Petroleum Engineering Department

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Fluid Mechanic
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Chapter 2
Fluid Static
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By: Sarkar Muheddin

2019
 Chapter 2
Fluid Static

2.1. Introduction
Fluid static: is the study of fluid in which there is no relative motion between fluid
particles. If there is a relative motion, no shearing stresses exist. Since velocity
gradient, such as ⁄ are required for shearing stress to be present.

Three situation depicted in Fig. 1, involving fluid static. These include fluid at rest
as water pushing against a dam, fluid contained in a device that undergo liner
acceleration, and fluid contained in rotational cylinder. In each of these three
situations the fluid is in static equilibrium with respect to a reference frame
attached to the boundary surrounding the fluid.

Fig 1: Different situation of static fluid.

2.2. Pressure
The term pressure is used to indicate the normal force per unit area at a given point
acting on a given plane within the fluid mass of interest. We speak of pressure only
when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal
stress. Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of Newton’s
per square meter (N/m2), which is called a Pascal (Pa).
According to the definition of pressure it can be expressed mathematically as:
 Chapter 2
(1)

SI unit for pressure is N/ which is called Pascal; 1 Pa =1 N/ m2.

1 atm = average sea-level atmospheric =

1 atm= 1.01 × Pa = 101.325 kPa =14.70 lb/ =1013.25 millibars = 760 mm

Hg =1013.25 g /

1 Bar = 105 Pascal 1 millibar (mbar)=0.001 bar = 100 Pascal

Depending on the way used to measuring, pressure can be classified as:

Absolute Pressure: The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute
pressure, and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero
pressure).

Gage Pressure: Gage pressure is the pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure.
In other words, how much above or below is the pressure with respect to the
atmospheric pressure.

Vacuum pressure: Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum

pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between
the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.

Atmospheric pressure: The atmospheric pressure is the pressure that an area

experiences due to the force exerted by the atmosphere.

The relation between different types of pressure can be expressed as:

(3)

(4)

Example 1/

A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a location where the
atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.

Solution /
 Chapter 2

Fig 2: Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures.

2.3. Pressure at Point

A question that immediately arises is how the pressure at a point varies with
the orientation of the plane passing through the point? To answer this question,
consider the free-body diagram, illustrated in Fig. 2, which was obtained by
removing a small triangular wedge of fluid from some arbitrary location within a
fluid mass. Since we are considering the situation in which there are no shearing
stresses, the only external forces acting on the wedge are due to the pressure and
the weight. Although we are primarily interested in fluids at rest, to make the
analysis as general as possible, we will allow the fluid element to have accelerated
motion. The assumption of zero shearing stresses will still be valid as long as the
fluid element moves as a rigid body; that is, there is no relative motion between
adjacent elements.
 Chapter 2
Pascal’s law of fluid at rest, states that (the pressure or intensity of pressure at a
point in static fluid is same in all direction).

To investigate the statement of Pascal’s law, consider a small triangular wedge of

fluid from some arbitrary location within a fluid mass with the unity in width as
shown in Fig. 2.

Fig 3: Forces on an arbitrary wedge-shaped element of fluid.

As shown in Fig. 2.

Angle

Pressure acting on face =

Pressure acting on face =

Pressure acting on face =

Finding the Force acting on element:

From Eq.1:

(5)

Force on the face

 Chapter 2
Force on the face

Force on the face

Since the weight of the element is at the center of the element and acting as
downward force.

(6)

It is known that:

⁄ (7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

The element is at rest, mean that summation of all force in horizontal and vertical
direction is zero ∑ ∑ .

So, forces acting in horizontal direction are:

∑ (11)

( )

(12)

Solve for

(13)

Substitute eq.10 in eq.9:

Is cancel out in both side of the equation.

(14)
 Chapter 2
Forces acting in vertical direction are:

∑ (15)

Weight of the element is so small, so it can be neglected:

(16)

Solve for

(17)

Substitute eq.14 in eq.13:

Is cancel out in both side of the equation.

(18)

From equation 11 and 15:

(19)

2.4. The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics

Apply Newton’s second law to a differential fluid element of mass
with sides , , and . The fluid element is stationary relative to the
stationary rectangular coordinate system as shown in Fig.3.
 Chapter 2

Fig 4: Surface and body forces acting on small fluid element.

Two general types of forces may be applied to a fluid: body forces (equal to the
weight of the element) and surface forces (due to the pressure). The only body
force that must be considered in most engineering problems is due to gravity. In
some situations body forces caused by electric or magnetic fields might be present;
they will not be considered in this text.

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ (20)

For a differential fluid element, the body force is:

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ (21)

In Cartesian coordinates , so :

⃗ ⃗ (22)

In a static fluid there are no shear stresses, so the only surface force is the pressure
force. Pressure is a scalar field, ; in general we expect the pressure to
vary with position within the fluid.

Let the pressure be at the center, , of the element. To determine the pressure at
each of the six faces of the element, we use a Taylor series expansion of the
pressure about point .
 Chapter 2

The pressure at the right face of the differential element is:

( ) (23)

The pressure on the left face of the differential element is:

( ) ( ) (24)

The pressure force on each face acts against the face. A positive pressure
corresponds to a compressive normal stress.

⃗ ( ) ̂ ( ) ̂

( ) ̂ ( ) ̂

( ) ( ̂) ( ) ( ̂) (25)

Collecting and canceling terms, we obtain:

⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) (26)

The term in parentheses is called the gradient of the pressure or simply the pressure
gradient and may be written or . In rectangular coordinates.

Where:

̂ ̂ ̂

(̂ ̂ ̂ ) (̂ ̂ ̂ ) (27)

The gradient can be viewed as a vector operator; taking the gradient of a scalar
field gives a vector field.
 Chapter 2
⃗ (28)

We combine the formulations for surface and body forces that we have developed
to obtain the total force acting on a fluid element. Thus

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ (29)

On a per unit volume basis:

⃗
⃗ (30)

For a fluid particle, Newton’s second law gives ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ,for static fluid
⃗ . Thus
⃗
⃗ (31)

We obtain;

⃗ (32)

Eq.29 is a vector equation, which means that it is equivalent to three component

equations that must be satisfied individually. The component equations are:

If the coordinate system is chosen with the axis directed vertically upward, then
Under these conditions, the component equations
become:
 Chapter 2

It indicates that, under the assumptions made, the pressure is independent of

coordinates and ; it depends on alone. Thus since is a function of a single
variable, a total derivative may be used instead of a partial derivative. With these
simplification, above equation finally reduce to:

(33)

The above equation is valid for (Static fluid, gravity is the only body force, and the
z axis is vertical and upward).

2.5. Pressure Variation with Depth of an Incompressible Fluid

For an incompressible fluid, ρ=constant. Then for constant gravity:

(34)

If the pressure at the reference level, , is designated as , then the pressure, ,

at level is found by integration:

∫ ∫ (35)

(36)

For liquids, it is often convenient to take the origin of the coordinate system at the
free surface (reference level) and to measure distances as positive downward from
the free surface.
 Chapter 2

With h measured positive downward, we have

And obtain

(37)

Or

(38)

Relative pressure

(39)

Absolute Pressure

(40)

Can be atmospheric ( ) pressure for a free surface fluid or gage

pressure for pressure difference between to point with different elevation in
a fluid at rest.

Example 2/

What will be (a) the gage pressure and absolute pressure of water at depth 12m
below the surface? ⁄ , and ⁄
 Chapter 2
Solution/

(a)

(b)

⁄ ⁄

According to Eq. 37 and 38 Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape

or cross section of the container. It changes with the vertical distance, but remains
constant in other directions. Therefore, the pressure is the same at all points on a
horizontal plane in a given fluid. As shown in Fig. 5 the pressures at points A, B, C,
D, E, F, and G are the same since they are at the same depth, and they are
interconnected by the same static fluid. However, the pressures at points H and I
are not the same since these two points cannot be interconnected by the same fluid
(i.e., we cannot draw a curve from point I to point H while remaining in the same
fluid at all times), although they are at the same depth.

Fig 5: Similarity of Pressure with depth and different with fluid type.

Example 3 /
Determine the pressure at point A, B, C and D in the following figure.
 Chapter 2

Solution/
PA=γ1h1+ γ2h2+ γ3h3
PB=γ1h1+ γ2h2
PC=γ1h1
PD=0

Example 4/
Determine the pressure at a point A, B, C, and D if fluid 1 is mercury, fluid 2 is
water and fluid 3 is oil with (
Pair is equivalent to depth of mercury of 200 mm, and then determine the pressure
at previous points. Pair negative pressure (vacuum).

Pair

Air D

60 cm Fluid 3 C
50 cm Fluid 2 B

30 cm Fluid 3 A

Solution/
Pair=γh
= 13. 6*9806*0.2
= 26672.32 Pa
PA=13. 6*9806*0.3+9806*0.5+0.8*9806*0. 6-26672.32
= 22946.04 pa
PB=9806*0.5+0.8*9806*0. 6-26672.32
 Chapter 2
= -17062.44 pa
Pc=0.8*9806*0. 6-26672.32
= -21965.44 pa
Pc= Pair = -26672.32 pa
Determine the position of zero pressure.

A consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal

direction is that the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount. This is called Pascal’s law, it means that two
hydraulic cylinders of different areas could be connected, and the larger could be
used to exert a proportionally greater force than that applied to the smaller.
“Pascal’s machine” has been the source of many inventions that are a part of our
daily lives such as hydraulic brakes and lifts. This is what enables us to lift a car
easily by one arm, as shown in Fig. 6. Noting that since both pistons are
at the same level (the effect of small height differences is negligible, especially at
high pressures), the ratio of output force to input force is determined to be:

(41)
The area ratio A2/A1 is called the ideal mechanical advantage of the hydraulic lift.
Using a hydraulic car jack with a piston area ratio of , for example, a
person can lift a 1000-kg car by applying a force of just 10 kgf (= 90.8 N).

Fig 6: Transmission of fluid pressure.

 Chapter 2
2.6. Measurement of Pressure
The pressure of fluid is measured by the following devices:

(a) Barometer
(b) Bandon Gage
(c) Manometer

2. 6.1 Barometer
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure. The
atmospheric pressure can be measured by inverting a mercury-filled tube into a
mercury container that is open to the atmosphere, as shown in Fig. 7. The pressure
at point B is equal to the atmospheric pressure, and the pressure at point C can be
taken to be zero since there is only mercury vapor above point C and the pressure
is very low relative to and can be neglected to an excellent approximation.
Writing a force balance in the vertical direction gives.

(42)

frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as the
pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (
) under standard gravitational acceleration ( ). If
water instead of mercury were used to measure the standard atmospheric pressure,
a water column of about 10.3 m would be needed. Pressure is sometimes expressed
(especially by weather forecasters) in terms of the height of the mercury column.
The standard atmospheric pressure, for example, is 760 mmHg (29.92 inHg) at
0°C. The unit mmHg is also called the torr. Therefore, 1 atm = 760 torr and 1 torr
= 133.3 Pa.

Fig 7: The Basic barometer.

 Chapter 2
Example 5/
Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading is
740 mm Hg and the gravitational acceleration is . Assume the
temperature of mercury to be 10°C, at which its density is 13,570 .

Solution/

( )( ) ( )( )

2.6.2 Bourdon Tube Gage

Another type of commonly used mechanical pressure measurement device is the
Bourdon tube, which consists of a bent, coiled, or twisted hollow metal tube whose
end is closed and connected to a dial indicator needle Fig. 8. When the tube is open
to the atmosphere, the tube is un-deflected, and the needle on the dial at this state is
calibrated to read zero (gage pressure). When the fluid inside the tube is
pressurized, the tube stretches and moves the needle in proportion to the applied
pressure.

Fig 8: Different type of Bourdon Tube.

2.6.3 Manometer
A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid columns in
vertical or inclined tubes. Pressure-measuring devices based on this technique are
called manometers. The mercury barometer is an example of one type of
manometer, but there are many other configurations possible depending on the
 Chapter 2
particular application. Three common types of manometers include the piezometer
tube, the U-tube manometer, and the inclined-tube manometer.
2.6.3.1 Piezometer Tube
This is the simplest form of manometers used for measuring liquid pressure when
it is above zero gauges. The device consist of a single glass tube, it is connected to
the container from one end, where the pressure need to be measured and the other
end is opened to the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 9.

Fig 9: Piezometer Tube.

(43)

Although the piezometer tube is a very simple and accurate pressure-measuring

device, it has several disadvantages. It is suitable only if the pressure in the
container is greater than atmospheric pressure (otherwise air would be sucked into
the system), and the pressure to be measured must be relatively small so the
required height of the column is reasonable. Also the fluid in the container in
which the pressure is to be measured must be a liquid rather than a gas.

2.6.3.2 U-Tube Manometer

It consist of a glass which bent in U-shape one end of it, is connected to a point
where pressure is to be measured and other end remain open to atmospheric
pressure as shown in Fig.10.The U-Tube manometer containing one or more fluids
such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil. To keep the size of the manometer to a
 Chapter 2
manageable level, heavy fluids such as mercury are used if large pressure
differences are anticipated.

Fig. 10: Basic U-tube Manometer.

(44)

The U-tube manometer is also widely used to measure the difference in pressure
between two containers or two points in a given system. Consider a manometer
connected between containers A and B as is shown in Fig.11. The difference in
pressure between A and B can be found by again starting at one end of the system
and working around to the other end.

Fig. 11: Differential U-tube Manometer.

 Chapter 2
For example, at the pressure is which is equal to and as we move to point
(2) the pressure increases by . The pressure at is equal to and as we
move upward to point (4) the pressure decreases by . Similarly, as we
continue to move upward from point (4) to (5) the pressure decreases by
.Finally, since they are at equal elevations. Thus,

Or
(45)

2.6.3.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer

To measure small pressure changes, a manometer of the type shown in Fig. 12 is
frequently used. One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle θ, and the
differential reading is measured along the inclined tube. The difference in pressure
can be expressed as:

Or
(46)

Fig. 12: Inclined-tube Manometer.

Example 6/
A manometer is used to measure the pressure of a gas in a tank. The fluid used has
a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 cm, as shown in
Fig. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure
within the tank.
 Chapter 2

Solution/

⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄ ( )( )
⁄ ⁄

Example 7/
A closed tank contains compressed air and oil (SG oil =0.9) as is shown in Fig. A
U-tube manometer using mercury (SG Hg=13. ) is connected to the tank as
shown. The column heights are
 Chapter 2
Solution/

( )( ) ( )( )

Since the specific weight of the air above the oil is much smaller than the specific
weight of the oil, the gage should read the pressure we have calculated; that is,

Example 8/
The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a Multi-
fluid manometer as shown in Fig. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude
of 1400 m where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air pressure
in the tank if Take the densities of
water, oil, and mercury to be 1000 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ,
respectively.
 Chapter 2
Solution/

( )

⁄ ( ⁄
( ⁄ ⁄ ( )( )
⁄ ⁄