I.

Title: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

II. Materials:
Models of:
a. Suspension bridge;
b. Petronas Twin Towers; and
c. Building.
III. Principles:

Load acting on a structure is ultimately transferred to ground. In doing so, various

components of the structure are subjected to internal stresses. For example, in a building, load
acting on a slab is transferred by slab to ground through beams, columns and footings.
Assessing the internal stresses in the components of structures is known as structural analysis.

Structural system is composed of structural members joined together by structural

connections. We have four basic types of structures:

1. Trusses – consists of slender members arranged in triangular pattern.

2. Cables and Arches – are structures used to span long distances.
3. Frames – are commonly used in building structures. Frames are composed of beams
and columns that are connected together.
4. Surface Structure – subjected to tension and compression.
There are four basic types of structural members. These are as follows:
1. Tension members and tie rods
2. Compression members and tie rods
3. Flexural members or beams
4. Members subjected to combined loading or beam columns
Although we are mainly concerned with the analysis of structures, it is desirable to
give some attention to the loads and forces that are expected to come on a structure.
1. Dead loads consist of the weight of the various structural members and weight of any
object that permanently attached to the structure.
2. Live loads can vary both in their magnitude and location like bridge loads.
3. Wind load is a lateral load subjected to the building. Wind loads are very important in
the case of tall structures and also low level light structures in coastal areas. Wind
forces are based upon the maximum wind velocity, which in turn depends upon the
region and location. It depends upon the shape of the structure.
4. Rain and snow loads affect the design of roofs.
5. Earthquake loads are lateral load, should be considered for the design of structures in
areas of seismic activity. It can be get in consider only in the earthquake regions such
as Japan and USA. The highly irregular or random shaking of the ground transmits
acceleration to structures and the mass of the structure resists the motion due to inertia
effects.
6. Soil and hydrostatic forces. Structures below the ground, such as foundation walls,
retaining walls or tunnels are subjected to forces due to soil pressure.
7. Others forces. Impact, vibrations, temperature effects, shrinkage, creep, settlement of
foundations and other such phenomena produce effects on structures, some of which
may be similar to those caused by external loads and forces. These forces may
sometimes be surprisingly large and should be taken into consideration while
designing.
On the other side, there are internal forces present in the structural members:
a.) Internal Axial Force (P) – equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
algebraic sum (resultant) of the components in the direction parallel to the axis
of the beam of all external loads and support reactions
b.) Internal Shear Force (V) - equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
algebraic sum (resultant) of the components in the direction perpendicular to
the axis of the beam of all external loads and support reactions
c.) Internal Bending Moment – equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
algebraic sum of the moments about (the centroid of the cross section of the
beam) the section of all external loads and support reactions
A. Cables/Suspension Bridge
Cables are often used in engineering structures for support and to transmit
loads from one member to another. When used to support suspension
roofs, bridges, and trolley wheels, cables form the main load-carrying
element in the structure. In the force analysis of such systems, the weight
of the cable itself may be neglected; however, when cables are used as
guys for radio antennas, electrical transmission lines, and derricks, the
cable weight may become important and must be included in the structural
analysis. When deriving the necessary relations between the force in the
cable and its slope, we will make the assumption that the cable is perfectly
flexible and inextensible. Due to its flexibility, the cable offers no
 resistance to shear or bending and, therefore, the force acting in the cable
is always tangent to the cable at points along its length. Being in
inextensible, the cable has a constant length both before and after the load
is applied. As a result, once the load is applied, the geometry of the cable
remains fixed, and the cable or a segment of it can be treated as a rigid
body.
B. Petronas Tower
The Petronas Twin Towers at Kuala Lumpur City Centre represent a
tremendous achievement in structural engineering design. The slender
towers soar 452 meters (1,483 feet) above Kuala Lumpur and culminate in
gleaming stainless-steel pinnacles. Their dramatic Islamic-themed design
is enhanced by a sky bridge at floors 41 and 42 that connects the towers
and creates a visual gateway to a major public park. The sky bridge was
designed with slender structural members rather than heavy trusses to be
compatible with the architecture of the buildings and was constructed more
than 150 meters above street level. It accommodates independent
With a total floor plan area of 1.8 million m², Kuala Lumpur City
Centre is a mixed development consisting of offices, shops, entertainment
and recreational facilities, hotels, apartments and parking facilities. The
Petronas Towers, at 450 m to the tips of the pinnacles, are at present the
two tallest buildings in the world and have created an elegant landmark for
Kuala Lumpur. Each tower contains approximately 185,000 m² of total
floor area on 88 occupied floors. A concrete core and cylindrical tube
structure provides a safe, elegant, efficient and constructible solution to the
challenge of designing the world’s tallest buildings, the Petronas Towers.

IV. Practical Applications:

Construction is the major activity of civil engineering which is continuously

improving. As land cost is going up there is demand for tall structures in urban areas while in
rural areas need is for low constructions. One has to develop technology using locally
available materials.
 Important examples related to civil engineering include buildings, bridges, and
towers; and in other branches of engineering, ship and aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels,
mechanical systems, and electrical supporting structures are important.

When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the engineer
must account for its safety, aesthetics, and serviceability, while taking into consideration
economic and environmental constraints. Often this requires several independent studies of
different solutions before final judgment can be made as to which structural form is
appropriate.

Frequent earthquakes in the recent years have brought importance of analysis of the
structures for earthquake forces. Designing earthquake resistant structures is attracting lot of
researches.

Design of members and structures of reinforced concrete is a problem distinct from

but closely related to analysis. Strictly speaking, it is almost possible to exactly analyse a
concrete structure, and to design exactly is no less difficult. Fortunately, we can make a few
fundamental assumptions which make the design of reinforced concrete quite simple, if not
easy. A problem unique to the design of reinforced concrete structures is the need to detail
each member throughout. Steel structures, in general, require only the detailed design of
connections. For concrete structures, we must determine not only the area of longitudinal and
lateral reinforcement required in each member, but also the way to best arrange and connect
the reinforcement to insure acceptable structural performance.