Lecture 26 PDF

Comparison Test Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4 Example 5 Example 6 Limit Comparison Test Example Example Example Examp
Comparison Test
In this section, as we did with improper integrals, we see how to compare a
series (with Positive terms) to a well known series to determine if it converges
or diverges.
Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Comparison Test
or diverges.
I We will of course make use of our knowledge of p-series and geometric
series.
∞
X 1
p
converges for p > 1, diverges for p ≤ 1.
n=1
n
∞
X
ar n−1 converges if |r | < 1, diverges if |r | ≥ 1.
n=1

Comparison Test
or diverges.
I We will of course make use of our knowledge of p-series and geometric
series.
∞
X 1
p
converges for p > 1, diverges for p ≤ 1.
n=1
n
∞
X
ar n−1 converges if |r | < 1, diverges if |r | ≥ 1.
n=1
P P
I Comparison Test Suppose that an and bn are series with positive
terms.
P P
(i) If bn is convergent and an ≤ bn for all n, than an is also
convergent.
P P
(ii) If bn is divergent and an ≥ bn for all n, then an is divergent.
Example 1
Example 1 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

converges or diverges:
∞
X 2−1/n
n=1
n3

Example 1

∞
X 2−1/n
n=1
n3
2−1/n
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since n3
> 0 for n ≥ 1.

Example 1

∞
X 2−1/n
n=1
n3
−1/n
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since 2 n3 > 0 for n ≥ 1.
√
I We have 21/n = n 2 > 1 for n ≥ 1. Therefore 2−1/n = √ 1
n
2
< 1 for n ≥ 1.

Example 1

∞
X 2−1/n
n=1
n3
−1/n
√
n
2
< 1 for n ≥ 1.
2−1/n 1
I Therefore n3
< n3
for n > 1.

Example 1

∞
X 2−1/n
n=1
n3
−1/n
√
n
2
< 1 for n ≥ 1.
−1/n
I Therefore 2 n3 < n13 for n > 1.
Since ∞ 1
P
n=1 n3 is a p-series with p > 1, it converges.
I

Example 1

∞
X 2−1/n
n=1
n3
−1/n
√
n
2
< 1 for n ≥ 1.
−1/n
I Therefore 2 n3 < n13 for n > 1.
Since ∞ 1
P
n=1 n3 is a p-series with p > 1, it converges.
I
Comparing the above series with ∞ 1

P
n=1 n3 , we can conclude that
I
P∞ 2−1/n P∞ 2−1/n
also converges and n=1 n3 ≤ ∞ 1
P
n=1 n3 n=1 n3

Example 2

∞
X 21/n
n=1
n

Example 2

∞
X 21/n
n=1
n
21/n
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since n
> 0 for n ≥ 1.

Example 2

∞
X 21/n
n=1
n
21/n
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
√
I We have 21/n = n 2 > 1 for n ≥ 1.

Example 2

∞
X 21/n
n=1
n
21/n
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
√
I We have 21/n = n 2 > 1 for n ≥ 1.
21/n 1
I Therefore n
> n
for n > 1.

Example 2

∞
X 21/n
n=1
n
21/n
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
√
I We have 21/n = n 2 > 1 for n ≥ 1.
1/n
I Therefore 2 n > n1 for n > 1.
Since ∞ 1
P
n=1 n is a p-series with p = 1 (a.k.a. the harmonic series), it
I
diverges.

Example 2

∞
X 21/n
n=1
n
21/n
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
√
I We have 21/n = n 2 > 1 for n ≥ 1.
1/n
I Therefore 2 n > n1 for n > 1.
Since ∞ 1
P
n=1 n is a p-series with p = 1 (a.k.a. the harmonic series), it
I
diverges.
21/n
Therefore, by comparison, we can conclude that ∞
P
I
n=1 n also diverges.

Example 3

∞
X 1
n 2 +1
n=1

Example 3

∞
X 1
n 2 +1
n=1
1
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since n2 +1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.

Example 3

∞
X 1
n 2 +1
n=1
1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
I We have n2 + 1 > n2 for n ≥ 1.

Example 3

∞
X 1
n 2 +1
n=1
1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
1 1
I Therefore n2 +1
< n2
for n > 1.

Example 3

∞
X 1
n 2 +1
n=1
1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
I Therefore n21+1 < n12 for n > 1.
Since ∞ 1
P
n=1 n2 is a p-series with p = 2, it converges.
I

Example 3

∞
X 1
n 2 +1
n=1
1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
I Therefore n21+1 < n12 for n > 1.
Since ∞ 1
P
n=1 n2 is a p-series with p = 2, it converges.
I
Therefore, by comparison, we can conclude that ∞ 1

P
I
n=1 n2 +1
also converges
P∞ 1 P∞ 1
and n=1 n2 +1 ≤ n=1 n2 .

Example 4

∞
X n−2
n=1
2n

Example 4

∞
X n−2
n=1
2n
n−2 1
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since 2n
= n 2 2n
> 0 for n ≥ 1.

Example 4

∞
X n−2
n=1
2n
n−2 1
= n 2 2n
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
1 1
I We have n2 2n
< n2
for n ≥ 1.

Example 4

∞
X n−2
n=1
2n
n−2 1
= n 2 2n
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
1 1
I We have n2 2n
< n2
for n ≥ 1.

Example 4

∞
X n−2
n=1
2n
n−2 1
= n 2 2n
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
I We have 21 n < 12 for n ≥ 1.
n 2 n
P∞ 1
I Since 2 is a p-series with p = 2, it converges.
n=1 n

Example 4

∞
X n−2
n=1
2n
n−2 1
= n 2 2n
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
I We have 21 n < 12 for n ≥ 1.
n 2 n
P∞ 1
I Since 2 is a
p-series with p = 2, it converges.
n=1 n
we can conclude that ∞ 1

P
I Therefore,
P∞ by comparison, n=1 n 2 2n
also converges
∞
and n=1 n212n ≤ n=1 n12 .
P

Example 5

∞
X ln n
n=1
n

Example 5

∞
X ln n
n=1
n
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since lnnn > n1 > 0 for n ≥ e. Note
that this allows us to use the test since a finite number of terms have no
bearing on convergence or divergence.

Example 5

∞
X ln n
n=1
n
ln n 1
I We have n
> n
for n > 3.

Example 5

∞
X ln n
n=1
n
I We have lnnn > n1 for n > 3.
Since ∞
P 1
P∞ ln n
n=1 n diverges, we can conclude that also diverges.
I
n=1 n

Example 6

∞
X 1
n=1
n!

Example 6

∞
X 1
n=1
n!
1
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since n!
> 0 for n ≥ 1.

Example 6

∞
X 1
n=1
n!
1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
I We have n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · · 2 · 1 > 2 · 2 · 2 · · · · · 2 · 1 = 2n−1 .
Therefore n!1 < 2n−1
1
.

Example 6

∞
X 1
n=1
n!
1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
I We have n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · · 2 · 1 > 2 · 2 · 2 · · · · · 2 · 1 = 2n−1 .
Therefore n!1 < 2n−1
1
.
Since n=1 2n−1 converges, we can conclude that ∞
P∞ 1 P 1
n=1 n! also converges.
I

Limit Comparison Test

P P
Limit Comparison Test Suppose that an and bn are series with
positive terms. If
an
=c lim
bn n→∞
where c is a finite number and c > 0, then either both series converge or both
diverge. (Note c 6= 0 or ∞. )
Example Test the following series for convergence using the Limit
Comparison test:
∞
X 1
n 2 −1
n=2
(Note that our previous comparison test is difficult to apply in this and most of
the examples below.)


P P
positive terms. If
an
=c lim
bn n→∞
Comparison test:
∞
X 1
n 2 −1
n=2
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since an = n21−1 > 0 for n ≥ 2. (after
we study absolute convergence, we see how to get around this restriction.)


P P
positive terms. If
an
=c lim
bn n→∞
Comparison test:
∞
X 1
n 2 −1
n=2
We will compare this series to ∞ 1
P
n=2 n2 which converges, since it is a
I
1
p-series with p = 2. bn = n2 .


P P
positive terms. If
an
=c lim
bn n→∞
Comparison test:
∞
X 1
n 2 −1
n=2
P
I
1
an 1/(n2 −1) n2 1
I limn→∞ bn
= limn→∞ 1/n2
= limn→∞ n2 −1
= limn→∞ 1−(1/n2 )
=1


P P
positive terms. If
an
=c lim
bn n→∞
Comparison test:
∞
X 1
n 2 −1
n=2
P
I
1
an 1/(n2 −1) n2 1
I limn→∞ bn
= limn→∞ 1/n2
= limn→∞ n2 −1
= limn→∞ 1−(1/n2 )
=1
I Since c = 1 > 0, we can conclude that both series converge.
Example
P P
positive terms. If limn→∞ bann = c where c is a finite number and c > 0, then
either both series converge or both diverge. (Note c 6= 0 or ∞. )
Comparison test:
∞
X n2 + 2n + 1
n=1
n + n2 + 2n + 1
4

Example
P P
Comparison test:
∞
X n2 + 2n + 1
n=1
n + n2 + 2n + 1
4
n2 +2n+1
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since an = n4 +n2 +2n+1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.

Example
P P
Comparison test:
∞
X n2 + 2n + 1
n=1
n + n2 + 2n + 1
4
n2 +2n+1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
I For a rational
P np function, the rule of thumb is to compare the series to the
series nq
, where p is the degree of the numerator and q is the degree of
the denominator.

Example
P P
Comparison test:
∞
X n2 + 2n + 1
n=1
n + n2 + 2n + 1
4
n2 +2n+1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
I For a rational
series nq
the denominator.
n2
We will compare this series to ∞
P P∞ 1
n=1 n4 = n=1 n2 which converges, since
I
it is a p-series with p = 2. bn = n12 .

Example
P P
Comparison test:
∞
X n2 + 2n + 1
n=1
n + n2 + 2n + 1
4
n2 +2n+1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
I For a rational
series nq
the denominator.
n2
P P∞ 1
I
2
an 2 n4 +2n3 +n2
I limn→∞ bn
= limn→∞ ( n4n+n+2n+1
2 +2n+1 )/(1/n ) = limn→∞ n4 +n2 +2n+1
=
2
1+2/n+1/n
limn→∞ 1+1/n 2 +2/n3 +1/n4 = 1.

Example
P P
Comparison test:
∞
X n2 + 2n + 1
n=1
n + n2 + 2n + 1
4
n2 +2n+1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
I For a rational
series nq
the denominator.
n2
P P∞ 1
I
2
an 2 n4 +2n3 +n2
I limn→∞ bn
= limn→∞ ( n4n+n+2n+1
2 +2n+1 )/(1/n ) = limn→∞ n4 +n2 +2n+1
=
2
1+2/n+1/n
limn→∞ 1+1/n 2 +2/n3 +1/n4 = 1.
Example
Comparison test:
∞
X 2n + 1
√
n=1
n3 + 1

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X 2n + 1
√
n=1
n3 + 1
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since an = √2n+1

3
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
n +1

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X 2n + 1
√
n=1
n3 + 1

3
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
n +1
P∞ P∞ P∞
I We will compare this series to √n = n
= √1 which
n=1 n3 n=1 n3/2 n=1 n
1
diverges, since it is a p-series with p = 1/2. bn = √ .
n

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X 2n + 1
√
n=1
n3 + 1

3
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
n +1
P∞ P∞ P∞
= √1 which
n=1 n3 n=1 n3/2 n=1 n
1
n
. √ 3/2 √
I limn→∞ bann = limn→∞ ( √2n+13
) (1/ n) = limn→∞ +2n√ + n =
n +1 n3 +1
√ ‹
(2n3/2 + n) n3/2
limn→∞ √ ‹ = limn→∞ √(2+1/n) = limn→∞ √(2+1/n) = 2.
n3 +1 n3/2 (n3 +1)/n3 (1+1/n3 )

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X 2n + 1
√
n=1
n3 + 1

3
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
n +1
P∞ P∞ P∞
= √1 which
n=1 n3 n=1 n3/2 n=1 n
1
n
. √ 3/2 √
) (1/ n) = limn→∞ +2n√ + n =
n +1 n3 +1
√ ‹
(2n3/2 + n) n3/2
limn→∞ √ ‹ = limn→∞ √(2+1/n) = limn→∞ √(2+1/n) = 2.
n3 +1 n3/2 (n3 +1)/n3 (1+1/n3 )

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X 2n + 1
√
n=1
n3 + 1

3
> 0 for n ≥ 1.
n +1
P∞ P∞ P∞
= √1 which
n=1 n3 n=1 n3/2 n=1 n
1
n
. √ 3/2 √
) (1/ n) = limn→∞ +2n√ + n =
n +1 n3 +1
√ ‹
(2n3/2 + n) n3/2
limn→∞ √ ‹ = limn→∞ √(2+1/n) = limn→∞ √(2+1/n) = 2.
n3 +1 n3/2 (n3 +1)/n3 (1+1/n3 )
I Since c = 2 > 0, we can conclude that both series diverge.

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X e
2 n −1
n=1

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X e
2 n −1
n=1
e
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since an = 2n −1
> 0 for n ≥ 1.

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X e
2 n −1
n=1
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since an = 2ne−1 > 0 for n ≥ 1.
P
n=1 2n which converges, since it is a
I
1
geometric series with r = 1/2 < 1. bn = n .
2

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X e
2 n −1
n=1
P
I
1
2
.
I limn→∞ bann = limn→∞ ( 2ne−1 ) (1/2n ) = limn→∞ 1−1/2
e
n = e.

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X e
2 n −1
n=1
P
I
1
2
.
I limn→∞ bann = limn→∞ ( 2ne−1 ) (1/2n ) = limn→∞ 1−1/2
e
n = e.
I Since c = e > 0, we can conclude that both series converge.

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X 21/n
n=1
n2

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X 21/n
n=1
n2
21/n
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since an = n2
> 0 for n ≥ 1.

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X 21/n
n=1
n2
1/n
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since an = 2n2 > 0 for n ≥ 1.
P
I
1
p-series with p = 2 > 1. bn = .
n2

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X 21/n
n=1
n2
1/n
P
I
1
n2
1/n
. ln 2
an
I limn→∞ bn
= limn→∞ ( 2n2 ) (1/n2 ) = limn→∞ 21/n = limn→∞ e n = 1.

Example
Comparison test:
∞
X 21/n
n=1
n2
1/n
P
I
1
n2
1/n
. ln 2
an
I limn→∞ bn
= limn→∞ ( 2n2 ) (1/n2 ) = limn→∞ 21/n = limn→∞ e n = 1.

Comparison Test Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4 Example 5 Example 6 Limit Comparison Test Example Example Example Exampl
Example
Comparison test:
∞
!3
X 1
1+ 3−n
n=1
n

Example
Comparison test:
∞
!3
X 1
1+ 3−n
n=1
n
!3
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since an = 1+ 1
n
3−n > 0 for
n ≥ 1.

Example
Comparison test:
∞
!3
X 1
1+ 3−n
n=1
n
!3
n
3−n > 0 for
n ≥ 1.
P∞ 1
I We will compare this series to which converges, since it is a
n=1 3n
1
3

Example
Comparison test:
∞
!3
X 1
1+ 3−n
n=1
n
!3
n
3−n > 0 for
n ≥ 1.
P∞ 1
n=1 3n
1
3
!3 !3
.
an 1 −n n 1
I limn→∞ bn = limn→∞ ( 1 + n 3 ) (1/3 ) = limn→∞ 1 + n = 1.

Example
Comparison test:
∞
!3
X 1
1+ 3−n
n=1
n
!3
n
3−n > 0 for
n ≥ 1.
P∞ 1
n=1 3n
1
3
!3 !3
.
an 1 −n n 1
I limn→∞ bn = limn→∞ ( 1 + n 3 ) (1/3 ) = limn→∞ 1 + n = 1.

Example
Comparison test:
X ∞ “π”
sin
n=1
n

Example
Comparison test:
X ∞ “π”
sin
n=1
n
“ ”
π
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since an = sin n
> 0 for n > 1.

Example
Comparison test:
X ∞ “π”
sin
n=1
n
“ ”
I First we check that an > 0 –> true since an = sin πn > 0 for n > 1.

P π
P∞ 1
n=1 n = π n=1 n which diverges, since
I
π
it is a constant times a p-series with p = 1. bn = .
n

Example
Comparison test:
X ∞ “π”
sin
n=1
n
“ ”

P π
P∞ 1
I
π
n
“ ”.
I limn→∞ bann = limn→∞ (sin πn ) ( πn ) = limx→0 sinx x = 1.

Example
Comparison test:
X ∞ “π”
sin
n=1
n
“ ”

P π
P∞ 1
I
π
n
“ ”.
I limn→∞ bann = limn→∞ (sin πn ) ( πn ) = limx→0 sinx x = 1.
I Since c = 1 > 0, we can conclude that both series diverge.

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Comparison Test Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4 Example 5 Example 6 Limit Comparison Test Example Example Example Examp

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 1 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 1 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 1 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 1 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 1 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 1 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Comparing the above series with ∞ 1

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 2 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 2 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 2 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 2 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 2 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 2 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 3 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 3 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 3 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 3 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 3 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 3 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Therefore, by comparison, we can conclude that ∞ 1

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 4 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 4 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 4 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 4 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 4 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 4 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

we can conclude that ∞ 1

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 5 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 5 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 5 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test

Example 5 Use the comparison test to determine if the following series

Annette Pilkington Lecture 26 : Comparison Test