Effective bonding, grounding: The backbone of electrical

safety
Providing and maintaining an effective impedance path to ground is critical to maintain
reliable, efficient, and safe operating facilities.
Frank Waterer
10/09/2012

A stable electrical generating source serves as the backbone of operations in

any facility, building or manufacturing plant. Electrical failures or power
instability resulting from a poorly designed power distribution system can
negatively impact safety, production, and the bottom line of a company’s
operations.

As the foundation of any power generation unit and associated power

distribution system, a well-designed, professionally installed, and effectively
bonded grounding system is of critical importance to any power generation
facility or site location. Providing and maintaining an effective impedance path
to earth that stabilizes the system voltage is a basic and critical component in
maintaining reliable, efficient, and safe operating facilities.

The following points outline the five principal purposes for an effective bonding
and grounding system via a low or intentionally selected impedance path, as
well as a guide to the applicable differences between bonding, grounding, and
earthing. By following these basic principles, operations and facilities managers
will be able to ensure they are helping their power generation facilities to
become as reliable, safe, and efficient as possible.

Three-phase, 4-wire solidly or resistively grounded “WYE” are preferred over

the use of 3-phase, 3-wire ungrounded systems specifically because of the
possibility for destructive transient overvoltages that can occur throughout the
power system during any restriking phase-to-ground fault. Such destructive
overvoltages resulting from a resonant condition being established between the
inductive reactance of the system and the distributed capacitance to ground
(earth) can be several times the normal phase-to-phase voltage in magnitude.

Experience has proven that these overvoltages may very rapidly cause failure
of insulation at multiple locations throughout a power distribution system,
particularly at motors and loads associated with sensitive electronic equipment.
Transient overvoltages from restriking ground faults are the primary reason why
ungrounded systems are no longer recommended and solid or impedance
grounded systems of some form are predominantly installed.
Purposes of bonding and grounding

The principal purposes for an “effectively bonded grounding system via a low
or intentionally selected impedance path to earth” are intended to provide for
the following:

 Provide for an applicable reference to earth to stabilize the system

voltage of a power generation supply and power distribution system
during normal operations.

The generating system voltage is determined by how the output windings are
arranged and configured as well as how the windings are referenced to ground
or earth. The distribution system voltage is determined by how the secondary
windings of the respective power distribution transformer are actually
configured, in addition to how the windings are referenced to ground or earth.

The primary function or purpose for grounding the XO terminal of generation

source is to provide for an applicable reference to the planet Earth to stable
generating system voltage at the origins of the generated power source.

Since the secondary windings of a power distribution transformer are a specific

and separately derived electrical system, the primary function or purpose of the
system bonding jumper is to stabilize the system voltage relative to planet
Earth. The system bonding jumper is usually connected within the same
enclosure as the power supply terminals, and the jumper is not normally sized
to carry large magnitudes of phase-to-ground fault current.

 Create a very low impedance path for ground fault current to flow in a
relatively controlled path.

The exact point and time where a phase-to-ground fault might occur cannot be
determined. However, depending on the exact point of the phase-to-ground
fault within a specific power distribution system, multiple return paths are likely
to occur between the point where the fault conductor makes contact with a
conductive surface and the XO terminal of the generator or secondary windings
of the power distribution transformer.

Consequently, it is desirable and preferred that the majority of the ground fault
current flow primarily in the specific equipment bonding jumpers and equipment
ground conductors directly associated with the fault circuit. If the impedance in
the equipment bonding jumpers and equipment ground conductors associated
with the faulted circuit is too high, then significant magnitudes of phase-to
ground fault current will likely take various other parallel paths in order to return
to the source winding of the power supply.

These various other uncontrolled and unexpected return paths can subject
facility personnel to dangerous touch potential differences which can cause
death, injury, or permanent damage to internal organs. In addition, other
unaffected equipment could be negatively affected or damaged by potential
rises and unintended flow of current.

 Create an effective and very low impedance path for ground fault current
to flow in order for overcurrent protective devices and any ground fault
protection systems to operate effectively as designed and intended.

During the time of the phase-to-ground faulted condition, the subjected

equipment bonding jumpers and the equipment grounding conductors are
intended to function as a very low impedance path between the point of the fault
and the ground bus within the service equipment or the standby generator
equipment. Consequently, these affect equipment bonding jumpers, and the
equipment grounding conductors constitute 50% of the total power circuit during
the period in which phase-to-ground fault current is flowing.

If the impedance in the ground fault return path is not effectively low enough,
then the overcurrent protective devices employed in the circuit as fuses and
thermal-magnetic circuit breaker will be ineffective to prevent substantial
equipment damage. If the impedance in the ground fault return path is too high,
then the resulting flow of phase-to-ground fault current might actually be lower
than the rating of the fuses and thermal-magnetic circuit breakers installed to
protect the affected circuit.

Per NEC 250-4(A)(5), in order to meet the requirements of an effective ground-

fault current path, “electrical equipment and wiring and other electrically
conductive material likely to become energized shall be installed in a manner
that creates a permanent, low-impedance circuit facilitating the operation of the
overcurrent device or ground detector for high-impedance grounded systems.”
The ground fault current path must be capable of effectively and safely carrying
the maximum ground-fault current likely to be imposed on it from any point in a
specific power distribution system where a ground fault may occur to the return
to power supply source. Earth cannot be considered as an effective ground-
fault current path.

Figure 1 (to the left) is an example of a solidly grounded power generator or the
secondary windings of a power distribution transformer where no intentional
impedance is supposed to exist between the XO terminal of the generator or
secondary windings of the power distribution transformer and earth. In this type
of installation there is no intentional impedance to any phase-to-ground fault
current other than the impedance in the supplying cable, windings, and ground
fault return paths. Therefore, the maximum magnitude of phase-to-ground fault
current will flow during any unfortunate phase-to-ground fault condition. (XGO is
the zero sequence reactance of the windings of the generator or transformer.)

Figure 2 is an example of a resistance or resistively grounded power generator

or the secondary windings of a power distribution transformer where there is
selected impedance via a selected grounding resistor intentionally installed
between the XO terminal of the generator windings and earth or the XO terminal
of the secondary windings of the power distribution transformer and earth.
In addition to the inherit impedance associated with the supplying cable,
windings, and ground fault return paths, in this type of installation there is an
intentional resistance inserted to limit any phase-to-ground fault current flow.
Therefore, the maximum magnitude of current resulting from an unintended
phase-to-ground fault current will be limited to a designated magnitude by the
selected value of RN (prescribed ohmic value of the grounding resistor) plus the
XGO.

The reasons for limiting the current by resistance grounding include the
following:

1. To reduce burning and melting effects in faulted electric equipment, such

as switchgear, transformers, cables, and rotating machines.

2. To reduce mechanical and thermal stresses in circuits and apparatus

carrying fault currents. (This also includes the windings of the supplying
generator or transformer.)

3. To reduce electric-shock hazards to personnel caused by stray ground-

fault currents in the ground-return path.

4. To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who may have
accidentally caused or happen to be in close proximity to the ground fault.

5. To reduce the momentary line-voltage dip occasioned by the occurrence

and clearing of a ground fault.

6. To secure control of transient overvoltages while at the same time

avoiding the shutdown of a faulted circuit on the occurrence of the first
ground fault (high resistance grounding).

Resistance grounding may be either of two types, high resistance or low

resistance, which are distinguished by the magnitude of ground-fault current
permitted to flow.

High-resistance grounding employs a neutral resistor of high ohmic value. The

value of the resistor is selected to limit the current to a magnitude equal to or
slightly greater than the total capacitance charging current.

Typically, the ground-fault current is limited to 10 A or less, although some

specialized systems at voltages in the 15 kV class or higher might require higher
ground-fault levels to activate protective relays. In general, the use of high-
resistance grounding on systems where the line-to-ground fault exceeds 10 A
should be avoided because of the potential damage caused by an arcing
current larger than 10 A in a confined space.

Low-resistance grounding is designed to limit ground-fault current to a range

between 100 A and 1,000 A, with 400 A being typical. The neutral resistor is
selected according to R = Vln/Ig, where Vln is the system line to neutral voltage
and Ig is the desired ground-fault current. Since the combined effects of
charging current and system source impedance will affect the ground-current
value less than 0.5% in the typical range of utility supplied systems, it is
permissible to ignore these effects in calculating the ground-fault resistance
value. The general practice is to consider that the full system line-to-neutral
voltage appears across the grounding resistor.

Figure 3 is an example of a reactance grounded power generator or the

secondary windings of a power distribution transformer where there is selected
impedance via a selected inductive coil intentionally installed between the
XO terminal of the generator windings and earth or the XO terminal of the
secondary windings of the power distribution transformer and earth.

In addition to the inherit impedance associated with the supplying cable,

windings, and ground fault return paths, in this type of installation there is
intentional inductive impedance inserted to limit any phase-to-ground fault
current flow. Therefore, the maximum magnitude of current resulting from an
unintended phase-to-ground fault current will be limited to a designated
magnitude by the selected value of XN (prescribed inductance value of the
grounding reactor) plus the XGO.

The term “reactance grounding” describes the case in which a reactor is

connected between the system neutral and ground, as shown in Figure 3. Since
the ground fault that may flow in a reactance-grounded system is a function of
the neutral reactance, the magnitude of the ground-fault current is often used
as a criterion for describing the degree of grounding system.

In a reactance-grounded system, the available ground-fault current should be

at least 25% (X0 = 10X1) and preferably 60% (X0= 3X1) of the three-phase fault
current to prevent serious transient overvoltages from occurring. The term X0,
as used, is the sum of the source zero sequence reactance, X0, plus three times
the grounding reactance, 3Xn, (X0 = X0 source +3Xn). This is considerably
higher than the level of fault current desirable in a resistance grounded system,
and therefore reactance grounding is usually not considered an alternative to
low-resistance grounding.

Reactance grounding is typically reserved for applications where there is a

desire to limit the ground-fault duty to a magnitude that is relatively close to the
magnitude of a 3-phase fault. Use of neutral grounding reactors to provide this
fault limitation will often be found to be a less expensive application than use of
grounding resistors if the desired current magnitude is several thousand
amperes.

 Limit differences of potential, potential rise, or step gradients between

equipment and personnel, personnel and earth, equipment and earth, or
equipment to equipment

It is extremely important that all conductive surfaces and equipment enclosures

associated with any power distribution system be effectively bonded together
via a low-impedance path. As partially explained above, without a very low
impedance path for ground fault current to flow in a relatively controlled path,
potential rises or step potential differences are likely to occur at other locations
within the power distribution system.

However, during nonfaulted conditions, part of the normal load current will flow
through the conductive surfaces, equipment enclosures, and earth if any current
carrying conductor is connected to earth at more than one location. For
example, if any grounded conductor (neutral) were to become connected to any
conductive surface or equipment enclosure downstream of the MBJ, then part
of the load current will flow through the conductive surface, equipment
enclosure, or the earth because a parallel path will have been created.

 Limit voltage rise or potential differences imposed on an asset, facility, or

structure from lightning strikes, a surge event impinging on the service
equipment, any phase-to-ground fault conditions, or the inadvertent
 commingling of or the unintentional contact with different voltage
systems.

When lightning strikes an asset, facility, or structure, the return stroke current
will divide up among all parallel conductive paths between the attachment point
and earth. The division of current will be inversely proportional to the path
impedance Z (Z = R + XL, resistance plus inductive reactance). The resistance
term should be very low, assuming effectively bonded metallic conductors.

The inductance and corresponding related inductive reactance presented to the

total return current will be determined by the combination of all the individual
inductive paths in parallel. The more parallel paths that exist in a bonding and
grounding system, the lower the total impedance.

Differences between bonding and grounding

The terms “bonding” and “grounding” are often employed interchangeably as

general terms in the electrical industry to imply or mean that a specific piece of
electrical equipment, structure, or enclosure is somehow referenced to earth.
In fact, “bonding” and “grounding” have completely different meanings and
employ different electrical installation methodologies.

“Bonding” is a method by which all electrically conductive materials and metallic

surfaces of equipment and structures, not normally intended to be energized,
are effectively interconnected together via a low-impedance conductive means
and path in order to avoid any appreciable potential difference between any
separate points. The bonded interconnections of any specific electrically
conductive materials, metallic surfaces of enclosures, electrical equipment,
pipes, tubes, or structures via a low impedance path are completely
independent and unrelated to any intended contact or connection to the Earth.
For example, airplanes do not have any connection to Earth when they are
airborne. However, it is extremely important for the safety and welfare of
passengers, crew, and aircraft that all metallic parts and structures of an
airplane are effectively bonded together. The laboratories and satellites orbiting
in space above the planet Earth obviously have no direct connection with the
surface of our planet. However, all of the conductive surfaces of these orbiting
laboratories and satellites must be effectively bonded together in order to avoid
differences of potential from being induced across their surfaces from the
countless charged particles and magnetic waves traveling through space.

The common method to effectively bond together different metallic surfaces of

enclosures, electrical equipment, pipes, tubes, or structures is with a copper
conductor, rated lugs, and the appropriate bolts, fasteners, or screws. Other
bonding methods between different metallic parts and pieces might employ
brackets, clamps, exothermic bonds, or welds to make effective connections.

In addition to preventing potential differences that may result in hazards,

effectively bonded equipment can also be employed to adequately and safely
conduct phase-to-ground fault current, induced currents, surge currents,
lightning currents, or transient currents during such abnormal conditions.

“Grounding” is a term used rather exclusively in North America to indicate a

direct or indirect connection to the planet Earth or to some conducting body that
serves in place of the Earth. The connection(s) to Earth can be intentional or
unintentional by an assortment of metallic means.

A designated grounding electrode is the device that is intended to establish the

direct electrical connection to the earth. A common designated grounding
electrode is often a copper-clad or copper-flashed steel rod. However, the
designated grounding electrode might be a water pipe, steel columns of a
building or structure, concrete encased steel reinforcement rods, buried copper
bus, copper tubing, galvanized steel rods, or semiconductive neoprene rubber
blankets. Gas pipes and aluminum rods cannot be employed as grounding
electrodes.

The grounding electrode conductor is the designed conductor that is employed

to connect the grounding electrode(s) to other equipment.

Frank Waterer is an electrical engineering of Schneider Electric Engineering

Services.