.80 (0. 80) =) * fs. 11 * 2653- 3x B28 = 105 Wy = ( + 2.56 x 2652 (41,25 + 2) 5.11 x 991.9 x 105 x 1.87 + 2.56 x 70, 210 x 3999 tonnes Ws = 9450 + 7200 tonnes = 16, 650 tonnes Bulk Carriers Murrayf gave a formula for the net steel weight of bulk carriers between 75 and 225 m in length not designed for the ore trade. This formula modified for the metric system takes for form We = 26.6 x 10-311-65 (B + D+ H/2) (0.5 Cy + 0.4/0.8 EXAMPLE Estimate the steel weight for a bulk carrier of length 150 m breadth 22.8 m, depth 13.0 m, draught 9.5 m and block coefficient 0.80. 150'-65 (22.8 + 13.0 + 4.75) ( 103 0.8 8 + 0.4) W, = 26.6 x * Sato, $.1967. "Effect of Principal Dimensions on Weight and Cost of Large Ships". SNAME, Paper; New York Metropolitan Section { Murray, J.M. 1965. "Large Bulk Carriers". Trans. /ESS, 108, 22 pp.Lightship Weight and Power Estimation 37 X_ 3.895 x 4 0.8 tonnes = 4200 tonnes. WOOD AND OUTFIT ‘The weight of the wood and outfit (W and O) in the hull weight comprises all items except the net steel and hull castings and forgings. It is frequently assumed that the wood and outfit weight varies as the ratio of the product L x B, For example - B W and O Basis 137 m x 19.5 weight = 970 tonnes Proposal 153 m x 21.2 W and 0 for proposal = 970 253 * 21-2 _ 1189 tonnes 137 x 19.5 For a cargo ship with no unusual features, an approximation to the wood and outfit weight in tonnes is given by 36.22%8 100 For a ship with special features, the weight of such items should be deducted from the basis before the proportion is made and then the weight of special features should be added. MACHINERY WEIGHT To estimate propelling machinery weight it is necessary to know the approximate power required. This can be estimated with reasonable accuracy in a number of ways. Method (1) As a first approximation to the power for a ship, the so called 2 method affords a rapid estimate of power. where A = displacement V = speed in knots P = power The values of the coefficient A, should be assesed from basic ship data.38 Elements of Ship Design A great deal of information is available in Imperial units and a preliminary design formula for A, using such units, is given by where L is in feet V is in knots The value of Ac in Imperial units varies from 260 to 450 and gives a value of P in shaft horsepower. The value of A, in metric units varies from 350 to 600, giving values of P in kilowatts, i.e. where 1 is in metres V is in knots EXAMPLE For a ship of length 150 m, displacement 18, 400 tonnes, speed 16 knots and a brake power of 5100 kW, then Ae = 18, 400%, 168 = 980 or Ac= ao(Vr + 332) L in metres - y V in knots = 26 x 21.6 = 560 Method (2) An empirical type formula such as proposed by Watson* may also be used. : This formula, slightly modified, is as follows for Imperial units 42/3 V3 (40 — L/200 + 1.44 — 12C}) Shait hi = wae 15,000—N 14/2 iisplacement in tons peed in knots ‘ev/min L = LBP in feet Cp = block coefficient * In discussion to Moor, D.I. and Small, V. F. 1960. Trans. RINA,102, p. 269Lightship Weight and Power Estimation 39 This formula includes an allowance of 3 per cent for shaft losses. Addi- tional allowances must be made for twin screw bossings or similar appendages and when V is service speed, an allowance for weather and fouling must be added. Also 0.735 A2/3 V3 (40 — L/61 + 1,44 — 12 Cp) Power in kW = ——@—@—___________—— 15, 000 — 1.81 N VL where A = displacement in tonnes L = LBP in metres EXAMPLE For a ship of length 490 ft, displacement 19, 880 tons, block coefficient 0.70, speed 16 knots and 100 rev/min 2/3 V3 (40 — L/200 + 1.44 — 12 Cy) 15,000 — N YZ Shaft horsepower = — 134 x 4096 (40 — 2.45 + 1.44 — 8.4) 15, 000 — 100 v490 — 734 x 4096 x 30.6 12, 790 7200 Also a . 0.735 42/3 V3 (40 — L/61 + 1.44 Power in kW = 15, 000 — 1.81 N VL 4 L 20, 200 tonnes 150 m _ 0,735 x 742 x 4096 x 30.6 12, 783, = 5340 kw. All such estimates should be replaced by more accurate assessments as soon as possible. The weight of the propelling machinery can be estimated as follows. Pshp Machinery weight = ri + 200 tonnes (Diesel) P. Machinery weight = —°“? + 280 tonnes (Turbine) 1740 Elements of Ship Design For diesel machinery, the P, used should be the normal unsupercharged power which can be taken as 0. 835 of the required service shaft horse- power. EXAMPLE From the above example P, = 7200 Service Ps = 7200 x 1.30 = 9350 Corresponding unsupercharged P, = 9350 x 0.835 = 7800 r Ps Machinery weight = To + 200 = 980 tonnes Method (3) In a paper by Silverleaf and Dawson*,a simple method is given of predicting the service power for large tankers and bulk carriers. This takes account of the vessel's service speed (Vs) relative to the boundary speed (Vj). Using the ratio V./Vg, this boundary speed for metric purposes can be defined by the equation Vv; x! = 3.06 - 2.52 Cy VL From the value of V,/Vj,a hydrodynamic transport efficiency factor (H Tp) can be read from a straight line graph (Fig. 3.1) and the service delivered power P, can then be determined: Assuming a transmission efficiency of 98 per cent, the P, for service conditions can be assessed and a first approximation of the propelling machinery weight can be made from the undernoted equations applicable to powers above P, of 12,500 Diesel installation Weight = P, /30 + 1000 tonnes * Silverleaf, A. and Dawson, J. 1966 "Hydrodynamic Design of Merchant Ships for High Speed Operation". Trans. RINA, 109, P. 167Lightship Weight and Power Estimation 100 804 | ay 'o os7| 20 . oe % 12 My Fig.3.1 Efficiency Factor. Turbine installation Weight = P, /55 + 950 tonnes EXAMPLE Estimate the weight of propelling machinery (diesel) for a ship of length 265 m, displacement 153, 700 tonnes, block coefficient 0.815 and speed 16 knots. Yo 2 = 3.06 - 2.52 Cy vL . Vy = 16.3 (3.06 - 2.05) = 16.3 x 1.01 = 16. 46 knots, Vs H Tp, = 263 - 189,25 — Vo = 263 - 189,25 x 18 _ _ 19,5 16.46 4142 Elements of Ship Design 4Vs _ 153,700 x 16 Ra a PEO HT, 79.5 ene e80 Ps = 30, 930 x 1,02 = 31,550 Weight of propelling machinery = 5,30 + 1000 = 2050 tonnes Fig. 3.1 Ys__16 0.97 Vp 16.46 From Fig. 3.1, AY, = = 19.5 , Py = LE OO X14 = 30,930 79.5Chapter 4 Estimation of Cargo Capacity CAPACITY As stated previously, one of the fundamental requirements in the design of a cargo ship is cargo capacity. Ability to up-lift the specified deadweight is all important and it follows that the space required for the deadweight must be provided. The shipowner is conversant with the stowage rates—generally expressed as so many cubic metres per tonne (m3/tonne)-of the various types of cargo and frequently specifies the minimum volume of cargo space to be provided. Cargo capacities are, in general, expressed as either grain or bale capacity. Grain Capacity This is measured to top of beams, or longitudinals inside shell plating and top of double bottom, ceiling or deck. It is the moulded volume, less the volume of all obstructions such as frames, beams, girders, pillars, venti- lators, ete. The deduction is about 1 per cent of the moulded volume. Bale Capacity This is measured to the underside of beams or longitudinals, inside frames or sparring, and top of double bottom, ceiling or deck. The bale measure- ment is generally about 10 per cent less than the corresponding grain measurement. It is important to be able to estimate cargo capacity fairly accurately in the early stages of a ship design. The cargo capacity can be approximated with considerable accuracy by a method involving data from a basis ship. The factors that have a direct bearing on capacity are depth of hold, block coefficient, sheer, camber, length of machinery space and extent of oil fuel bunkers. CAPACITY ESTIMATION A first approximation to the total grain capacity of a proposed design can be obtained from the following expression: Total capacity = L x BX De X Cy where L = Length between perpendiculars B= Breadth moulded44 Elements of Ship Design De = Depth moulded + 4% Camber + 1% (Sheer forward + sheer aft)— (depth of double bottom + tank top ceiling) Ch = Block coefficient at 85 per cent depth moulded. This can be derived as follows: Change in C) per metre of draught = aw where H is the load draught. HH The volume so estimated is the total cargo and non-cargo spaces between peak bulkheads, above tank top and below uppermost continuous deck. EXAMPLE 4.1 Estimate the grain capacity of a ship of length 120 m breadth 19 m, depth 9.5 m draught, 7. 35 m block coefficient 0.72; ¥, (sheer forward + sheer aft) = 0.65 m; 12 camber = 0.18 m; double bottom depth + ceiling = 1.07 m. Do = 9.5 + 0.8 + 0.65 - 1.07 m 9.26 m 85 per cent D = 0.85 x 9.5 = 8.08 m; 8.08 — 7.35 =0.73 m + 10 x 7.35 = 0.72 + 0.0099 = 0.73 120 x 19 x 9.26 x 0.73 m3 = 15, 400 m3 Cy at 8.08 = 0.72 + 0.73 x Volume This has to be adjusted for machinery space, etc. as indicated below. Deductions: Machinery space and tunnel 2100 Cross bunker _150 2250 Additions: Hatches _150 Total Deduction 2100 m3 Volume as estimated = 15,400 m3 Deductions = 2100 Total Grain 13, 300 Deduction for bale (10 per cent. 1330 Total Bale 11,970 m3Estimation of Cargo Capacity 45 The cargo capacity for a new design can be approximated with reasonable accuracy by a method involving data from a basis ship as described below. For a basis ship, add the volume of all non-cargo spaces below the deck (such as machinery space, tunnel, bunkers, etc.) to the total grain capacity (excluding hatchways) above the tank top and below the uppermost con- tinuous deck. This gives the total volume between peak bulkheads of the basis ship (Fig. 4.1). The volume so obtained is multiplied by the ratio of the lengths between perpendicular, breadths moulded, depths of hold corrected for sheer and camber, and block coefficient at, say, 85 per cent of the moulded depth to- uppermost continuous deck. From this volume is deducted that of the machinery space and all non- cargo spaces of the new design; the volume of any erections used for cargo and hatchways is added to obtain the total grain capacity for the proposed design. Table 4.1 Basis Proposed design (m) (m) Length between perpendiculars (LBP), Lp» 135.0 125 Breadth moulded, B 20.5 20 Depth moulded, D diene 41,0 Sheer forward + sheer aft 0.70 0.64 6 Half Camber 0.22 11.86 Double bottom I. Depth of hold corrected, D,. 1.41 10.66 Cp at 85 depth moulded 0.757 0.745 The procedure for a specific ship is shown in Table 4.1. From this, the total grain volume of basis above tank top, below uppermost continuous deck and between peak bulkheads = 24, 100 m3, ‘The corresponding volume for the proposed design = 24, 100 x 225 20. 4g 10.66 0.745 sag 135 20.5 11.41 0.787 = 20,000 m?46 Elements of Ship Design To determine the cargo capacities for the proposed design adjustments must be made for machinery space, tunnel, non-cargo spaces and hatchways as indicated previously. Fig.4.1 Estimation of Total Volume. Capacity—Bulk Carrier Figure 4.2 shows a typical midship section of a bulk carrier. The hatch width is generally about half the ship's breadth and the tank top width equal to the hatch width, plus an overlap of 2.5 to 3.5 m on each side. The bilge radius is about (0.024 BH)1/2 m. ‘The volume of the holds can be estimated from the total volume over length of holds, under deck and above the tank top, reduced by volume of topside tanks and side hoppers. The estimated total volume = Ly x BX De x Cp x 1.18 where Lj, = length of holds B = breadth moulded De = depth moulded + % camber - depth of double bottom Cp = block coefficient at 85 per cent of the depth moulded. fica ajar I Tank top vidths-hatenwith pemastestesenmi Fig.4.2 Midship Seetion—Bulk Carrier.Estimation of Cargo Capacity 47 Fig.4.3 Topside Tank Figure 4.3 shows the cross section of a typical topside tank and if the following be assumed the cross sectional area of topside tank at amidships can be obtained. Assume: depth of hatch side girder shelf plate width topside tank angle 9 Then Cross sectional area in m2 = [bb + 0.9) (bd tan 6 + 0.75) - (14 x bb tan 6] 0.93 where by = B= hatch width _9 9 2 Figure 4.4 shows the side hopper and hopper side angle is assumed at 40°, whence the cross sectional area = 14 (B/2 -w) (B/2-w) tané Hatch -— Width, w= Hatch» ith, 5 Fig.4.4 Side Hopper.48 Elements of Ship Design EXAMPLE 4.2 The dimensions for a proposed 60, 000 tonne deadweight bulk carrier have been estimated as follows: LBP Ly Breadth moulded, B 31.5m Depth Moulded, D 18.0 m Block coefficient (Cy) at 0.85 depth moulded = 0. 835 Assume that the hatchway width is 50 per cent of ship's breadth and that the topside tanks and side hopper tanks are as shown in Figs. 4.3 and 4. 4. = 235m To obtain the length of hold (Z,), it is necessary to assess the length of fore peak tank, aft peak tank and machinery space. An examination of current practice shows that the after peak tank is about 3.5 per cent of the length; the collision bulkhead must by the statutory regulations be placed not less than 5 per cent of the LBP abaft the forward perpendicular (F.P.). The length of engine room varies with the type and power of the propelling unit and for the case under consideration, by inspection of current practice can be taken as 30 m as in Table 4.2. Table 4.2 Bulk Carriers—Length of Engine Room Deadweight = Machinery Legp(m) (tonnes) Output (P,) 143 15, 000 7, 200 22.8 150 21, 900 9, 600 23.25 176 26, 250 8,640 24.4 192 40, 000 12, 600 24.4 233 55, 500 15, 000 30.2 242 68, 000 16, 800 28.0 Length of aft peak tank = 0.035 Lys, Length of fore peak tank ~ 0.05 to 0.07 Lo» So that Length of fore peak = 0.05 £= 11.75 m Aft peak = 0.035 L = 8.25 Machinery space =30..00 Lq 50.00.mLength of holds Ln=Lop- La = 235 - 50=185 m D 4% Camber Total Depth of double bottom De Estimation of Cargo Capacity 49 =16.3m Total volume in hold length, under deck and above tank top = LyX BX Dp X Cy X 1.18 = 185 x 31.5 « 16.3 x 0.835 x 1.18 = 93, 500 m3 Volume of topside tanks = 31.5 - 15.75 2 bb bb tan + 0.75 = 4.79 m -6.8= 7.0m. 1pbb x bb tan 6 = 3.5 x 4.04 = 14.1 Cross sectional area = (7.9 x 4.79 ~ 14.1) 0.93 (37.8 ~ 14.1) 0.93 = 22 m2 Volume of topside tanks = 185 x 22 x 0.93 x 2 for both sides = 7560 m3 Volume of side hoppers hatch width 2 w + overlap = 7,87 + (say) 2.5 = 10.4m Bow = 5.35 m[2 a] tana= 4.48 m50 Elements of Ship Design Cross sectional area Uy x 5.35% 4. 48 0 = 12 m? Volume of side hoppers 185 x 12 x 0.93 x 2 for both sides = 4140 m3 Total volume under deck = 93, 500 Deductions: Topside tanks = 7560 m3 Side hoppers = 4140 = 11,700 Cargo capacity = 81,800 m3 Capacity—Tankers The total volume over the cargo length may be estimated by the following expression: Volume = 1) X BX DX Cy x 1.15 m3 where L; B length over cargo tanks breadth of ship moulded depth of ship moulded Cp = block coefficient at 85 per cent of D EXAMPLE 4.3 For the tanker of Example 2.5, estimate the cargo volume available making an allowance of 2 per cent for expansion and water ballast within the cargo range of 15, 000 m3 Total volume = Ly X BX Dx Cy x 1.15 From data Length of fore peak tank = 10m deep tanks forward = 10m Engine room = 3lm Aft peak 10m 61 Lop = 264 Length for cargo 203 mEstimation of Cargo Capacity 51 Total volume in cargo length = 203 x 40.7 x 22 x 0.83 x 1.15 = 173, 000 m? After deduction of WB = 158, 000 m? After deduction of 2 per cent = 154,840 m? ‘Thus, at 1.45 m3/tonne 71 per cent of the displacement. 106, 500 tonnes of oil cargo, which is aboutChapter 5 Hydrostatic Particulars and Stability ESTIMATION OF HYDROSTATIC PARTICULARS In the early stages of a design it is frequently desired to know the displace- ment and the values of KB, BM ,, BM,, TPC and MCT at intermediate draughts—the hydrostatic particulars—as well as to know the approximate draught for a particular displacement. A method for such a purpose is given later in this Chapter (see p. 55) However, before proceeding to this, there are in the definition of hull geometry, certain coefficients which are guides to the fulness or slimness of the hull and which are useful criteria with which to compare one ship with another. These are now listed. Block Coefficients (Cj) ‘The coefficient as defined in Chapter 2 is the ratio of the volume of dis- placement (V) and the volume of the circumscribing block of constant rectan- gular section having the same length, breadth and draught as the ship, (y= TxREH As the mass density of sea water is 1025 kg/m3 and 1000 kg = 1 tonne. Displacement in tonnes in sea water = L x 3 X H X Cp X 1.025. The value of Cy varies with the type of ship: General cargo ships Cz = 0.65 to 0.75 Large tankers Cp = 0.75 to 0. 82 and above. Prismatic Coefficient (C,) The ratio of the volume of displacement of the ship to the volume of the circumscribing block having a constant section equal to the immersed midship section of the ship (A,,,) and the length (L) of the ship: v O=— pS LXAn Midship Area Coefficient (C,),) The ratio of the immersed area of the midship section to the area of the circumscribing rectangle having a breadth equal to that of the ship and depth equal to the draught: Am Cy =54 Elements of Ship Design The C values range from about 0.85 to 0, 98. It should be noted that Cy = Cp X C;,,. Waterplane Area Coefficient (C,)) The ratio of the area of the waterplane (A,,) to the area of the circumscrib- ing rectangle having a length equal to that of the ship and a breadth equal to that of the ship: Aw Co = TE The range of values is from about 0.70 to 0. 90. Vertical Prismatic Coefficient (Cpu) The ratio of the immersed volume to the area of the load waterplane multi- plied by the mean draught: Vv Cc 6-2 oe pe = Ay XH cr The vertical prismatic indicates the vertical distribution of the displace- ment, or = ESTIMATION OF HYDROSTATIC PARTICULARS The tonnes per centimetre of immersion (TPC) The TPC of a waterplane is the load required to effect a change in the mean draught at that waterline of 1 em. Thus, TPC = area of waterplane (m?) x +25 em X 1,025 tonnes sea water). Area of waterplane, Ay = L x BX Cy Cw An approximation to the value of C,, is given by Cy = Cy +01; Cy = 0.33 + 0.66C, BM, An approximate formula for the longitudinal BM, is 2 BM, = 0.075 A= BV where A, = area of waterplane in m?. It should be noted that the longitudinal BM is generally greater than the length (L) of the ship.Hydrostatic Particulars and Stability 55 Moment to change Trim The moment to change trim by 1 cm is abbreviated as MCT 1 cm and approximations to this can be obtained from the following 2 MCT 1cem=7 (Trey Also, in general terms, the value of BM, for a cargo ship is about 1.2L. AXGML _AX1.2L A TOOL ~ 100L 30 The length usually used in these expressions is the LBP (Lpp). Since MCT 1 cm= tonnes m. Method of Estimation The method given below shows how the various hydrostatic particulars over a range of draughts may be estimated from the length, breadth, draught and load displacement of the design. It is first necessary to obtain the displacement. It can be shown that A HCW! Sy A (ayr* 4a and @ = (4) Bo Gis) Ho \Bo where A, is the displacement at the load draught H, A is the displacement at some other draught 1 ca o Table 5.1 gives values of fe ° tor various fractions of the load oO draught and varying values of C)/Cy. Table 5, 1* Fractions C,/Cp of load a draught 110 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.20 1.0 1.00 1,00 1.00 1,00 1.00 1.00 0.9 0.890 0.889 0.887 0.885 0,883 0.881 0.8 0.783 0.779 «0.775 «0.772 «0.769 0.766 0.7 0.675 0.670 0.666 0.661 0.657 0.652 0.6 0.570 0,565 0.559 0.553 0.548 0. 542 0.5 0.467 0.460 0.454 0,448 0.442 0.435 0.4 0.365 0.358 0.352 0.346 0.339 0.333 *Tables 5.1 to 5.4 are taken from the author's "Merchant Ship Design’ by courtesy of Hutchinsons Educational Ltd.56 Elements of Ship Design The block coefficient must now be determined from cy es = (# i 5, 0 I \Cu! o)-2 Table 5.2 gives values of (ea) Hg mediate draughts can be readily obtained. . From these the Cp at inter- Table 5.2 Fractions C,y/Cy—1 of loan draught 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 1.0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.9 0.990 0.988 0.986 0.983 0.981 0.979 0.8 0.978 0.974 0.970 0.965 0.961 0.956 0.7 0.965 0.958 0.951 0.945 0.938 0.931 0.6 0.950 0.941 0.931 0.922 0.912 0.903 0.5 0.933 0.920 0.908 0.895 0.883 0.871 0,4 0.912 0.896 0.880 0.864 0.848 0.833 From this we can then determine the waterplane area coefficient, C,, from ne Gt ei Go, Ho The Cy at intermediate draughts can be determined from the values given in Table 5. 2 TONNES PER CENTIMETRE Thus, TPC = 2% x 1.025 ws, TPC = iy X 1. The TPC can be obtained from the area of the waterplane, A,, and also TPC varies directly with 1 w/o HEIGHT OF CENTRE OF BUOYANCY ABOVE KEEL (KB) The value of KB can be obtained from G Gy + Cp KB=HHydrostatic Particulars and Stability 57 Once the Cy, and Cy, at the load draught are known, the value of KB at any draught is found by multiplying that draught by TRANSVERSE, BM, The value of BM, is obtained from iB? BM, = 12> Values of the coefficient i are given in Table 5,3 Table 5.3 C 0.5 0.021 0.55 0.026 0.60 0.031 0.65 0.36 Cw 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 LONGITUDINAL, BM, mL HC Values of coefficient i 0. 042 0. 048 0.055 0. 061 Values of coefficients m are given in Table 5. 4. Table 5.4 Gy m 0.5 0.021 0.55 0.024 0.60 0.028 0.65 0.032 MCT 1 cm An approximation is given by MCT 1 cm = 4 and BM, have already been calculated. Cw 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 Ax BM, TOOL Values of coefficient » m 0. 036 0.042 0. 048 0. 055 es w + Oy Gy 4 0,90 0.069 0.95 0.076 1.0 0.083 Cy — m 0.90 0.063 0.95 0.072 1.0 0.08358 Elements of Ship Design WORKED EXAMPLE The foregoing method is now applied to the calculation of the hydrostatic particulars for a specific ship of the following dimensions: Length = 140.0m Displacement 14, 820 tonnes Breadth = 18.7m Block Coefficient = 0.724 Draught = 7.65 m The full results are summarised in Table 5. 5 and are obtained for the various parameters as described on page 59. Assume Cy = Cy + 0.1, then Cw _ 0.824 a 0.724 = 1.14 FOR THE DISPLACEMENT ‘The displacement multipliers are given in Table 5,1 at “w te tM and are shown in column 3 of Table 5.5. The displacements are obtained by multiplying the load displacement at 7.65 m draught by these multi- pliers. FOR Cy and Cy, ‘The multipliers for these are given in Table 5,2 at Cw Che 1=0.14. The Cy and C,, for the various draughts are obtained by mulitplying the load Cy and Cy, by these values. FOR TPC The TPC at the load draught = 140 x 18.7 x 0.824 x iw x 1,025 = 22, The multipliers for other draughts are given in column 5. FOR KB The KB f draught (H) a e KB for any draug =H Cy + Cy ie 0g =H orgga + 0, 7nd = 9.5534. FOR THE TRANSVERSE M.I. COEFFICIENTS (7) These are given in Table 5,3 and listed in Column 10.Table 5.5 Summary of results for a ship 140m by 18.'7m by 7. 65m draught; displacement = 14820 tonnes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 i 12 13 14 Multipliers Longi- Multiplier for Transverse tudinal for Displace- Cy ML BM; aL ‘BM, or Draught Draught Displace- ment. ice KB Coefficient >™r — Coefticient it 1em Fraction (m) ment (tonnes) TPC Cy Cy TPC (m) @ (m) m (m) (tonnes m) ro 7.65.10 e200 0.724 0.824 22 4.07 0.058 3.66 0.051 180 190 0.9 «© «6.890.887 13140 0.986 O14 O81? 21.7 3.67 0.055 3.980.089 195183 0.8 6.120.775 11480 0.970.702 «0.799 1.3 3.26 0.055 4.460. 088 219 180 0.7 0,36 0.666 «= «9870.91 0.689 0.784 20.9 2.85 0.053 5.02 0.016 24172 0.6 4,59 0.559 8280 0.931 0.674 0.767 «20.5 2.44 0.050 5.66 0,044 279 165 0.5 9.830.454 6730S«0.808 0.670.748 20.0 2.04 0.018 «=. 670.042 327187 0.352, 5220 0.880 0.637 0.725 «19.4 1.63 0.045 8.06 0.039 392 146 04 3.06 APLGNIS pun sammonjang 2yvjSoapcy 660 Elements of Ship Design BMy= Foy and the values are given in Column 11 FOR THE LONGITUDINAL MI COEFFICIENTS (/) These are given in Table 5.4 and shown in Column 12. FOR THE LONGITUDINAL BM,, _ mL Cy and the values are given in Column 13, BM, FOR MCT 1 CM MCT 1em~ 4% BM, TOOL Values for 4 and BM, are given in Columns 4 and 13, respectively and the MCT 1 cm values are shown in Column 14. HYDROSTATIC CURVES Figure 5.1 shows the Hydrostatic Curves for the ship derived from the above calculations. 0 T Draught, metres T Fig.5.1 Hydrostatic Curves from Table 5. 5, Estimation of Displacement and Draught As stated previously, it can be shown that Cy/c, 2b \Oo! Cw w=H (4)Hydrostatic Particulars and Stability 61 EXAMPLE A ship in the load condition has a displacement of 16, 420 tonnes, draught 7.4 m, Cp = 0.66, Cy = 0.787. Estimate the draught for a displacement of 8800 tonnes. A \S0/ Sw prom =H (2) 7 8800 0.66/0-767 —- (2) = 7.4 (0, 536)0.86 7.4 x 0.5849 =4,33m STABILITY An important aspect of ship design is that of stability; it affects not only the safety of the ship at sea, but also has direct bearing on the operating characteristics of the ship and the comfort of the passengers and crew. The problem of ship stability has always been of interest to ship designers and seafarers. To examine the stability of ship is of prime importance since it concerns not only the designers but also the operators and regulatory bodies charged with the duty of ensuring safety of life at sea. The Inter- Governmental Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO) was indeed formed with the function of facilitating co-operation between nation mem- bers on maritime topics. Fig.5.2 Heeling Forces.62 Elements of Ship Design There are two forces, acting in opposite directions, which effect the stability of a ship. One is the weight of the ship acting downwards through the centre of gravity (G), the other is the buoyancy acting upwards through the centre of buoyancy (B). When the ship is at rest in still water, @ is verti- cally in line with B. If the ship is inclined, due to some external force, G will remain in the same position—assuming that no loads on board shift—but the shape of, the underwater volume will change and B will move from its original position to, say, B, as shown in Fig. 5,2. The intersection of the middle line by the vertical through B, at small angles of heel, at the point M is called the lransverse melacentre. GZ is perpendicular to the vertical through B,. There are thus equal forces acting at a distance of GZ from each other: such a couple either tends to restore the ship to the upright, or move it more in the direction of the original inclination. For a ship to be in stable equilibrium for any direction of inclination, the point A must be above G the centre of gravity of the ship. ‘The distance GM is termed the metacentric height. If the GM is small the ship will make slow rolls; if GM is a large distance, the vessel will be "stiff and jerk back to the upright position with possible damage to cargo and injury to passengers and crew. The distance GM is taken as a measure of in- herent stability for small angles of inclination. The value of GM is not the sole criterion in stability. Consideration must be given to range of stability, the maximum value of the righting lever (G2) and the angle at which it occurs (see Fig. 5. 3). fighting aver GZ, metres ° 10 70 30 40 30 Angle of inclination, degrees Fig.5.3 Curve of Statical Stability. ‘The Merchant Shipping (Load Line) Rules 1968 lay down certain criteria regarding stability including the following points (see also Fig. 5. 4). Area under curve up to 30° to be not less than 0.055 metre radians Area under curve up to x° to be not less than 0. 09 metre radians Area between 30° and x to be not less than 0,03 metre radians 40° or lesser angle at which water could enter hull Maximum GZ to occur at angle not less than 30° and to be at least 0.20 m ae OW>Hydrostatic Particulars and Stability 63 ARighting lever 62, metres ° 2 30 0 30 60 70 80 Angie of inclination, degrees Fig.5.4 | Stability Criteria. F Initial GM to be not less than 0,15 m. In ships with timber deck cargo 0.05 m will be permitted if the volume of timber deck cargo is in- cluded in the cross-curves. To determine wheitier the ship complies with the above, the vessel shall, unless otherwise permitted, be subjected to an inclining test carried out in the presence of a U.K. Department of Trade (DoT) surveyor. The Marine Division of the DoT issue the very useful "Stability Informa- tion Booklet”, * This booklet indicates a recommended method of present- ing stability information which will comply with The Merchant Shipping (Load Line) Rules, 1968. The relative positions of G and M are extremely important with regard to their effect on the ship's initial stability. When M is above G, the GM is considered positive; if G is above M the metacentric height is considered negative. For small angles of keel (6) up to about 15°, remains in practically a constant position, so that for angles up to about 15°, GZ = GM sin 0 and the couple acting on the ship is A x GZ or A x GM sin 6 During the iterative processes of ship design it is essential to have a means of making approximations to the values desired. The need is con- veniently met by reference to a similar, previous design and correcting the required value according to the dimensions of the new and basis design. An analysis of ship data is a fruitful source for formulae to be used in design estimation. To assess the value of GM it is necessary to know the height of the centre of buoyancy above the keel and the transverse BM, i.e, to know the values of KB and BM, (Fig.5.5.). KM = KB + BM Approximations to the values of KB are given by: * "Stability Information Booklet". Department of Trade, London 1969. Revised Edition 197364 Elements of Ship Design Fig.5.5 KM=KB+BM. (1). As a first approximation to the value of KB at the load draught (H) KB = 0.52H (2) Morrish's expressions 1 (H woen-t (+2) fw (3) KB= oto where V = volume of displacement (m3) ‘A = area of waterplane (m?) Cp = block coefficient Cy = waterplane area coefficient Transverse BM For the value of BM, Ir BM, ==! anv The transverse second moment of area J; is porportional to L x BS and Vis proportional to L x B x H LBS , Be so that BM « 7a a 5 =a =H where # is a constant for geometrically similar ships; varies between 0.1 and 0.07 andHydrostatic Particulars and Stability 65 BM, BH, eg lea ‘i or Bil; = 5 x qe for similar forms. It is important to note how the ship dimensions affect this geometric prop- erty; the breadth contributes as its square, the draught inversely and the length is not involved.Chapter 6 Hull Form Design For centuries, the only way to test a new ship was to build the vessel and then try it out at sea. The first ship designs ever to be put on paper are attributed to one Matthew Baker, master shipwright to Queen Elizabeth I, who published his "Fragments of Ancient English Shipwrighting” about 1586. Modern ship design is determined completely by purpose and the shaping of the underwater hull is planned so as to move the vessel through water with a minimum of power wastage. It is desired to combine hull form, propeller design and power to give the best results; in the early days there was no way of knowing in advance what the result would be. Theories existed but they could not be tested. The first man to persevere with a scientific approach to the problems of hull design was William Froude, the son of a parson and born at Dartington, Devon in 1810. He may truly be regarded as the pioneer of the modern experimental method of studying ship resistance. Although not the first experimenter in this field, it is clear that Froude made a careful and detailed study of the fundamental problems underlying the subject. The form of a ship is delineated on a scale drawing known as the Lines Plan. This consists of three views: (1) Profile (Elevation); (2) Half-breadth Plan (Plan view); (3) Body Plan (Sectional view); By convention the first two views are drawn with the bow to the right, thus only the starboard side is seen, In the early sailing ships, the tiller was located on the right side of the stern, a position which explains how the term "starboard" or "steer board" came to mean the right hand side of the ship, The starboard side was important in that it was necessary to show the steering arrangements on the drawing of the ship. Hence, the bow to the right. The term "port" was applied to the left hand side because the crew always tied up the ship in port with this rudderless side against the quay. Since both sides of the ship are identical, only one side is shown on the Body Plan and Half-breadth plan. On the Body Plan, the forward end from amidships is drawn to the right of the centre line and the after end to the left, as shown in Fig. 6. 1. For design purposes, the profile between the perpendiculars, i.e . the after perpendicular (A.P.) and forward perpendicular (F.P.), is divided in 10 equal parts, These stations are numbered in sequence from aft to forward; the A.P. is 0 and the F.P.is 10, Transverse sections at these stations appear as curved lines in the body plan as also shown in Fig. 6.1.68 Elements of Ship Design Focsle deck Poop deck Fig.6.1 Body Plan, The profile and body are also divided vertically by equi-spaced planes parallel to the base line. These planes, when viewed edge-on in the profile and body, appear as straight lines and are called waterlines. In the half- breadth they appear as curves. The underwater body of the ship can be divided lengthwise generally into fet ey) fe tr tgp & faces AP a ke FP. “ ™ wes Fig.6.2 Parallel Middle Body.Table 6.1 High Speed Liners and Fast Coastal Slow Speed Medium Speed Cargo Intermediate Passenger Cross-channel Ships Cargo Ships Liners Liners Vessels Vessels Prismatic ok + 0.82-0.78 0. 78-0.75 0. 75-0.70 0. 70-0. 65 0.65 and below 0.65 and below Ge (Best results 0. 57) Length of 34% Up to 25% Upto Upto 10% 0% None None parallel body depending 25% 20% Hollow Straight on beam L.W.L. L.W.L. Ford, LCB as % L 8.s. 8.8. s.S. 1%F to 1%A 1ZYA to 2%A 2% to 3%A. fromamid- 2% -1% —-2%-1% 1% %% SS. oh Ts. ships fwd fwd fwd fwd fwd fwd 1%F to 2%A T.S. Yq angle of 35° 32° 30° 27 eae 16° 18° «12 Down to entrance on straight or hollow 6° with LWL hollow 12° or up to hollow 6-7 6° with 16° straight hollow with straight 8... Single Screw. T.S. Twin Screw usisoq wltor 11MH 6970 Elements of Ship Design three parts, which are not necessarily equal in length. The parts are shown in Fig. 6. 2 and defined as follows: PARALLEL MIDDLE BODY The length over which the midship section remains constant in area and shape. ENTRANCE The immersed body forward of the parallel body. RUN The immersed body of the parallel body. The design of ship's lines may be carried out in a number of ways, but in each certain fundaiental conditions have to be fulfilled. These are: (a) Displacement desired on the chosen dimensions; (b) Desired position of the longitudinal centre of buoyancy (LCB); (c) The curve of areas of immersed sections to be of a shape for satisfactory propulsion. Guidance on these matters is given in an informative paper by Todd.* An extract is given in Table 6.1. Areas of Immersed Sections A curve of areas of immersed sections (SA) with the associated curve of the load waterplane (LWL) is very useful in the design of form (Fig. 6.3), The area under the curve of immersed areas represents the displacement and the centroid of the area coincides with the LCB. The ratio of the 19) — oa y 4 06 02] wo Fig.6.3 S.A. Curve and LWL. * Todd, F.H.1945. Trans. I. Mar. Vol. 57, p.1.Hull Form Design 71 area under the curve to the area of the circumscribing rectangle is the 1 — Vv prismatic coefficient (Cp) where Cy = 7 7~ « The curves of areas of immersed sections and load waterplane are usually drawn within a standard rectangle, the area of which is reckoned as unity. The only element not provided by the sectional area curve and load water- plane curve directly is the position of the centre of buoyancy above the keel. ‘This may be obtained from the expressions given in Chapter 5. ‘The immersed areas of sections are expressed in terms of the midship area (A,,), which is taken as unity, The ordinates of the load waterplane curve are expressed in terms of the ship's half-breadth. EXAMPLE 6.1 The ordinates of the curve of areas of immersed sections (the SA ordinates) for a ship of length 128 m breadth 18.3 m and draught 8.25 m are as follows: Sutin AP. % 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 9% FP. Ordinate 0.04 0.16 0.95 0.69 0.90 0.98 1.0 1,0 0.98 0.86 0.48 0.21 — An Fit = 0.98 ‘The midship aroa cocfficient (Cy, Determine the displacement, LCB position of centroid of area above base, prismatic coefficient and block coefficient ‘The procedure Is as follow: SA Simpson's (sa) Station ordinate Multiplier £V Lever [M ordinate? {M. AP, 0.06 0.02 5 0.10 0,002 0.001 % 0.168 2 0.52 4%, 1.44 0.026 0.052 1 0.30 1% 086 4 2.16 129 0.194 2 000 4 2.70 3 8.28 0.476 1.804 30.90 8 1.80 2 3.60 0.610 1,¢20 4 00 4 3.92 1 3.92 0.950 3.840 5 10 2 2.00 0 19,50ait L.000an 2.000 6 10 4 4.00 1 4,00 1.000 4.000 7 0.98 2 1.95 2 3.920.980 1.920 8 000 4 344 3 1092 0.739 2. 956 048 1% 0.72 4 2.68 0,280 0.345 ce 0.42 4%, 1.69 0.044 0.008 FPR = =~ 8 a = Totals 30 21.90 23.01 Forward «18.920 ‘The mean ordinate of curve is given by sum of functions for V divided by sum of mutipers Le. 21j29 ond inthis ease Its Cp, the prismatic coe ficiont,72 Elements of Ship Design Hence, Cy = 0.730 ucp = 28-01 19.50 x 49 — 53:81 x 10 = 1.6% L forward of amidships. x 18.920 Centroid above base = 18,920 ~ 1, — 9,432 Block coefficient = Cy X Cy, = 0.730 x 0.98 = 0.715 Displacement in (sea water) = 128 x 18.3 x 8.25 X 0.715 x 1.025 = 14, 160 tonnes Midship Area There is very little variation in the value of the midship area coefficients. This coefficient decreases with decreasing block coefficient. The bilge radius (R) varies with the fullness of the section and can be determined as follows: (1) When there is no rise of floor the bilge radius can be obtained from R2 = 2.33 (1—C,,)BH (Fig. 6. 4) uw. k#————*r Fig.6.4 Bilge Radius; No Rise of Floor. (2) With small rise of floor (7) and no half-siding of keel the radius R may be closely estimated from pe ZBH(L = Gm) — BX = 0, 8584 (Fig. 6. 5)| Fig. 6.5 oo Say Hull Form Design 73 Uw. alte r Bilge Radius; Small Rise of Floor. MODIFICATION TO SECTIONAL AREA CURVE ‘The curve of areas of immersed sections obtained from a previous ship or from other data may not give the position of LCB desired for a new design. The curve can be modified as shown in Fig. 6.6. After boty. Fore body Pa k— ‘hun iterate body. >} ntranee Sam aa! on og] et 4 9 1 4 ar 1 z 3 + 5 6 ai 8 9 FP o Fig. 6.6 Modification to S.A.Curve (LCB).74 Elements of Ship Design (1) CHANGE IN POSITION OF LCB B is the centroid of original curve of immersed areas B’ is the desired position. Draw triangle B B’ 0 Draw lines parallel to OB’ at the various stations, through C, D, E, etc. and draw lines parallel to base. The intersection of these lines give points for new curve which will retain the value of the original prismatic coefficient and provide the desired pocition of LCB. (2) CHANGE IN VALUE OF PRISMATIC COEFFICIENT In Fig. 6.7, if all distances such as OY be reduced or increased to OY! in icy ratio: =P I=Cy give a new curve having the prismatic coofficient Cpy desired but the LCB will be modified. where Cp: is the coefficient desired, then the spots Y’ will Repeat for after boty Fig.6.7 Modification to S.A. Curve (C,). (3)_To derive a curve from a basis which will satisfy a desired Cy and LCB proceed as follows: (a) Modify basis curve for prismatic coefficient (b) Determine centroid of this curve (c) Apply method of shift of LCB as given in (1) above.Hull Form Design 75 Design of Sections (Fig. 6.8) If at any station half the immersed area is divided by the draught, the result will give the width of a rectangle having the same immersed area as the station for one side. Ap BR BX Gy = = 2, Assume station 9 to be drawn. Thus, 5, From the sectional area curve, obtain the ordinate at station 9, say Yg. ‘Then, the width of the equivalent rectangle for station 9 is given by },, x Yg. The area WBDK is equal to the area of station 9 and the procedure is to draw in the section so that the area PKD is equal to area PBC. These areas should be checked with a planimeter. The ordinate WC is obtained from the load waterplane curve, This process is carried out for all stations and in this way a body plan to the LW obtained, From known sheers, the sections can be extended to the deck. From such a body plan the process of fairing is carried out by running waterlines and buttocks. owe | | | | 4 k > ns Fig.6.8 Design of Section.Chapter 7 Crew and Passenger Accommodation CREW ACCOMMODATION In modern merchant ships the arrangement of crew accommodation spaces is an important factor in the general design of the vessel. In the days of sailing ships the officers. were accommodated aft and the crew lived in the forecastie, With the arrival of the steamship the natural step was to have a block of accommodation adjacent to the machinery space and this became the officers’ quarters, with the crew occupying the poop as well as the forecastle. By 1930, the use of the forecastle for accommodation was discontinued and from about 1950 the use of the poop for the same purpose became unpopular. ‘The tendency was to have the entire complement in one accommodation block, It was also from about the mid 1950's that tankers introduced the placing of all accommodation aft. In dry cargo ships, with the machinery space being moved from amidships and placed further aft—to improve car- go space and handling—the accommodation was placed aft. In some high powered ships, the accommodation block has been moved away from the stern area because of local vibration problems. Officers and crew accommodation must be in accord with national or inter- national regulations. Most modern merchant ships provide accommodation and amenities well in excess of minimal requirements. Due to the fast port turn-rounds made possible by the improved cargo- handling techniques associated with offshore loading and unloading of deep draught vessels, merchant navy personnel are spending more time at sea than ever before. As a direct result of this, efforts are being made by the parties involved to make life on board ship as attractive as possible. Bore- dom and depression have in the past been occupational hazards of merchant navy mariners, but now with air conditioning, films, single berth cabins, swimming pools, bars for ships personnel and more diversified leisure- time facilities, conditions have changed. At one time, the best appointed crew accommodation could be found on the large tankers and bulk carriers that spent lengthy periods at sea, Today, a wide assortment of ship types feature what has now been designated as "motel/hotel" accommodation. The ship is home and club to the seafarer for long stretches of time, and the modern ship provides comfort, privacy and community life for seagoing personnel. Prior to the layout of the accommodation, the number of persons in the various departments has to be decided. The ship's complement is nominally78 Elements of Ship Design divided into three departments: Deck, Engine Room and Catering. The Deck Department, under the Chief Officer, comprises navigating officers, appr: tices, boatswains, carpenter and seamen. The duties involved include the navigation of the ship, the maintenance of hull and life-saving equipment, the safe transport of the cargo, the loading and discharging of cargo and ballast. Table 7.1 Number of Persons on Board* Gross Crew Registered (ineluding Ship Type ‘Tons Passengers cadets) CARGO SHIPS 1958 Cargo Liner 8, 220 12 8 ("Menelaus class") 1966 Cargo Liner 12, 094 - 49 ("Priam" class) 1969 Container Ship 26, 756 - 36 Encowter Bay 1972 Container Ship 58, 889 - 38 Liverpool Bay PASSENGER SHIPS 1954 Passenger Ship 21,637 925 457 Saxon ia 1940 Passenger Ship 41, 923 2,142 900 Oriana 1969 Passenger Ship 65, 863 2,025 900 QE. 1972 Passenger Ship 17, 370 874 322 Spirit of London FERRIES 1961 Ferry 3, 200 1,400 76 Caledonian Princess 1971 Ailsa Princess 3, 960 1,200 64 *Taken from M. Meek and N.Ward. "Accommodation in Ships". Trans RINA, Vol. 115, pp. 201-18, 1973.Table 7.2 Living Space—excluding Public Rooms! Officers crew Passengers: Ship Type Area of Percentage Room Percentage Room Percentage 1st class of Total Area of Total Area of Total 2B Room Number Area m2 Number Area m2 Number Area m2 CARGO SHIPS 1958 Cargo Liner 25 41.0 8.93 53 41.0 TAB@ 1B 18.0 11. 68 "M" class 1966 Cargo Liner 16 61.0 21.00% 33. 39.0 7,620 ~ Priam class 1969 Container Ship 7 60.0 20.45* 19 40.0 Div 15t2 = = Encounter Bay 1972 Container Ship ww 35.0 21.18 a 45.0 16.7390 — - - Liverpool Bay PASSENGER SHIPS 1954 Passenger Ship 34 7.8 10.69 428 28.0 8.0802 925 64.0 14.40 Saxouia 1960 Passenger Ship % 8.5 12,55 825 24.5 6,04) 2142 67.0 13.38 Oriana 1969 Passenger Ship 76 8 19.01% 824 19.0 8,36@ 2025 79.5 33, 46 Qh 1972. Passenger Ship 34 7.8 12.64" 288 25.8 6.508) ava 66.4 11.62 Spirit oj London FERRIES 1961 Ferry a 25.0 1.71 65 61.0 6.13@ 1400138) 14.0 4.18 Cateilorian Princess 1971 Ferry 14 28.5 9.76 50 49.5 8.7 1200(69B) 22.0 4.00 Ailsa Priwess () single berth room. Double berth room.) Berths. * Includes private bathroom. ‘i Taken from M. Meek and N. Ward. "Accommodation in Ships". Tras RINA, Vol. 115, pp. 201-18, 1973. Uorrpoumorry La8uassv pio na4Q 6Z80 Elements of Ship Design The Engine Room Department, under the Chief Engineer, consists of engineer officers, electricians, petty officers and greasers. They are res- ponsible for running the main and auxiliary machinery and for its main- tenance between periodic overhauls. The Catering Department is responsible for the human needs—food, clean- liness of accommodation—of the ship's personnel and is staffed by a Chief Steward, who is in charge, assistant stewards, cooks and catering boys... ‘The entire administration is under the Master, who is in command of the ship and the crew. The number on deck service depends broadly upon the size of the ship, of those in the engine room on the power and type of the propelling unit. The number on the catering staff is based on that of the crew and on the pre- sence of passengers. It is of some significance that in the last decade or so, the number of crew on board on similar ships has diminished and the interior space per person has increased. The trend to smaller crews may in part be due to the intro- duction of automation Tables 7.1 and 7.2 give information about number of persons on board and the living space. In a paper by Meek and Adams on the "Priam" class cargo line* the arrangement of the officer accommodation, petty officer accommodation and crew accommodation was given. These are shown in Fig.7.1. The area provided for the different members of the crew in the "Priam" class is given in Table 7.3. Table 7.3 "Priam" Class Crew Members Area Provided Crew rooms 7.6 m2 (single berth) Petty officers 18.1 m2? (including private bathroom) Junior officers 20.9 m2 (including private bathroom) The make up of the complement in a typical dry cargo ship is given in Table 7.4. ‘This raising of the standard of shipboard "habitability" is international as instanced by the following example. Due to Scandinavian interests in ath- Jetics and physical fitness, a gymnasium and sauna baths are being installed in a number of Scandinavian-crewed vessels and the gymnasium equipment includes a stationary bicycle, rowing machine, punch bag and weights. * M Meek and R Adams, (1969) "Priam Class Cargo Liners—Design and Operation". Trans RINA, Vol. 111, pp. 271-98.Crew and Passenger Accommodation 8l SETTEE (a) Officer Accommodation (c) Crew Accommodation Fig.7.1a Officer's Accommodation. Fig.7.1b Petty Officer Accommodation. Fig.7.1¢ Crew Accommodation.82 Elements of Ship Design Table 7.4 Complement of dry cargo motor ship of deadweight 14900 tonnes Crew Members Number Captain Navigating officers Wireless officers Chief engineers Engineers Electricians Petty officers Caterers Seamen Engine-room hands Total es Bla ae eran Leisure time facilities have been high-lighted in a Norwegian bulk carrier with a "study room" having a film projector, tape recorder, magazine table and sound proof-booths. A library is available with wall-high bookeases. In addition the vessel has an air-conditioned gymnasium and on deck there is a small swimming pool. A feature of this ship Biakh is a well appointed bar adjacent to the erew recreation room. Furnished with two cocktail tables ringed with chairs and sofas and bar stools. Officers and crew share the bar. The accommodation of the American high-speed SL-7 container ships, the most powerful and fastest commercial cargo ships in the world, —33 knots—includes air-conditioned private crew cabins with indoor-outdoor carpets, arm chair, lamps instead of berth lights and individual toilets and showers. Music for different tastes is broadcast into each cabin and controlled with a selector dial by the cabin occupant. These vessels have recreation rooms on each of the two crew decks as well as the officers’ recreation lounge. In addition, an elevator that can carry five people is installed from the engine room to the top level of the aft house The VLCC London Lion, built by Swan Hunter Shipbuilders Ltd., and to be managed by Maritime Overseas Co. Ltd. , has outstanding accommo- dation. This 253, 000 dwt. tanker provides the crew with a standard of comfort and amenities equalled by few ships outside the luxury cruise passenger line class. The standard cabin layout permits the inboard fitting of beds, the pro-Crew and Passenger Accominodation 8o vision of double beds in all officers’ cabins and double berths in crew quarters, A passenger lift serves five decks The ships complement is contained in a five tier superstructure aft sur- mounted by the navigation bridge and radio room. All officers’ cabins including cadets, have private toilets with showers en-suite, while ratings and petty officers are provided with similar toilet facilities connecting pairs of adjoining cabins. The ratings’ cabins have a wooden double berth with drawers beneath, a writing table with a reading light, settee, wardrobe washbasin with mirror toilet cabinet and two metal-framed chairs. A gymnasium also useable as a cinema is at the forward end of the upper deck. The public rooms comprise officers’ dining saloon, crew's and petty officers' mess, crew's and petty officers! smoke room and "The Geordie" Pub on the Boat deck and Officer's lounge on the upper Bridge deck. The crew are served on the cafeteria principle and there is a steward ser- vice to the saloon seating 19 at three tables. The Geordie Pub is accessible from both crew and officer's accommo- dation. A settee, easy chairs, table and counter stools provide comfort while a dartboard is available for entertainment. The officers’ lounge fitted out with settees and easy chairs has its own steward service bar. A bookcase, locker unit incorporates space for a television set. The accommodation arrangements of the London Lion are given in Fig, 7.2 by courtesy of Swan Hunter Shipbuilders Ltd. and the ship's managers Maritime Overseas Co. Lid. Amenities on other ships range from separate bars for crew and officers to rather unique facilities such as a fully automatic bowling lane on the 222, 400 dwt, tanker Oshima Maru, This tanker has a small Japanese rock garden separating the officers’ lounge and mess room. On some of these large tankers, bicycles may be used for transportation or exercise when seas are calm. The showing of films on board ship has become popular in the past decade but television has only recently gained a place at sea and its use has been limited to times when the ship is within range of the transmitters ashore and normally that is only in port. However, a closed- cireuit service is now available to provide televised entertainment to ships at sea and black and white programmes are on video tape cassettes. The provision of television entertainment could make long stays at sea less tedious. In recent years, the owners regulations governing wives aboard ship have been eased, At one time, only the wives of senior officers were allowed but now it is fairly common practice for the wife of any officer to journey with her sea-faring husband, although the length of the wife's trip may de- pend upon the grade of the officer. ‘The Seafarers" Education Service, founded after World War 1 encourages crew members to further their education. Each year this Service sends more than 330, 000 books to libraries in 1,650 ships with British crews.84 Elements of Ship Design Fig.7.2a London Lion Accommodation,Crew and Passenger Accommodation 85 Fig.7.2b Geordie Bar. It is certain that crew accommodations will continue to improve and keep in step with trends. With fewer men on larger and ever increasingly auto- mated ships, the challenge will still be to combat prolonged boredom. The British regulations relating to crew accommodation for merchant ships are given in statutory Instrument 1953 No. 1036-"The Merchant Shipping (Crew Accommodation) Regulations". A handbook for guidance is also issued as "Crew Accommodation in Merchant Ships". PASSENGER ACCOMMODATION The convenience and physical comfort of people at sea is not something which can be prescribed by a general law without regard to the type of ship and the circumstances of travel. For example, the traveller spending one night on a short ferry run needs only simple and well-ordered accommo- dation and this is provided in most ferry ships. The cruise passengers have vastly different needs. They may use their cabins for a week or several months and will expect large public room areas.86 Elements of Ship Design Fig.7.2c Crew Cabin. As the space in a ship which can be made available to passengers is fixed it is important to proportion it to the best advantage between cabins, public rooms and outside spaces. Important factors in the design are the number of passengers, the degree of luxury, the length of voyage and the route. The area allocated to cabins has changed very little over the years and in many cases it is made a minimum in order to allow space for large public room areas. Some details of the living space for passengers—excluding public rooms—have already been given in Table 7.2 Access is the keystone of the design of passenger ship accommodation. It is essential that both crew and passengers be able to get about the ship in a simple and direct manner. The crew should be able to get about the ship without passing through pub- lic rooms and accommodation blocks and without using passenger stairs or corridors The passengers should be able to go from their cabins to the dining saloon, public rooms, promenades and boat embarkation stations without confusion and crowding on stairs and in corridors. To make the above possible, the following rules are desirable:Crew and Passenger Accommodation 87 (1) There should be a "working passage" below decks for the crew; (2) Mess rooms for crew should be in vicinity of intersection of crew main stairs and "working passage"; (3) Main stairways for passengers should be far enough apart to avoid con- fusion and should be arranged that they would be used by approximately an equal number of persons in normal circumstances. Cabins Accommodation design has to be considered from the following viewpoints: (a) Shipbuilder—Ease of construction; (b) Shipowner—Cabins should be adaptable and economical in use of space; (c) Crew—Ease of maintenance and service; (a) Passengers—Should provide comfort, convenience and a pleasant atmosphere. In addition to the cabin arrangement, consideration has to be given to panel- ling, lighting and type of fittings, and type of furniture. The repair and maintenance of ship's accommodation is a very important factor. Due to the number of services~plumbing, electrical, ventilation— built into the accommodation spaces that will at some time need attention, it is essential that panelling, ceiling and furniture should be such that they can be removed with the minimum of effort. As stated above, the type of accommodation required depends on circum- stances and the conditions under which it is going to be used. The short ferry run passenger spending one night on board needs only a simple lay- out. In such circumstances, a fitted wardrobe is neither necessary nor (4) Snelt rail and hangers, shaving 2 Socket, tumbler olde z Rotand coat hooks, waste 2 recap, berth x Tedeer Shelf Sv (21 \ Fig.7.3 2 Berth Cabin.88 Elements of Ship Design desirable as an arrangement of clothes hangers would meet requirements. The simplest lighting arrangement including a bed light is adequate. A typical cabin of this type is the 2-berth British Rail ferry cabin shown in Fig. 7.3.* The floor area is in the region of 4 m2, ‘The needs of the passenger on a cruise are rather different; here a capa- cious wardrobe and more space to move about are not only desirable but essential; a radio and extensive lighting are items that are appreciated and add to the occupants pleasure. The fundamentals in cabin design in addition to giving comfort, ease of move- ment and attractive appearance are as follows: (a) Beds should, in general, be placed fore and aft; ). Adequate space for hand luggage; (c) Ample clearance between beds; ) Each occupant should be able to control air temperature in cabin; ) There should be adequate clearance in front of a wash-basin to permit bending over it A typical cabin in a cruise liner is shown in Fig. 7.4. Public Rooms Public rooms are principally centres for social activities and entertainment and as such are generally noisy and thus should be kept apart from the cabins. Most public rooms, with the exception of the dining saloon, are located on the promenade deck. Dining Saloon The dining saloon which is one of the least used public rooms is frequently located on the bulkhead deck together with the associated galley and ancil- lary spaces. Where possible, the dining saloon or restaurant should have capacity for all passengers of its class at one sitting. The ship's officers, at least a few of them, are frequently seated with the passengers and in such cases a small mess for officers in duty dress should be arranged. This makes it possible for the main saloon to be closed in port during off-run periods. The following basic features are important: (a) Passengers should not be seated so as to face bulkheads or the ship's side at close range; (b) Generally, tables are two, four or six persons—tables for odd numbers should be circular; sh Shipping and International Services DivisionCrew and Passenger Accommodation 89 Fig.7.4 Passenger Accommodation in Cunard Adveniurer.90 Elements of Ship Design (c)_ The disposition of tables should be such as to provide wide enough passageways for stewards to give service; (a) Frequently a private dining room for 10 to 20 persons is provided with- in the main saloon; (e) A children's dining saloon adjacent to the main saloon is desirable. “Haeck Discotheque Restaurent ies Restaurant 8 deck Tararasers Us Veaas room SPayroon/Narery ( stoping 1 arcade tecke Fig. 7.5 Public Rooms in Ferry Eagle. Lounges Generally more than one lounge is provided so that if one is being used for a concert or as a lecture room there is still a room available for the basic purpose of a lounge: conversation and lounging. The lounge used for con- certs, etc., should be situated so as not to cause a traffic problem. The main lounge is, in general, the main night club of the ship and the lighting should be such as to give an intimate atmosphere. Normally a dance floor and stage are arranged in the centre. Bars are provided in all these spaces. Swimming Pool This is located aft to shield bathers from the breeze. The surrounding area being equipped for sunbathing and in the immediate vicinity, sauna bath, massage room, changing rooms and a bar. Promenade Deck The promenade space should be in the form of a loop and the forward end having a screen with half-height windows, forward and full height windowsCrew and Passenger Accommodation 91 at the sides, This protects walkers against the breeze. The promenade space is often fitted with deck chairs and consequently should be vide enough for this purpose The lay-out of the public rooms in a ferry and a cruise liner as given in Figs 7,5 and 7.6, respectively. Crusers Creek Galery is [A Scanainavia Dining roe nd Mediterranean deck Fig.7.6 Public Rooms in Cruise Liner Royal Viking Shy.Chapter 8 Classification, Specifications and Contracts CLASSIFICATION Although many of the hazards of the sea can only be guarded against by the skill and courage of the merchant navy officer, much still depends upon the structural fitness of the ship for the service upon which it operates. It is recorded that even centuries ago, certain particulars of ships were tabu- lated for the guidance of underwriters and shippers. These lists were the basis of a simple system of classification that enabled good risks to be dis- tinguished from bad; from this there arose the reliable organisations for the inspection and maintenance of the fitness of merchant ships. The best known of such organisations are Lloyd's Register of Shipping in the U. K., the American Bureau of Shipping and Bureau Veritas in France. Most sea-going merchant vessels are built to universally recognised stan- dards for the hull and propelling machinery. These standards are embodied in the rules of the classification societies. The term "classification society" is derived from the initial practice of grading ships into classes of relative structural merit. For many years now there has been only one standard and with Lloyd's Register of Shipping this is symbolised by 100 Al to which all classed ocean-going ships are required to conform. In general, such rules are derived empirically from the experiences of a multitude of ships and are constantly revised so as to include the latest advances in marine engineering, ship design and ship construction. The rules are essen- tially a compendium of experience derived from vessel service histories which are up-dated in light of this experience and technology In addition to the preparation of a design to meet the requirements of the owners for deadweight, cargo capacity, speed etc., building a ship to a par- ticular class requires the submission of constructional plans for approval by the technical staffs of the classification society, the testing of materials and construction under survey. The plans or drawings show what are known as the scantlings and details of the construction arrangements of the principal parts of the ship's hull and machinery, Details relating to the design and its intended service, such as draught, service speed and any exceptional loading conditions, are also provided. The drawings submitted for approval include the following; midship section, profile and decks, double bottom construction, framing plan, shell expansion, deck plans, pillars and girders, watertight bulkheads, shaft tunnel, engine and auxiliary foundations, fore end framing, stern framing, stern frame and rudder superstructure and deck houses, hatches and means of hatch closing.94 Elements of Ship Design nist bse he SOLID FLOOR ' prea oe went BOTTOM PLAN Win TO PERT URN OF Se Fig. 8.1 | Midship Section with Scantlings (a) General Cargo Ship As classification is accepted as a measure of quality of the ship an impor- tant step in securing classification is approval of the structural design concept and the resulting scantlings derived. As stated above approval is obtained by independent assessment of the design by the Societies’ sur- veyors, The chief ship surveyor of Lloyd's has stated that it is envisaged by the 1980's that the Society will have evolved the design of a reliable and economic structure suited to the conditions of operation. The adoption of such a procedure would give instant approval. Plans are also submitted which give details of the propelling machinery, pumps, piping systems and electrical equipment. In addition, details areClassification, Specifications and Contracts 95 i 10200 JECK_LONGLS ‘DIMENSION NVO IF CUT OF PLATE mm lk 190x75% 9T. smn 22x 90x10 B30! WITH WITHOUT ORE Simm 7 3) BOTTOM LONOLS. 2 OWENSION a 3 — z is i 250.x90x151 | | Titan Gunes wemease) 2 - wma | a, oe a be i aid dofoiefooio SPACE OF FLOORS 1670 mm | we / _SPAC._OF LONGLS 775mm tg 8“ }— ie (uso || BOTTOM & BILGE PLATING 15mm FOR 0-4L = Ket Fig.8.1. (b) Bulk Carrier provided of the power, revolutions per minute, pressures and mass of re- ciprocating parts. A major classification society may analyse more than 100, 000 drawings in the course of a year. Classed ships are under Society survey from the early stages of construc- tion. As stated plans of hull and machinery are submitted for society ap- proval, the steel used in construction is tested at the maker's works and supervision is carried out on hull and machinery up to the final trials. It is also a requirement that inspections be carried out by society surveyors at regular intervals during the life of the ship96 Elements of Ship Design A typical midship section with scantlings for a dry cargo ship is given in Fig. 8.1(a) and for a bulk carrier in Fig. 8.1(o) by courtesy of Shiffirg Wor ld and Shipbuilder Lloyd's Register Classification Class 100A1 is assigned to sea-going ships built in accordance with the Society's Rules and Regulations for the draught required. It is also assigned to ships designed for specific purposes such as 100A1 tanker, 100A1 lique- fied gas carrier, 100A1 ore carrier, 100A1 tug, ete. There is a class 100AL for restricted service or for special purpose. This class is assigned to sea-going ships intended to operate within specific geographical limits or for special purposes which is indicated in the Register Book of the Society. ‘There is also a Class Al for restricted service; this class is intended for ships intending to trade only within specially sheltered waters, such as harbours, rivers or estuaries. Other class notations entered in the Register Book include: special cargoes where the ship has been approved for carry ing cargoes of a special nature; special features where a special feature in design or construction of a ship or its machinery has been approved: corrosion control, where an approved method of corrosion control is installed and a reduction in scant- lings has been permitted. Where an ice class notation is des ired, additional strengthening is to be fitted. Four classes of ice strengthening are detailed in the Rules and it is the responsibility of the ship owner to determine which notation is most suitable for his requirements: Ice Class 1*~for ships intended to navigate in extreme ice conditions. Ice Class 1~for ships intended to navigate in severe ice conditions. Ice Class 2—for ships intended to navigate in intermediate ice conditions. Ice Class 3—for ships intended to navigate in light ice conditions. The numeral "1" in the character of classification assigned to a ship in- dicates that the equipment of anchors, chain cables and hawsers is in good and efficient condition. When the equipment is not supplied or maintained in accordance with the requirements of the Rules but is considered by the Society to be acceptable for the particular service they may agree to the "1" being omitted and a line inserted after the character, thus L00A— New ships intended for classification have all constructional plans—together with particulars of hull, equipment, and machinery—submitted to the Society for approval before the work is commenced. Such ships are built under Special Survey which involves the presence of a surveyor to examine the materials and workmanship from commencement of work to the completion of the ship. When classed, the vessel is entitled to the distinguishing mark % inserted before the character in the Register Book, thus % 100Al. New machinery constructed under the special Survey is given the class notation * LMC (Lloyd's Machinery Certificate),ification, Specifications and Contracts 97 Surveys PERIODICAL SURVEYS To retain the assigned class, the ship has to be surveyed at regular periods by Society surveyors. ANNUAL SURVEYS: All steel ships are required to be surveyed at intervals of approximately one year. The annual surveys, where practicable, are carried out con- currently with statutory annual or other load line surveys. During the sur- vey the surveyor examines the condition of all closing appliances included in the conditions of assignment of minimum freeboard, the freeboard marks on the ship's sides and auxiliary steering gear, especially rod and chain gear. Internally, the surveyor examines a forward and an aft hold or tank at the second Annual Survey after the fourth and subsequent special surveys on a dry cargo ship. This is done on the third subsequent special survey on a tanker. Details of special surveys are given below. DOCKING SURVEYS It is desirable that ships be examined in drydock at intervals of about 12 months; the maximum interval permitted is two years. At the docking sur- vey, special attention is paid to the shell plating, sternframe, rudder and all parts of the structure particularly liable to excessive corrosion and chafing. ‘The vessel is also examined for any undue unfairness of the bottom plating. The general condition of the ship is reviewed and anchors and cables in- spected, where possible, at annual and docking surveys. SPECIAL SURVEYS All steel ships classed with Lloyd's Register are subjected to special sur- veys which become due at 4 yearly intervals, the first 4 years from the date of build or date of special survey for classification and thereafter, 4 years from the date of the previous survey. When inconvenient for the owners to fulfil this requirement, the Society will allow a postponement of up to 12 months, provided the surveyor is able to assess the general con- dition of the vessel at about the appropriate date. Special survey hull requirements are divided into four ship age groups A — Special survey of ships under 5 years old; B — Special survey of ships between 5 and 10 years old; C — Special survey of ships over 10 years old;98 Elements of Ship Design D — First special survey held after ship is 20 years old: and at every special survey thereafter. Details of the requirements are listed in the Rule Book in Chapter C, Sec~ tion 2 for cargo ships and Section 3 for tankers. CLASSIFICATION OF SHIP NOT BUILT UNDER SURVEY When classification is desired for a ship not built under the supervision of the Society's surveyors, then plans showing the main scantlings and arrange- ments of the actual ship have to be submitted for approval. Where plans cannot be made available, the surveyors must be given facilities to obtain the information from the ship. Survey of Main and Auxiliary Engines, etc. The requirements for the survey of main and auxiliary engines, boilers and electrical equipment are given in the Rule Book, Chapter C, Sections 6 to 12. Fire Equipment The arrangements for fire protection, detection and extinction in passenger ships are examined annually; in cargo ships the arrangements for fire de- tection and extinction are examined bi-annually. Damage Repairs All repairs to hull, equipment and machinery which may be required in order that a ship may retain its class are required to be carried out to the satisfaction of the society surveyors. STRENGTH A ship is the largest and most complex mobile structure developed by man. The strength requirements are of very great importance. A ship floating at rest in still water is subject to certain local and overall loads resulting from the unequal distribution of weight and buoyancy. These loads change with the loading and discharge of cargo, but the stresses in calm water are in general static and readily calculated. When the ship is at sea, the hull bends longtitudinally as it moves through a sea-way. When the crest of a wave is amidships, the ends of the hull de- flect downwards: when the ends are supported by separate crests, the amid ships portion of the hull deflects downward. These continually alternating conditions, called hogsing and sagzing, respectively, vary in intensity accor- ding to the length of the wave, the length of the ship and the ship's heading and are shown in Fig. 8.2. In addition, the impact of the fore end of the ship pitching against waves slamming—produces bottom loads that intensify hull stresses. The accepted approach to ship hull design has been to consider the ship asClassification, Specifications and Contracts 99 a Fig.8.2 Hogging and Sagging. a simple beam acted upon by buoyant forces, the weight of the ship and car- go, There are now developments that permit the dynamic effects of ship and wave motions to be included. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS One such development is the computerised analysis of a ship's hull using finite element methods. When brought to perfection, this finite element analysis of ship ‘structures could be regarded as one of the most signifi- cant developments in determining the most efficient arrangement of struc- tural members as well as deciding scantlings—the size and shape of the various members. Finite element analysis is based on a complex geometrical form—the actual continuous ship structure being divided into a number of elements of finite size, having well defined geometric and elastic characteristics. The stresses are calculated at the points, known as nodes, where the elements connect. A number of tankers, bulk carriers and container ships have been fitted with combinations of strain gauges and automatic recorders to obtain a better knowledge of the forces acting on a ship and its consequent response. Ex- cellent agreement has been found between the predictions of finite element analysis and actual instrument readings. This confirms the reliability of the computational techniques developed by the classification societies. When it becomes possible to predict precisely the loadings on the hull and the structural response thereto, then it will be possible to define the mini- mum scantlings for the hull. SPECIFICATIONS ‘The specification for a ship is a legal, technical and commercial document100 Elements of Ship Design and as such is used as a basis for cost estimation and a means of reference for the design staff. ‘The basic purpose of specifications is to inform the builders of ships and their machinery of the functions which must be fulfilled, of the type of equip- ment required and the nature of accommodation to be provided. The com~= pilation and arrangement of a ship specification demands considerable care and thought. An actual design may be prepared in a number of ways from the basic data supplied by the shipowner. To design the optimal ship requires the co- operation of both the shipowner and the shipbuilder. ‘sme ship management is conversant with transport demand and the results of market research; the shipbuilder is able to advise on cost of alternative hull proportions, machinery arrangements, etc. It is self-evident that a ship design must be the best for the service in which the ship will be engaged. The main criterion is the economic one that fully considers the technical factors involved. To be successful, the shipbuilder needs to show that his design is the most profitable. The successful ship has contained in it an element of beauty and an element of financial return. For a basic design to be prepared the ship management normally state the type of ship desired, deadweight, speed possible routes, ports to be used, classification and accommodation to be provided. The major shipping concerns normally have thelr own naval architectural and marine engineering staff by whom a preliminary general arrangement is prepared on assessed principal dimensions of length, breadth, depth and draught. They also compile a hull specification and one for the propelling machinery. This arrangement plan, together with the specifications, may be submitted to shipbuilders who desire to tender for the building of such a project. It is the responsibility of the shipbuilder to ensure that the specified conditions can be obtained. A fairly common practice in the U.S.A. is for the shipowner to retain a firm of consultants who prepare the design plan and specifications for ten- der purposes. Some shipowners simply contact a shipbuilder, state the basic requirements for the proposed vessel and leave the design and construction to the yard, subject to approval of major items. Some shipbuilders have standard designs which can be made available at a competitive price. The Liberty ship replacement market brought this as- pect of design into prominence. More than 30 designs from at least a dozen countries are available and a British design, the SD14 by Austin Pickersgill Ltd., has been very popular. In these standard designs, some features can be modified in items such as outfit, cargo handling equipment and type of propelling machinery. As stated above a ship's specification is a legal technical and commercial document.Classification, Specifications and Contracts 101 Legally, it is a part of the contract between the builder and the shipowner. Technically, the specification should state the dimensions and give a brief description of the general characteristics of the ship and of the essential qualities. Commercially, it considers the hull and its equipment and a brief statement of these is given under appropriate headings, In general, the ship's hull specification includes the following information: Principal dimensions including maximum draught Cargo deadweight Cargo carrying capacity Speed and Power Stability Quality and workmanship Survey and Certificates Alterations and Extras Delivery date and Guarantee Equipment and fittings. A machinery specification including electrical matters is generally pro- duced as a separate entity. Contracts The contract entered into by the shipowner and shipbuilder is an agreement for the shipbuilder to construct, for a stated sum and by a specified time, a ship in accordance with the specification plans and contract conditions. The contract is concerned with the following: Principal dimensions of ship and principal features of propelling machinery as per the respective specifications. Classification Survey of Owner's representatives Delivery date Delays due to strikes, accidents ete. Insurance of ship during building Default by builders Payment Default in payment of instalments by shipowner Trial trip conditions Guarantee of propelling machinery Alterations to plans and specifications Discrepancies Arbitration in any dispute between builder and shipowner.Chapter 9 Freeboard, Subdivision and Tonnage FREEBOARD One of the three important elements in ship design is freeboard; the other two are strength and stability. The maximum waterline to which a ship can be loaded is controlled by the freeboard marks which are permanently marked on the ship's sides at the middle of the length. Freeboard is the amount of the side of the ship out of the water. The minimum freeboard is the height amidships of the free- board deck at side above the normal summer loadline. The freeboard deck line is taken from the top of sheathing on the freeboard deck, or, if there is no sheathing, from the top of the steel deck as shown in Fig.9.1. The freeboard deck is the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea which has permanent means of closing all openings in the weather portions of it, and below which all openings in the sides of the ship are fitted with permanent means of watertight closing. 25mm Dech line Fig.9.1 Deck Line. ‘The summer load-line, marked 8, corresponds horizontally with the line passing through the centre of the ring of the load line mark as shown in Fig. 9.2. ‘An International Load Line Convention governs the assignment of load-lines for all merchant ships. Classification societies have the authority to assign the freeboards and the initials of the Society are cut in on each side of the104 Elements of Ship Design disc as indicated in Fig. 9.2. The letters LR represent Lloyd's Register, AB for American Bureau of Shipping, BV for Bureau Veritas, etc. Deckine 300x25mm forward f, a 3/5 1 i Be A F 1 2 a 25mm cet W 540 mm ““ | (esees, mo je» L39 J 45000 Fig.9.2 Load Line Mark. R The fundamental reason for statutory enforcement of a limiting load-line was to protect seamen against the risk of proceeding to sea in unseaworthy ships. As stated above, the rules controlling the allocation of freeboard are laid down by an international Load Line Convention held in 1966 and ratified nationally by each of the countries involved and by the United Kingdom in the Merchant Shipping (Load Line) Rules, 1968. Since the amount of cargo which a ship can carry is directly related to the minimum permissible freeboard, it is essential that these Rules be fair and exact. This has, more or less, been achieved. The basic intention is to provide a simple visual check that a loaded ship has sufficient reserve of buoyancy. This involves the geometry of the ship and the calculation of freeboard takes into account, water density, length of ship, breadth, depth, sheer, extent of superstructures on the freeboard deck. The Rules require minimum standards of closure in boundaries of superstructures and specifies standards for hatch covers, crew protection, freeing ports ventilators and scuttles. The watertight volume of a ship above the waterline is called the Reserve of Buoyancy. In fact, it is one measure of the ability of the ship to with- stand the effects of flooding as a result of hull damage. The Load Line Rules assume that the nature and stowage of the cargo, ballast, etc. are such as to ensure sufficient stability of the ship and avoidance of excessive structural stress. Ships built and maintained in conformity with the requirements of a recognized classification society may be considered to possess adequate strength. The load line markings for an ocean going vessel with the dimensions toFreeboard, Subdivision and Tonnage 105 which they must conform are shown in Fig. 9.2. All distances are measured from the upper edges of these marks. Because the density of water affects the reserve buoyancy and weather expectation varies with season and location, different markings are required as shown. The letters above the lines denote freeboards as follows: S$ = Summer (centre of disc) W = Winter = Summer freeboard + ty where H is the summer draught 48 WNA = Winter North Atlantic = Winter freeboard + 50 mm T = Tropical = Summer freeboard — 4 #H F = Fresh water = Summer freeboard ~ 4/4 TPC where A = displacement in tonnes (sea water at summer load line and TPC = tonnes per cm in sea water at that waterline. TF = Tropical Fresh Water = Fresh water freeboard - 5H If a ship is designed to carry timber cargoes then it must be marked with additional lines. Timber marks are prefixed by the letter L (lumber) For the purpose of freeboard computation ships are divided into Type "A" and Type "B". Type "A" is a ship designed to carry only liquid cargoes in bulk and, if over 150 m in length, must have a certain standard of subdivi- sion; if over 225 m in length the machinery space must be taken into account for subdivision computation. A Type "B® ship is any ship other than a Type "A". There are special requirements applicable to ships to be assigned timber freeboards. Such vessels are permitted a deeper loading, i.e.a reduced freeboard. This is because a deck cargo of timber constitutes what is equivalent to additional reserve buoyancy as well as giving protection to vulnerable weather deck openings. Change of Draught to Change of Density The Merchant Shipping (Load Line) Rules 1968 apply to all merchant ships except ships solely engaged in fishing and pleasure yachts. So, in effect, merchant ships have maximum draughts assigned to them. Such draughts are assessed on the basis that the ships are floating in sea water. There are, however, many instances in which ships are loaded while in water which is fresh or nearly so and as a result the draughts are greater than when the ships are in sea water. For a given mass the volume of displacement is greater in fresh water than in sea water due to the lesser density of the fresh water. It is because of this that the assigned106 Elements of Ship Design draught in sea water is supplemented by a Fresh Water Allowance (FWA). When added to the assigned draught this gives the draught to which the ship may be loaded in fresh water and ensures that the assigned draught in sea water will not be exceeded. The "tonnes per centimetre" (TPC) at the load draught in sea water (SW) is used in computing the FWA. For the purpose of assessing the FWA in accordance with the Load Line Rules the density of sea water is taken as 1, 025 and for fresh water (P/) as 1,000. FWA = cm or A A oa —— mm 40 TPC 4TPC where A = load displacement in sea water in tonnes. TPC = tonnes per centimetre in sea water at the load draught. At the ports for loading sea-going ships the water is neither completely fresh water nor sea water and the density may range from 1, 000 to 1, 025. It is convenient to express the increase in draught (/) in general terms for any density with sea water as the basis in the form. 4(Ps— Py) TPC x P, where P, = density of sea water P,, = density of river or dock water r TPC = tonnes per em in sea water A = displacement in tonnes EXAMPLE 9.1 A ship of 18, 100 tonnes summer displacement which corresponds to a mean draught of 9.20 m is loading in the tropics at a dock where the water has a density of 1012 kg/m5 (relative density 1.012). The vessel is at a mean draught of 8.80 m and on passage to the sea will use 65 tonnes of fuel. Determine the quantity of cargo that can be loaded so that the ship will be on tropical marks in sea water. The TPC can be assumed at 25. A= —4— mm = 18:20 ~ 361 am 4TPC 4x 25 Tropical mark above Summer = 1/48H = = 0,192 m=19.2 cm Ps— Py; 13 Dock allowance = 181 x —S—* = 181 x — = 94.12 mm Po— Py 25 = 9.41cem Summer draught = 9,20 m Draught before loading 8,80 mFreeboard, Subdivision and Tonnage 107 Difference =0.40m = 40.00cm Dock allowance = 9.41 cm Tropical above Summer = 19.20 cm Permissible sinkage = 68.61 cm ». Cargo to load = (68.61 x 25) + 65 1715 + 65 780 tonnes EXAMPLE 9.2 ‘When at the summer mark a vessel has a displacement of 33, 500 tonnes and a draught of 12 m. The freeboard in this condition is 2.25 m. When loading in dock water of relative density 1.010 the freeboard as measured on the port side is 2.702 m and 2.718 m on the starboard side. Determine the quantity of cargo that can be loaded so that the ship will be at the winter mark in sea water, the TPC can be assumed at 27.5. Distance between Summer and Winter marks = Z H «. Winter freeboard = 2.25 + 0,25 = 2.50 m = 2500 mm Fwa = —S— = —33:500 < 304.5 mm 4x TPC 4% 27.5 Ps—Py Dock water allowance = FWA —*——* Par Bp = 304,5 x 1025 = 304.5 x 15/25 1025 — 1000 = 183 mm Mean freeboard = 4, (2702 + 2718) = 2710 mm Dock allowance =_183 mm Corrected freeboard = 2893 mm Permitted Winter freeboard = 2500 mm Permissible sinkage 393 mm = 39.3 cm =. Cargo to load = 39.5 x 27.5 = 1080 tonnes EXAMPLE 9.3 A vessel of length 95 m, breadth 13 m has a waterplane area coefficient of 0.75. At the summer load line (S W) the displacement is 6250 tonnes, at a108 Elements of Ship Design draught of 5. 81m. The vessel is to load in a port where the relative density is 1.008 so as to be at tropical marks in sea water. Determine the draught for loading at the port. Area of waterplane = L X BX Cy = 95 X 13 x 0,75 = 926 m? tec =-4_ = 28 -o ssw. 97.5 97.5 A 6250 FWA = = ——— = 164.5 mm ATPC 4x9.5 Summer to tropical marks is given by —H 48 1, = 5-81 9 yim 48 Dock water allowance = 164.5 x g = 112 mm = 0,112 m Summer draught = 5.810 m StoT = 0,121 5.931 Dock water allowance 0,112 Permissible draught in dock = 6,043 m SUBDIVISION Under the Merchant Shipping (Load Line) Rules 1968, ships of Type "A" — those designed to carry only liquid cargoes in bulk—must conform to certain standards. If over 150 m in length and designed to have empty compartments when loaded to the Summer load waterline, the ship shall be capable of remaining afloat after the flooding of any one of such empty compartments, at an assumed permeability of 0. 95 and in a specified condition of equilibrium. If the ship exceeds 225 m in length, its machinery space shall be treated as one of the floodable compartments but with an assumed permeability of 0. 85. The specified condition includes, in addition to other items, an angle of heel due to unsymmetrical flooding not to exceed 15 ° and a positive metacentric height of at least 50 mm in the upright condition after the flooding specified. Ship compartments open to the sea do not fill totally with water because some space is already occupied by hull structure, cargo or machinery. The ratio of the volume which can be occupied by water to the total grossFreeboard, Subdivision and Tonnage 109 volume is called the permeability. Typical values as as follows: Space Permeability (%) Cargo Hold 60 Machinery Space 85 Accommodation Space 95 A compartment which has been opened to the sea is said to have been "bilged", and it is essential to have a standard of subdivision such that there is a reasonable chance that the ship will remain afloat under such an emergency. In cargo ships, classification society rules specifiy the number of trans- verse bulkheads required and this is governed by the length of the ship. Passenger ships—those which carry more than 12 passengers—must comply with certain standards of subdivision. These standards are stipulated in the International Conventions for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). The method adopted is to determine a line beyond which the ship should not sink and then ascertain the position and length of the compartment which when flooded will cause sinkage to that line. This line beyond which the ship should not sink is known as the Margin Line, Associated terms are as given below. Bulkhead Deck—This is the uppermost continuous deck to which all trans- verse watertight bulkheads are carried. Margin Line—This is a line drawn parallel to and 76 mm below the upper surface of the bulkhead deck at side. Floodable Length—The maximum length of a compartment which can be flooded so as to bring a damaged ship to float at a waterline tangential to the margin line. (Fig. 9.3.) The method of determining floodable lengths and permissible lengths is given in the International Convention for SOLAS Margin tine Ce — Forde na Fig.9.3 Floodable Length. TONNAGE Tonnage is a subject important to the shipping industry since it determines a quantity which is involved in the cost of running a ship. Tonnage measure- ment is required to establish the gross and net tonnages upon which port and harbour dues, etc., are levied.110 Elements of Ship Design Tonnage in the past has exercised a controlling influence on ship design and has, indeed, been responsible for the production of several ship types. Tonnage regulations have not always led to safe design. In the 18th century, a formula on which tonnage was assessed included length and breadth of the ship, but not the draught. Thus, to reduce tonnage, it required only a small breadth value and large draught; this created poor stability and as a result a number of ships were lost. By the middle of the 20th century, many different methods—for assessment of tonnage existed including those of the UK, United Staves, Suez and Panama. An International Conference on Tonnage Measurement of Ships was convened in London by the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO) in 1969. The Conference prepared and International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships and in October 1969, a Resolution was adopted in which the outcome of the Conference was approved and member states were invited to accept the convention. The Convention prescribes that the tonnage of a ship shall consist of gross toumage and nei tonnage. Gross tonnage means the measure of the overall size of a ship and the net tonnages means the measure of the useful capacity both being determined in accordance with the provisions of the Convention. The gross and net tonnages as computed by Regulations 3 and 4 of the Convention are no longer expressed in the unit of the "ton" of 100 ft? or 2.8 m3, The new unit is a function of cubic metres. A summary of the regulations for gross and net tonnages as in the 1969 Convention is given below. Regulation 2 of the Convention (1) UPPER DECK The uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea has permanent means of weathertight closing of all opening in the weather part, and below which all openings in the sides of the vessel are fitted with permanent means of watertight closing. (2) MOULDED DEPTH The vertical distance measured from the top of the keel to the underside of the upper deck at side. (3) BREADTH The maximum breadth of the ship, measured amidships to the moulded line of the frame, (4) ENCLOSED SPACES All spaces bounded by the ship's hull, by fixed or portable partitions or bulkheads, by decks or coverings other than permanent or movable awnings.Freeboard, Subdivision and Tonnage 111 (5) EXCLUDED SPACES Details of the excluded spaces are given Regulation 2 para (5) (a) to (e). However, any space which fulfils at least one of the following three condi- tions shall be treated as an enclosed space: —the space is filled with shelves or other means for securing cargo or stores; —the openings are fitted with any means of closure; —the construction provides any possibility of such openings being closed (6) PASSENGER Every person other than the master and members of the crew (or persons employed on the business of the ship or a child under one year of age. (7) CARGO SPACES Those included in the computation of net tonnage are enclosed spaces appropriated for the transport of cargo which is to be discharged from the ship, provided such spaces have been included in the computation of gross tonnage. Regulation 3.Gross Tonnage The gross tonnage of a ship shall be determined by the following formula: Gross Tonnes = K, V where Y= total volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship in m3 K, = 0.2 + 0.02 logy, V or as in Table 9.1 Regulation 4 Net Tonnage (1) The net tonnage of a ship shall be determined by the following formula 4a)? . ; Na Net tonnage = Ky V-| — + Kg |Ny +— = 2¥e| sa 2 [s wl r4,72 where{ 2] shall not be taken as greater than unity. 4772 KaVe [32] shall not be taken as less than 0, 25 of the gross tonnage. Also, the net tonnage shall not be taken as less than 0. 30 of the gross tonnage and Ve = total volume of cargo spaces (m3) Ky = 0.2 + 0,02 logy Ve or as in Table 9.1112 Elements of Ship Design Table 9.1 Coefficients K, and K, referred to in IMCO Regulations 5 and 4 (1) Vor Ve KyorKa Vor Vo KyorK, VorV, KyorK, VorVe Ky or Ky ms m3 m? m3 10 0.2200 45,000 0.2931 30,000 0, 3104 670,000 0, 3165 20 0.2260 50,000 0.2940 340,000 0. 3106 680,000 0.3166 30 0.2295 55,000 0.2948 350,000 0, 3109 690,000 0.3168 40 0.2320 60,000 0.2956 360,000 0, 3111 700,000 0.3169 50 0.2340 65,000 0.2963 370,000 0.3114 710,000 0.3170 60 0.2356 70,000 0.2969 380,000 0. 3116 720,000 0.3171 70 0.2369 75,000 0.2975 390,000 0, 3118 730,000 0.3173 80 0.2381 80,000 0.2981 400,000 0. 3120 740,000 0.3174 90 0.2391 85,000 0.2986 410,900 0. 3123 750,000 0.3175 100 0.2400 90,000 0.2991 420,000 0, 3125 760,000 0.3176 200 0.2460 95,000 0.2996 430,000 0. 3127 70,000 0.3177 300 0.2495 100,000 0.3000 440,000 0, 3129 780,000 0.3178 400 0.2520 110,000 0.3008 450,000 0, 3131 790,000 0.3180 500 0.2540 120,000 0.3016 460,000 0. 3133 800,000 0.3181 600 0.2556 130,000 0.3023 470,000 0, 3134 810,000 0, 3182 700 0.2569 + 140,000 0.3029 480,000 0. 3136 820,000 0.3183 800 0.2581 150,000 0.3035 490,000 0, 3138 830,000 0.3184 900 0.2591 160,000 0.3041 500,000 0. 3140 840,000 0.3185 1,000 0.2600 170,000 0.3046 510,000 0, 3142 850,000 0.9186 2,000 0.2660 180,000 0.3051 520,000 0. 3143 860,000 0.3187 3,000 0.2695 190,000 0.3056 530,000 0. 3145 870,000 0.3188 4,000. 0.2720 200,000 0.3060 540,000 0. 3146 880,000 0.3189 5,000 0.2740 210,000 0.3064 550,000 0. 3148 890,000 0.3190 6,000 0.2756 220,000 0.3068 560,000 0. 3150 900,000 0.3191 7,000 0.2769 230,000 0.3072 570,000 0. 3151 910,000 0.3192 8,000 0.2781 240,000 0.3076 580,000 0. 3153 920,000 0, 3193 9,000 0.2791 250,000 0.3080 590,000 0. 3154 930,000 0.3194 10,000 0.2800 260,000 0.3083 600, 0000. 3156 940,000 0.9195 15,000 0.2835 270,000 0.3086 ~—«610, 0000. 3157 950,000 0.3196 20,000 0.2860 280,000 0.3089 620, 0000. 3158 960,000 0.3196 25,000 0.2880 290,000 0.3092 630,000 0. 3160 970,000 0.3197 30,000 0.2895 300,000 0.3095 640,000 0. 3161 980,000 0. 3198 35,000 0.2909 310,000 0, 3008 650,000 0. 3163 990,000 0, 3199 40,000 0.2920 320,000 0.3101 660,000 0.3164 1,000,000 0.3200 Coefficients K, or Ky at intermediate values of V or Ip shall be obtained by linear interpolation. Keg = 125 x S208 tonnage + 10, 090 10, 000 D = moulded depth amidships in metres as defined in Regulations; a moulded draught amidships (m) as defined in Regulations. In general this is the draught corresponding to the Summer Load‘om and Tonnage 113 Freehoard, Subdi: Line (other than timber load lines) Details are given in Regula- tion 4(2) Ny = number of passengers in cabins with not more than 8 berths; Nz = number of other passengers; Ny + Np = total number of passengers the ship is permitted to carry as indicated in the ship's passenger certificate; when N, + Ny is less than 13, N, and N, shall be taken as zero. The form of the International Tonnage Certificate (1969) is shown in Table 9.2. Tables 9.1 and 9.2 are by courtesy of I.M.C.O.114 Elements of Ship Design INTERNATIONAL TONNAGE CERTIFICATE (1969) (Official seal) Issued under the provisions of the International Convention on Tonnage Messurement of Ships, 1969, under the :iuthority of the Government of (Cuil official designatian of country) for which the Convention came into force on 19 by (full official designation of the competent person or organization recognized under the pro- Lisions of the International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969) Name ot Ship sun INCE Port of Resisiy j | Joan pels = | | | * Date on which the heel was lid oF the ship Was at a similar stage of construction (Article 26). oF date on which the ship underwent alterations or modifications of a major character (Article 3Cvib), as appropriate MAIN DIMENSIONS. Moulded! Depth amidships to Upper Deck eiegul Leng Brean vance St (Regelaiinn 2) THE TONNAGES OF THE SHIP ARE: GROSS TONNAGE NET TONNAGE This is to certify that the tonnages of this ship have been determined in accordance with the prosisions of the International Convention of Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969. Issued at 19 (place of issue of certificate) (date of issue) (signature of official issuing the certificate) and;or (seal of issuing authority) If signed, the following paragraph is to be added: ‘The undersigned declares that he is duly authorized by the said Govern ment to issue this certificate (Signature) Table 9.2Freehoard, Subdivision and Tonnage SPACES INCLUDED IN TONNAGE GROSS TONNAGE NET TONNAGE Name of Space| Location Teng Name of Space) Location | Length Underdech - (Regulation 411) Number of passengers in cabins Siiiigne more ian # her he (Reguiaiion 250 MOULDED. DRAUGHT (Regulinan 4120 | | | NUMBER OF PASSTNOPRS q ‘An astersk (1 should he adued 0 those spaces iiSed ahove which Comrise uh enclosed! aad cluded pace Date and place of original measurement Table 9.2 115Chapter 10 Choice of Propelling Machinery The choice of propelling machinery for a merchant ship is essentially the selection of a basically standard unit rather than a new design for each project. This is due fundamentally to the high cost of production equipment. Merchant ships, in general, do not need great flexibility in the performance of propelling machinery since they operate at constant economic speed for most of the time. There are relatively few different propelling units available throughout the world and often they are built under licence from another country. Marine propulsion machinery can be classified broadly under two headings— steam and diesel machinery. ‘The selection of the type of propelling machinery to be adopted for merchant ships is based upon its reliability in service and the cost of operation and maintenance. Simplicity in design is important since repairs often have to be carried out when only the ship's trading permits—and this may be in parts of the world where highly skilled shore labour may not always be available. ‘The main factors that affect the choice of machinery are: (1) Power required at the specified speed; (2) Weight; (3) Space required, particularly length of machinery space; (4) Fuel consumption; (5) Number of engine room personnel; (6) Reliability and ease of maintenance; (7) Noise and vibration generation—important in passenger ships At present, about 36 per cent of the world gross tonnage is steam driven, of which 2 per cent is reciprocating and the remainder turbine. The remaining 64 per cent of the world tonnage is nearly all driven by diesel engine. The diesel engine is in favour since, as a unit, it is self-contained, relatively easy to operate and has an advantage in relatively lower fuel consumption. The weight of fuel to achieve the required radius of action may be 10 per cent of the load displacement and consequently is an impor- tant factor in displacement and the economies of ship operation. STEAM MACHINERY Where steam is used as the working medium, a steam raising plant is in- volved which consists of cylindrical or watertube boilers. Steam recipro- cating machinery, even with modern refinements, is not now regarded as. being economically acceptable. Watertube boilers are essential to provide the high temperatures and pressures required for steam turbines.118 Elements of Ship Design Unlike the diesel engine, the steam turbine was developed rather than invented; it had no inventor. In steam turbines the kinetic energy of the steam is used to drive a series of blades set in the periphery of a rotor, . which is made to revolve at high speed. There are two fundamentally different ways of using the steam. In the ipilse linbine, the steam acquires a high velocity by expansion through a series of stationary nozzles to impinge against a row of buckets on the circumference of a wheel. In the reaclion urbine, the steam is expanded continuously in either moving or fixed blading throughout from boiler to condenser pressure. During the last quarter of the 19th century, many inventors experimented with steam turbines of different types, but it was the genius of Sir Charles Parsons that showed how a steam turbine could be used for ship propulsion. Trials with his new engines were held in 1896 and a speed of 29.6 knots was recorded. On the unscheduled demonstration run at Spithead review, a speed of 34.5 knots was claimed. The first commercial turbine-driven vessel was the River Clyde pleasure steamer King Edward, built in 1901 and able to cruise at 20 knots without undue effort. The Parson's turbines were of the reaction type. Reduction gearing was necessary to integrate the steam turbine into merchant ships and this was either single-reduction or double- reduction gearing, the latter being a speed step-down in two stages. The modern double-reduction gearing is very efficient and probably lighter than its single-reduction counterpart Ina steam turbine installation, the turbines are grouped round a large gear wheel into which the pinions of each turbine mesh. The main wheel is directly coupled to the propeller line shafting. The major item in a marine steam turbine cost is the reduction gear; this is the largest unit and is an important factor in engine room weight and in the space required for in- stallation. As turbines are unidirectional, a separate astern turbine is provided. Steam turbine machinery is unable to compete with the low fuel consumption rates of the diesel engine, but is able (o burn low-grade oils in the steam-raising plant without complicated preparation of the fuel. At the end of World War II the all-purpose fuel consumption was in the region of 0.26 kg/shp/hr. Today the corresponding value is about 0.18 kg/shp /hr due to advanced steam conditions and more complete heat recovery. The modern steam turbine plant is a closely integrated system with a high level of designs and considerable flexibility in terms of layout. When powers of 30, 000 shp (P,) and above are desired, the steam turbine unit operating under automatic control and with gearing providing the optimum propeller speed is an attractive choice for the main propulsion unit. However, the total weight of the installation is less than that for the corresponding motor ship and maintenance and repair costs are lower. LOW SPEED DIESEL ENGINES ‘The marine oil engine is dominant in the low and medium power ranges. Although Rudolf Diesel is generally accredited as the inventor of the oilChoice of Propelling Machinery 119 engine—the heavy oil engine used on land and sea is named after him—there were many other inventors associated with the development of the internal combuston engine. Nevertheless, the part played by Diesel in the history of the oil engine was of great importance as his researches enabled an oil engine to run without recourse to a magneto or blowlamp to fire the cylinder charge. The Sclandia built by Burmeister and Wain of Copenhagen in 1912 can be claimed to be the pioneer motor vessel in the accepted sense. This vessel was also the pioneer for all electric auxiliaries, the donkey boiler being there only as an emergency unit. In general, motor ship propelling machinery is of the slow-running type, directly connected to the propeller shaft. The low speed, direct coupled, reversible, cross-head types of diesel engines—affectionately referred to by some as "cathedrals" and "stone crushers"—continve as a highly favoured form of marine propulsion. Since its inception as a marine propulsion unit, the low speed engine has under- gone many design changes. There are, of course, vessels with medium speed diesels which drive the propeller shaft through gearing. The modern trend is to have more power in less space and a current practice in certain instances is to turbocharge existing standard diesel engines. For the average general cargo ship, a favourite proposition appears to be a two- stroke direct drive diesel engine, using the hot exhaust gases for a waste heat boiler burning heavy fuel oil. The escalation in fuel costs has enhanced the low-speed engine's attraction as auser of low grade, cheaper fuel. About two decades ago, the power limit for a single diesel engine was about 1000 bhp (P,). The power output has steadily increased and such an engine has been developed with an output of 36, 000 bhp at about 108 rev/min. This type could have an output approaching 50, 000 bhp, which is close to the limit that can be efficiently absorbed by a single propeller. The direct drive engine of 40,000 bhp at about 106 rev/min and with a fuel consumption rate in the region of 140 tonnes of heavy oil per day could provide the tanker in the 200, 000 tonne deadweight range with a consider- able degree of reliability and manoeuvrability. MEDIUM SPEED DIESEL ENGINES ‘The advent of large tankers and fast container ships has made possible a powerful challenge to the low speed engine in its traditional propulsion role. The challenge is from other forms of marine propulsion in the form of steam and gas turbines and now by the medium speed diesel engine. Until about a decade ago, the role of the medium speed diesel engine was, with few exceptions, restricted to the smaller cargo ships in the region of 8000 tonnes deadweight, coasters, ferries, etc. Currently this class of diesel120 Elements of Ship Design engine has been installed in an increasing number of merchant ships such as cargo liners, tankers and bulk carriers. In a paper by Neuman and Carr*, the economic advantages (since fully endorsed) were given as follows: (1) The cost of medium speed machinery remains significantly below that of the slow speed diesel engine; (2) The medium speed engines operate reliably on heavy fuel without undue maintenance; (3) Gearing gives the opportunity to achieve optimum propeller size and the selection of desired propeller revolutions; (4) The machinery installation design and ship design can be such as to take full advantage of the reduced size and weight of the medium-speed geared diesel machinery. Flexibility in operation is an attractive feature of the medium speed engine when used in pairs coupled to a single shaft. For example in ballast une unit can be disconnected for overhaul and general maintenance, while the other unit provides adequate power for a reasonable service speed. Details of a Mirrlees National opposed piston engine of 16 cylinders as given by Adley and Leat are as follows: bhp (Ps) 20, 000 No. of cylinders 16 No. of pistons 32 Block cubic 191 m3 Specific weight 7.10 kg /bhp ELECTRIC DRIVE The use of electric drive for ship propulsion has some important advant- ages in that it offers considerable flexibility and freedom to place com- ponent units in any desired position in the ship. Ease of control is a notable feature and with controls duplicated on the bridge manoeuvring in res- tricted waters is simplified. The propeller speed over the entire range can be controlled by the operation of a single lever that controls the generator voltage. A number of different types of ships have been built with diesel-electric propulsion. There are four main electrical systems for indirect drive installations as follows: + J. Neuman and J. Carr.1967. "The Use of Medium Speed Geared Diesel Engines for Ocean-going Merchant Ship Propulsion". Tvans.1.Mar.E., Vol. 79, pp. 89-136 { Adley and Lea. 1968. Tyans.!, Mar. E., Vol. 80Choice of Propelling Machinery 121 (1) Ward Leonard system;speed control is limited but the system is reliable (2) Constant voltage system(d.c.); the system is only suitable for the smaller vessels but is satisfactory at the lower powers; (3) Controlled or constant current system; considerable torque control over the speed range involved; (4) The a.c. system; this is not commonly adopted but is being developed; Large a.c. systems are turbo-electric. GAS TURBINES Considerable research has been undertaken on the adaptation of industrial gas turbines for marine use. In the past, such a plant's total economics were not competitive. However, due to the development of turbines with higher compression ratios and higher firing temperatures, the efficiency of the plant could become competitive with steam and diesel power. It appears that the industrial gas turbine has the potential to achieve a large measure of acceptance in merchant shipping. There is also the aircraft-type marine gas turbine, in which the outstanding characteristic is the superior power to weight ratio. To compete with the firmly established steam turbine and diesel propulsion equipment it is necessary to exploit the gas turbines main advantage of high specific power. For ships requiring power in the region of 40,000 to 80, 000 shp, the gas turbine offers superiority in size and weight, but to offset that there is the high fuel consumption and the need to operate the turbine on high grade fuel. Technically, the success of the marine gas turbine has been fully endorsed by its operation on naval vessels. However, a great deal of development is necessary before the gas turbine becomes fully attractive for service in merchant vessels. At present many merchant vessels are using gas turbines to drive emergency generators and the gas turbine can be used to drive the powerful cargo oil discharge pumps required by a VLCC. At least one example of the marine merchant use of the gas turbine is in the 211 m roll-on/roll-off cargo ship Admiral William M. Callaghan in which two gas turbines each developing 25, 000 hp give the twin screw ship a speed of 26 knots. MARINE NUCLEAR POWER The new era of higher oil prices now makes the nuclear reactor a more attractive power unit for merchant ships. The first nuclear merchant ship was the USSR icebreaker Lenin which went into operation in 1959 and the most recent vessel is the Japanese Mutsz, 1974. There are currently four nuclear merchant ships: (1) Russian icebreaker Lenin launched in 1959; (2) American ship Savannah built in 1962 but withdrawn from service 1970;122 Elements of Ship Design (3) German ship Ofto Hahn launched in 1968; (4) Japanese ship Mutsu built in 1969. The nuclear safety record for some time was excellent. These merchant vessels have made no pretentions to be other than experi- mental ships and economic operation has not been expected. They are investigative projects rather than attempts at profitability. The major impediment to the adoption of nuclear power in merchant ships to date has been the cost compared with that of the conventional counterparts. However, the large increase in fuel oil prices has intensified interest in the nuclear ship for specific types and sizes. The present trend in large tankers and container ships could be more economic, over their lifetime, if they were nuclear powered. The U.S. Maritime Administration are very interested in nuclear ships, particularly in ultra large crude carriers (ULCC). All nuclear ships built or proposed include extensive safety measures for collision and stranding protection, containment, provision of emergency cooling, fail-safe shut down mechanisms together with quality control as well as crew training. The sea is a hostile environment and consequently ships are subject to greater risk than plants on land. The dangers are collision, stranding, fire, explosion, sea damage and finally sinking. The extensive investigations in design and control have been such that the probability of anything happening that would lead to gross release of fission products is very low. There is no doubt that rising fuel costs and the demand for higher speeds with resultant increased powers are tending to make nuclear power economically competitive. Ships are on order with specified powers of above 80, 000 shp. A nuclear power reactor is simply a source of heat on a par with a furnace to a boiler, but with the difference that several years supply of fuel is con- tained in the reactor's core. The problem of nuclear power is to exchange the heat from the core and to use it to make steam. Once the steam is generated it is treated exactly as if it were steam produced from an oil fired boiler. The system adopted as the preferred power conversion arrangement for nuclear marine propulsion is the pressurised ligh water reactor (PWR). The system uses purified water to remove heat generated by the fission process of fuel elements in a reactor. The boiler consists of a shell and tube heat exchanger in which feedwater is evaporated inside the tubes by heat transferred from the reactor-heated water surrounding them. The source of heat, the reactor core, is made up of sealed tubes containing uranium fuel pellets, These pellets are heated by the fission process which is controlled. Piping conveys the heated coolant from the reactor pressure vessel to a steam generator. This type of system was used to power the nuclear ship Savannah, New designs that reduce plant volume and weight are now available. The reduction in weight is one of considerable importance. It appears that nuclear propulsion could be applied to particular ships inChoice of Propelling Machinery 128 the higher power range and be economically viable. The diminishing world reserves of oil may compel the use of alternative fuels. However, there is an urgent need for international agreement whereby the design, construction and operation of nuclear ships can have universal acceptance in both nuclear law and maritime law. A great deal of nuclear research has been carried out in many parts of the world, but research is not reality. Nevertheless, the most notable * development in marine propulsion in this century has been that of nuclear power. The application of nuclear power to ship propelling is a developing subject which has not yet achieved any sort of finality. Although extensive analytical studies have confirmed the technical feasibility of a marine nuclear power plant, there are political as well as economic problems to be resolved. SUMMARY The development of marine units and their propulsive methods can be traced to the earliest eras of recorded history. For centuries man has endeavoured to find faster and more powerful methods to move ships through the water. Outstanding contributions have been made by the giants of science, by statesmen, by shoemakers and by farmers. Reviewing the multitude of propulsion methods, it is difficult to believe that any possibility has been neglected. However, in the future as in the past someone, somewhere, with the aid of a new discovery will show the world of science that the spirit of progress still exists.Chapter 11 Powering and Propellers POWERING The power required to drive a ship through the water depends upon the resistance offered by the water and air and upon the efficiency of the propeller, hull and transmission. In rough seas the problem is complicated by increased resistance and by the propeller working in less favourable conditions. The family tree of power for propulsion is indicated in Table 11.1 Table 11.1 Propulsive Power p> aaa 1 Resistance Efficiency — ty — Skin Friction Wave-making Eddy Making Propeller Hull__—‘Transmission (a) (6) (ce) (d) (e) i) Total resistance = (a) + (b) + (c) Propulsive efficiency = (d) x (e) x (f) ‘There are a number of ways available to assess the powering character- istics of a design, These include: (1) Full scale data from previous ships of similar type; (2) Theoretical analysis; (3) Model tests to predict full-scale resistance. The full-scale data method is rather restricted since ships tend, over a period of time, to become larger and faster. The theoretical method is not yet totally adequate to provide a solution on its own. Ship Resistance Model testing provides a comprehensive assessment of power require- ments. Although many experimenters attempted to use models to predict the full- scale behaviour, it was with William Froude that full-scale prediction became a practical proposition, Froude constructed the world's first model tank at Torquay in 1871. It was he who postulated the idea of splitting the total resistance into the residuary resistance—mostly wave making—and frictional resistance. To measure frictional resistance independently of wave resistance, Froude abandoned the use of models for a time and used126 Elements of Ship Design sharp-edged planks, towing them completely submerged so that they made no waves at all. Using planks of various lengths and various surface coatings, it became clear that both length and surface quality influenced frictional resistance. From the results, Froude attempted to relate them in a simple empirical form as follows R=fav2 where R= resistance A= wetted surface area V = speed { and n are coefficients depending upon length and nature of surface. The coefficient n was independent of speed. By subtracting frictional resistance from total resistance, it was possible to obtain wave-making resistance. By studying the wave patterns created by geometrically similar forms at different speeds, Froude found that the patterns appeared identical, geometrically, when the models were moving at speeds proportional to the square root of their lengths. This speed is termed the corresponding speed. After further work he was able to enunciate what is now called his Law of Comparison. The law states that if two geometrically similar forms—two ships ora ship and its model—are run at speeds proportional to the square root of their lengths, then the residuary resistance of the forms vary as the ratio of the displacements or (lengths).3 Froude's method, which has been adopted in experimental tanks throughout the world involved running the model at the speed corresponding to the law of comparison, the total resistance was then measured. From this was deducted the frictional resistance as calculated from the plank experiments. ‘The remainder was put up as the cube of the linear dimensions and corrected for density of water, if necessary, to give the wave resistance for the ship. To this was added the calculated frictional resistance for the ship to obtain the total resistance for the ship. Froude's Law of Comparison, which does not apply to frictional resistance, can be stated symbolically as where W and w are displacements and Ry Ware for the ship ry} W are for the model Having established this method for determining ship resistance, some con- firmation of its validity and general application was necessary. Froude made a model of an existing sea-going ship, the Greyhound, calculated the wave-making and frictional resistance separately, scaled up the figures to the full-sized ship and then predicted in 1874 what the Greyhound's resist~ ance would be when towed at various speeds in calm water. After the testPowering ant Propellers 127 it was found that by making a reasonable adjustnient for the roughness of the Greyhound's hull, his forecast was accurate. Since that time model testing has been accepted as a means of ascertaining in advance the performance of a ship. The technique introduced by Froude is regarded as one of the outstanding advances in the world of naval architecture, PROPULSION A ship in motion carries with it a certain mass of water. This "wake" as it is called has a forward velocity in which the screw operates, so that the speed of the screw through the wake water is less than the speed of the ship. Wake velocity = V — Vz where V = speed of ship Va = speed of advance of propller. This wake effect involves a gain in efficiency. A suction effect is created by the reduction in pressure on the after part of the hull brought about by the working of the propeller. This causes an augment of resistance and is usually considered as a thrust deduction effect. In propelling a ship through the water, the effective work done is in over- coming the resistance of the ship brought about by its speed of advance. So that the effective power (P,) of a ship is the product of the resistance and the speed of the hull, ‘The power that the ship's machinery can develop must be greater than this in order to overcome the losses by the engine, transmission and propller. The engine efficiency depends upon the type of engine. The power developed by the steam turbine is measured in terms of shaft power (Pg). With the internal combustion engine the power is measured at the crank shaft by a dynanometer (Py). The power delivered to the propeller (Pp) is rather less than P, due to friction at the bearings. Thrust power (Py) is the product of the thrust (T) delivered to the propeller and the speed of advance (V,) of the propeller. ‘The overall efficiency of propulsion depends upon: (1) efficiency of propelling machinery; (2) hull efficiency; (3) propeller efficiency. The overall propulsive efficiency achieved and termed the propulsive coefficient is given by the rato Py /P,. ‘The hull efficiency =P, /P,. Propeller efficiency = P;/P) What is known as the quasi-propulsive coefficient Q.P.C.) is given by128 Elements of Ship Design P, + allowances for appendages, air and weather resistance —= B, — Q.P.c. = This allowance is usually taken as 8 per cent for appendages and air resistance in single screw ships and another 15 per cent is added for weather resistance in average fine weather at sea. The accuracy of a power estimate so assessed rests in the chosen value of the Q.P.C. selected from previous records. Power estimates in the estimating stages of a design wien the time is not available to run model tests are generally based on the published series of methodical tests such as those by Ayre, Taylor and Moor. Screw Propellers Recorded history indicates that the idea of a propeller was first suggested by Leonardo de Vinci in the 15th century. During the years that followed, a number of people experimented unsuccessfully with screw propulsion. ‘Then, in 1802, an American lawyer-turned-inventor, Colonel John Stevens, constructed the first vessel to be powered by steam and a screw propeller. The craft was an open boat under 8m in length and at full power reached the speed of 4 miles/hour (1.8 m/sec). The force needed to propel a ship is obtained from a reaction against the water; causing a stream of water to move in the opposite direction. Of the devices used—oars, paddle wheel, jets and screw propeller—the latter has almost exclusive application with sea-going ships. The study of propeller action and desien is complex. Modern theory has made considerable progress towards an understanding of the problems. Experimental work on propellers has been most extensive and fruitful and is frequently directed by theory on the best lines of experimental research. On the experimental side, Froude developed a method for studying the action of a propeller behind a ship. Model propellers can be tested in two ways— in "open" water, that is without the model in front, or behind a model, Open water experiments necessitate apparatus for carrying the propeller and also instruments for measuring thrust and torque. This apparatus is carried on the tank carriage which moves along with the required speed of advance of the screw. The screw is rotated at the required revolutions and thrust and torque measured. Froude’s method when running the propeller behind a model was to bring the screw up to its proper position relative to the model, the model being towed in the ordinary way. The model resistance and the propeller thrust were, therefore, measured separately. It is essential that the designer has data available as the basis for the selection of the geometric properties and the assessment of the likely propeller efficiency. This data is made available by methodical series testing of model propellers in open water. These tests are carried out in a model tank with the propeller mounted forward of a streamlined casing containing the driving shaft. The propeller is driven by an electric motor on the carriage and the thrust, torque, propeller revolutions and carriagePowering and Propellers 129 speed are recorded. Generally, runs are carried out at constant revolu- tions with different speeds of advance for each run, In the early days of screw propulsion, propellers were of simple shape, made in cast iron or steel and more or less fitted to the shaft in the as- cast condition, apart from machinging the bore. Today they are in the main of nickel aluminium bronzes and manganese aluminium bronzes, which offer increased strength and improved resistance to corrosion fatigue and cavitation erosion. The subject of propellers is highly complex and the manufacture of marine propellers is a highly specialised procedure. There are a few specialist engineering concerns with design and research departments in association with specially equipped works capable of manufacturing propellers of any design and size to the highest standards. A propeller is said to be right-handed, if, when viewed from astern, it rotates clockwise when driving the ship forward. In twin screw ships one propeller is right-handed and the other left-handed; generally, the right- handed screw is on the starboard side and thus the propellers are outward turning. The majority of ocean-going merchant ships have four-bladed screws, The leading edge of a blade is the edge which, when the ship is driven ahead, first cuts the water. The trailing edge is the following edge. The surface of each blade when received from aft is called the face and the other surface is called the back. Pitch is the distance any specified point on the face of the blade would move forward in one revolution if turning on a solid nut. Pitch ratio is the pitch divided by the diameter. The disc area is the area enclosed within the tip circle. Slip is defined as the dif- ference between the distance which screw would advance during one revolu- tion if working in a solid medium and the distance it actually advances in a given medium. The three principal types of propellers now manufactured are built, solid and controllable pitch. The built propeller has the blades and hub cast and machined separately. Each blade is bolted to a seating on the hub and this makes it possible, if a blade is damaged, to have it replaced without removing the entire propeller from the shaft. The solid propeller has the blades cast integrally with the hub and the modern type is a high efficiency design incorporating aerofoil sections. A photograph of a propeller designed and manufactured by Stone Manganese Marine Limited is given in Fig. 11.1. Cavitation Cavitation may be briefly described as the formation of cavities round the propeller blade—often on the back of the blade—these cavities being filled with air or water vapour. The effect of cavitation on a propeller is twofold:130 Elements of Ship Design Fig.11.1 Four Bladed Propeller.Powering and Propellers 131 (1) the cavities formed eventually collapse resulting in a severe mechanical action which produces erosion of the blade surface; (2) with severe cavitation there is a loss in propulsive efficiency. Fig. 11.2 Cavitation Tunnel Tests on 4-Bladed Propeller122 Elements of Ship Design Fig.11.3 Cavitation Tunnel Tests on Shrouded Propeller, Research is carried out in the problem of cavitation. Mathematical methods have been devised to study pressure distribution round the blade sections and a special type of experiment has been devised where thePowering and Propellers 133 propeller operates in a closed channel in which the pressure in the fluid can be controlled. Such a channel is known as a cavilation tunnel and photo- graphs of a propeller in a cavitation tunnel are given in Figs 11.2 and 11.3 by courtesy of the Naval Architecture Department of the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Singing Before the beginning of cavitation, the blades of a propeller may give out a high-pitched note. This singing, as it is called is due to the clastic vibration of the material excited by the resonant shedding of non-cavitating eddies from the trailing edge of the blades. Special Types of Propellers CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLERS-It is essential to ensure that the propelling unit can always develop enough torque to operate the propeller at the revolutions appropriate to the power being developed. This is not always possible with a propeller having fixed blades and to give this flexi- bility propellers are provided in which the blades can be rotated about axis normal to the driving shaft. By turning the blades the thrust and torque can be varied whilst maintaining constant shaft revolutions. VOITH-SCHNEDER PROPELLER-This propeller consists basically of a horizontal disc rotating about a vertical axis. Projecting vertically down from this disc are a number of spade-like blades and these feather as they and the dise rotate. By varying the sequence in which the blades feather, a thrust can be produced in any desired direction. Such a propeller confers great manocuvrability on the ship fitted with such a device. SHROUDED OR DUCTED PROPELLER—The concept of the shrouded or ducted propeller is not new. There is evidence that to increase the thrust provided by a propeller of given diameter it may be enclosed in a nozzle or shroud was considered in the 1880's. Serious consideration was given to this subject about four decades ago and became a reality in the shape of the well-known Kort nozzle especially for improving the bollard pull in tugs. Substantial improvements in bollard pulls were obtained, Similar improvements were also obtained with trawlers which have to operate at low forward speeds, Consideration is being given to the development of ducts for the heavily loaded screws of large tankers and bulk carriers, Additionally, the shroud protects the propeller from physical damage and acts as a cloak masking the propeller noise.Chapter 12 Ship and Marine Engineering Research It has been said that the keystone of technical advancement is research. There is no denying the credibility of much of the research carried out, but research is not reality. Indeed, research establishments can only remain operative on the strength of their results. An important factor is the improvement of the technical techniques employed. Organised research on a national basis has become a necessity in view of world wide competition. Ship and marine engineering research in the United Kingdom is undertaken by the British Ship Research Association (B.S.R.A.), Lloyd's Register of Shipping, government establishments and in particular the Ship Division of the National Physical Laboratory (N.P.L.), the universities and companies in the shipbuilding industry itself. An outstanding example of the latter is Vickers Ltd., who have two ship model experiment tanks. The quality of the ship produced is an important factor in that it can create a demand for new vessels by making obsolete the transport units currently used. B.S.R.A. It is just over thirty years since the incorporation of the original British Shipbuilding Research Association. The Association was formed to be the central corporate research organisation of the British Shipbuilding Industry to pursue investigations which would maintain and enhance the general technical standards of the Industry. Initially the B.S.R.A. functioned from London and in 1962 it underwent a major reorganisation following the merger with the research activities of the former PAMETRADA~—Parsons and Marine Experimental Turbine Research and Development Association. The B.S.R.A. is now located at its Wallsend Research Station with a staff of about 300. The B.S.R.A. is organised in five main divisions covering Naval Architec- ture, Production, Marine Systems, Computers and Technical Information. In naval architecture the work covers hydrodynamics, ship structures, vibration and study of the performance of ships at sea in service. In pro- duction processes, many investigations have been made and many achieve- ments including demonstrations of the efficacy of networking techniques for production control, new welding technology in shipyards, improvements in136 Elements of Ship Design flame cutting, the development of plant (such as the numerically controlled cold frame bender) and the vertical electro-gas welding machine, In the marine engine field, the investigations are concentrated on those problems which are the concern of the shipbuilder rather than the marine engine builder, in particular the systems approach to design. This is instanced by the work on the modular arrangement of engine rooms and by studies of automation. As it was recognised at an early date that computers could play an important part in shipbuilding, a computer was installed at Wallsend. The need to integrate computer-based developments into com- plete systems was recognised and an example is the BRITSHIPS system. This integrated production system—BRITSHIPS—publicly announced in 1969 by B.S.R.A. is the name for the suite of computer programmes now used in part or in total by many shipyards. The scope of the system is particu- larly comprehensive and comprises four main sub-systems: SFOLDS-Ship Form On-Line Design System—which is the preliminary hull form design programme; BRITFAIR which is the lines fairing and hull form definition system; BRITSHELL which is the system for defining shell seams and butts and the position of longitudinals; SHIPBUILDING 2 CL which is the parts definition language and processing system. B.S.R.A.'s Journal of Abstracts, translations and technical information service are now used internationally. Attention has been given to the pos- sible application of nuclear energy to merchant ship propulsion. The Association has planned two major projects to develop the design and shipbuilding technologies to be used in industry by 1980. They are known as the Ship Structural Design System and Advanced Technology Shipbuilding respectively. Figure 12, 1 shows the B.S.R.A. Committee Structure. The foregoing is by courtesy of the B.S.R.A, Wallsend Research Station, SHIP DIVISION (N.P.L.) The work of the Ship Division at the National Physical Laboratory, has two main objects. The first is to furnish the Government with information and advice about present ships and the possibilities and potentials of future ship designs. The second is to help the marine industries by providing @ research service aimed at improving the hydrodynamic design of ships and other marine vehicles. The testing tanks and research facilities of the Ship Division are situated at Teddington and Feltham, The work for the British Government is concerned to a great extent with safety and concentrates upon features of ship behaviour which bear uponTer sur soanjonayg soy TUUIOD "y's" ecie B31, Supeuabchag ona cans Coote! yoaposay Suaaainsug auranpy pun drys Ler138 Elements of Ship Design accident prevention or survival, such as manoeuvrability in shallow water or the resistance to capsizing in waves. The service to industry takes two forms. First a research, testing and consulting service is operated on a repayment basis. This service keeps the Division in close touch with the day-to-day immediate problems of the shipping and shipbuilding industries. The second service for industry is embodied in the Division's own research programme. This programme is drawn up in close consultation with industry and is broadly sub-divided as follows: Resistance Propulsion Seakeeping Vibration Manoeuvring Shallow water effects Design Studies and Power Estimates Instrumentation development ‘The results of these investigations are normally published in the technical press, in learned journals and in N.P.L. reports which are widely circulated, It is of interest to note that the N.P.L. began ship research in 1906. Currently, the work of the Ship Division is being increasingly conceiitrated upon safety matters—the prevention of collisions and groundings, etc., and in handling work for the off-shore industries such as water loading on fixed structures, Experimental Facilities ‘The headquarters of the Ship Division, N.P.L. are at Feltham, Middlesex where the main facilities are concentrated; two towing tanks (Nos 1 and 2) are situated at near by Teddington. The No. 1 towing tank is the oldest tank in the establishment and is particularly suitable for routine resistance and propulsion tests of ship models in calm water; No. 2 towing tank is equipped with a light carriage. About three-quarters of the length is of normal depth, the remainder being shallow. A flap type wavemaker is fitted at the shallow end of the tank. ‘The principal dimensions of these tanks are as below: Maximum speed Tank Length Width Depth of carriage No.itank 152m 91m 3.7m 4.3 m/sec No.2tank 204m 6.1m _ 2.7 m (deep) 7.3 m/sec 0-0.6 m (shallow) Length of shallow part 50 mShip and Marine Engineering Research 139 No. 3 towing tank is a very large modern tank with a substantial towing carriage capable of high speed and equipped with close tolerance speed control. A wavemaker fitted at one end of the tank is capable of generating both regular and irregular waves, The principal dimensions are as below. Maximum length Length Width Depth Carriage Speed of Ship Models No.3 tank 400m 14.6m 7.6m _ 0-15 m/sec 10m Fig. 12,2 shows a model of a very large tanker being prepared for tests in No. 3 towing tank. By courtesy of N.P.L. ‘The No, 4A tank is designed for manoeuvring and sea-keeping experiments with radio-controlled free models and for tests on fixed or moored struc~ tures in waves. A wavemaker is fitted along one side. This tank has a length and width of 30 m and a depth of 2.3 m. No. 1 Water tunnel—This is a variable pressure water tunnel fitted with a drive shaft and dynamometer for testing model propellers. The working section has a width and height of 0.46 m and length 1.0 m, Maximum water velocity 9.0 m/sec. Maximum rotational speed 2600 rev/min, No, 2 Water tunnel. This is much larger than No, 1 and has additional capabilities. The working section is circular with a diameter of 1.12 m, and a length of 2.2 m, velocity of 15 m/sec and rotational speed of 1200- 3300 rev/min, Circulating Water Channel The working section of this is a free surface rectangular channel through which water is made to flow by means of a pump and return circuit. Both walls and bottom are fitted with windows to allow visual observation of the flow pattern. There is a long full-width false floor which can be raised s0 as to give effectively a shallower depth below the model. The top of the working section is spanned by a carriage to which the models are attached and on which instrumenis and observers can be accommodated. It can be traversed both vertically and along the channel. Length of parallel channel 18m Width 3.66 m Depth 3.66 m Maximum depth of water 2.5m Water velocity 0.3-3.0 m/s140 Elements of Ship Design Fig.12.2 Model being prepared for testing THE UNIVERSITIES Several universities carry out research work in marine technology. Newcastle upon Tyne The research work of the department of Naval Architecture and Ship- building falls within five areas: (1) Marine structures and materials; (2) Hydrodynamics and propulsion; the department has a high reputation in this field of research and in particular with propeller design; (3) Design Synthes (4) Shipbuilding Science; (5) Marine Transport and Operations.Ship and Marine Engincering Research 141 Glasgow The Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering Department of the Univer- sity of Glasgow is undertaking a considerable amount of oil-related research. Investigations are being made into the problems of towing pro- duction platforms out to the North Sea sites and their structural stability. With supertankers, the manoeuvring and stopping of such vessels are matters of great importance. At the department a device has been developed which combines brake and rudder. The "squatting" of ships is also being investigated. CLASSIFICATION SOCIETIES Lloyd's Register of Shipping is intimately concerned with the structural strength of ships and the operational behaviour of marine propelling machinery, The Soceity has a research laboratory at Crawley in Sussex. Experimental investigations form an important part of the Society's work and the extensive composition of its records of ships and the faults they develop in service are subject to continual analysis. Lloyd's Register has concentrated much of its development work on research into hull behaviour and marine engineering research and investiga- tion in such a way as to derive maximum advantage from computer methods. GENERAL In addition to the research contributions of the classification societies and the universities there are other organisations which conduct research of interest to the shipbuilding and marine engineering industries. A typical example is the British Welding Research Association (BWRA) whose work includes investigations in pressure vessel welding, brittle fracture mechanics, fatigue of weld specimens and the general problems of welding metallurgy. The professional institutions such as the Royal Institution of Naval Archi- tects, The Institute of Marine Engineers, The North East Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders and The Institution of Engineers and Ship- builders in Scotland provide the essential facilities and opportunities for the findings of research to be presented. Extensive research work is carried out in other parts of the world notably in the United States of America and in Japan. Most maritime nations in the world have ship model testing tanks.Index A After Body After Perpendicular American Bureau Amidships Annual Surveys Areas of Immersed Sections B Bale Capacity Base Line Basic Parameters Block Coefficient BM, BM, Body Plan Breadth Moulded B.S.R.A. Building Costs Bulkhead Deck Bulk Carriers Buoyancy Bureau Veritas c Cabins Camber Cavitation Cargo Capacity Estimation Tankers Centre of Buoyancy Centre of Flotation Change of Trim Classification Societies Complement Container Ships Contracts Controllable Pitch Propeller Crew Accommodation D Damage Repairs Density Design of Sections Depth Moulded Deadweight Coefficient Dimensions 42 17 22.32 101 11 85 44 17 75 100 105 100 66 18 65 8.21 21 20. 22. 28 Displacement 8.21. Dining Saloon Diesel Machinery Low Speed Medium Speed Draught and Density Draught Docking Surveys E Eddy Making Effective Power Electric Drive Entrance F Factors in Design Finite Element Analysis Flare Floodable Length Fore Body Forward Perpendicular Freeboard i Deck Froude's Law Gas Turbines Grain Capacity Gravity Gross Tonnage H Heel Hogging Hull Form Hydrostatic Curves Particulars Estimation 1 Immersed Sections K KB KG 31 3 or a1 92 82 7 96 98 93 62 ul 8 85 at aL 97 93 42 87 19 60 30 50 ol 62144 Elements of Skip Design L L.B.P. LeB LCG Lenin Lightweight Lines Plan Lloyds Register Load Line Convention Load Waterline Lounges M Machinery Weight Margin Line Metacentre Metacentric Height Midship Section Area Coefficient M.C.T. M.L.P. Modification to S.A. Cutve MUTSU N Net Tonnage N.P.L. Nuclear Power o Otto Hahn Owners Requirements P Parameters Parallel Body Passenger Accommodation Periodical Surveys Permeability Power Powering Propelling Machinery Propulsion Prismatic Coefficient Propellers Propulsive Efficiency Promenade Deck Public Rooms 94 8.21.34 60 15 81 14 38 85 64 50 64 94 89 102 94 94 ll 17.20 62 72 7 85 39 96 90 13.97 50 98 96 4 73 Q Qp.c. R Radius of Bilge Rake Rise of Floor Run s Sagging Savannah Screw Propellers Ship Resistance Sheer Ship Types Shrouded Propeller Singing Skin Friction Special Surveys Speed Steam Machinery Stability Strength Steel Weight Specifications * Survey of Machinery Subdivision Swimming Pool T ‘Tankers Tonnage Certificate T.P.C. Trading Patterns Trim Tumble Home ‘Turbines U Universities v Voith-Schneider Propeller 98 19 94 96 13 100 100 96 7 19 90 18.57 19.78 34 18 85 m4 25 ‘Table 9.2 13 90 105 100w Wake Waterlanes Waterlane Area Coefficient Wave-Making Wetted Surface 97 51 96 97 Index Wood and Outfit World Merchant Fleet Yaw 37 13