BLOOD HEMATOCRIT
- “river of life” - “blood fraction”; percentage
- Transports everything that must 45% --- RBC
be carried 1%< --- WBC, Platelets
- Only fluid tissue in the body 55% --- Plasma
COMPONENTS OF BLOOD PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND
FORMED ELEMENTS VOLUME
- Living blood cells suspended in
the plasma BLOOD
- CONSISTENCY: sticky, opaque
PLASMA fluid which is heavier than water;
- Nonliving fluid matrix 5x thicker
- COLOR: color varies to scarlet
• Collagen & Elastic Fibers- (oxy-rich) to dull red or purple
absent from blood (oxy-poor)
• Dissolved protein- visible; - TASTE: metallic, salty taste;
turned to fibrin strand during slightly alkaline (pH between 7.35
blood clotting and 7.45)
• Sample Blood (separated)- plasma - TEMPERATURE: 38°C or 100.4°F;
on top, formed elements at higher than body temp. (friction
bottom produced as blood flows through
vessels)
ERYTHROCYTES (RBC) - 8% of body weight; 5-6 L or 6
- Reddish “pellet” at bottom of quarts –volume in healthy adults
tube
- Formed elements that function A. PLASMA
in oxygen transport - 90% water; liquid part of blood
- 45% of the total blood sample - Dissolved substances: nutrients,
salts, respiratory gases,
BUFFY COAT hormones, plasma proteins,
- Thin, whitish layer at the waste, products of cell
junction between RBC and metabolism
plasma
- Contains: WBC, platelets PLASMA PROTEINS
- Most abundant solutes
LEUKOCYTES (WBC) - Made most by LIVER
- Act in various ways to protect the
body ALBUMIN
- Acts as a carrier to shuttle certain
PLATELET molecules through circulation
- Cell fragments that help stop - Important blood buffer
bleeding - Contributes to osmotic pressure
CLOTTING PROTEINS
- Help stem blood loss when blood
vessel is injured
ANTIBODIES
- Help protect body from
pathogens
• Blood proteins ↓, liver is
stimulated to produce proteins
• Blood becomes too acid
(acidosis) or too basic (alkalosis),
respiratory & urinary systems
restore it to its normal, slightly
alkaline pH range
• Plasma distributes body heat, by-
product of cellular metabolism
B. FORMED ELEMENTS
(1) ERYTHROCYTES (RBC)
- Ferry oxygen to all cells of the
body
- Anucleate (lack nucleus)
- “bags” of hemoglobin molecules
- Lack mitochondria; makes
energy through anaerobic
mechanism
- Small flexible cell; biconcave disc
- Outnumbers WBC by about 1,000
to 1; major factor contributing to
blood viscosity
HEMOGLOBIN (Hb)
---iron-bearing protein that
transports most of oxygen that is
carried by blood.
---the more Hb a RBC contain,
the more oxygen can be carried.
(2) LEUKOCYTES (WBC)
- Crucial for body defense
- 4,800-10,800 WBCs/mm3 of
blood
LEUKOCYTES (WBC)
- Contains nuclei and organelles
- Form protective, movable army
that helps defend body against
damage by bacteria, viruses,
parasites, and tumor cells
- Able to slip into and out of blood
vessels (diapedesis: leaping
across)
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- Means of transportation to areas
of the bodies where their service
is needed for inflammatory or
immune response
POSITIVE CHEMOTAXIS
- Capability of locating areas of
tissue damage and infection in
the body by responding to
certain chemicals that diffused
from damaged cells
AMOEBOID MOTION
- Form flowing cytoplasmic
extensions that help move them
along
- Action made by WBC by moving
through spaces once they have
“caught the scent”
LEUKOCYTOSIS
- Refers to a total WBC count
above 11,000 cells/mm3
- Indicates that a bacterial or viral
infection is stewing in the body
LEUKOPENIA
- Abnormally low WBC count
- Caused by certain drugs
 2 MAJOR GROUPS OF WBCs
I. GRANULOCYTES
- Granule containing WBCs
- Have lobed nuclei
(a) NEUTROPHILS
• Most numerous WBC
• Have multilobed nucleus
• Have very fine granules that
respond to both acidic and basic
stains
• Avid phagocytes at sites of acute
infection
• Particularly partial to: bacteria
and fungi which they kill during
respiratory burst
(b) EOSINOPHILS
• Have blue-red nucleus (earmuffs)
and brick-red cytoplasmic
granules
• Increases rapidly during
infections by parasitic worms
ingested in foods
• They gather around and release
enzymes from cytoplasmic
granules onto parasite’s surface,
digesting it away
(c) BASOPHILS
• Rarest WBC
• Have large histamine-containing
granules that stains dark blue.
HISTAMINE- inflammatory
chemical that makes blood
vessels leaky & attracts other
WBC to inflamed sites.
AGRANULOCYTES
Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
Nuclei are closer to norm
(a) LYMPHOCYTES
• Have large, dark purple nucleus
that occupies most of the cell
volume
• Slightly larger than RBC
• Tend to take up residence in
lymphatic tissues (tonsils) where
they play an important role in
immune response
• Second most numerous WBC in
blood
(b) MONOCYTES
• Largest of the WBCs
• Have abundant cytoplasm and
distinctive U or kidney-shaped
nucleus
• When it migrates into tissues,
the change into macrophages
with huge appetite
MACROPHAGES- important in
fighting chronic infections
“Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas”
(3) PLATELETS
- Fragments of bizarre
multinucleate cells
(MEGAKARYOCYTES), which
pinch off thousands of anucleate
platelet “pieces” that quickly seal
themselves off from the
surrounding fluids
- Appear dark staining, irregularly
shaped bodies
- Normal platelet count: 300,000
cells/mm3
HEMATOPOIESIS (BLOOD CELL
FORMATION)
- Occurs in red bone marrow or
myeloid tissue.
Myeloid tissue in adults is found
in: Axial Skeleton, Pectoral &
Pelvic Girdle, Proximal Epiphyses
of humerus and femur
HEMOCYTOBLAST
- Resides in red bone marrow
- Stem cell where all formed
elements arise from
- Forms 2 types of descendants:
(a) LYMPHOID STEM CELL
• Produces lymphocytes
and myeloid stem cell
(b) MYELOID STEM CELL
• Can produce all other
classes of formed
elements
FORMATION OF RBC
→ As they age, RBC becomes rigid
ad falls apart in 100-120 days
→ Remains are eliminated by
phagocytes (spleen, liver, other
body tissues)
→ RBC components are salvaged
→ Iron is bound to protein as
ferritin
→ Balance of heme group is
degraded to bilirubin, secreted
into intestine by liver cells
→ Becomes brown pigment called
stercobilin that leaves body in
feces
→ Globin is broken down to amino
acid, released in circulation
→ Lost blood cells are replaced
more or less continuously by
division of hemocytoblast in red
bone marrow.
→ RBC divide many times and
begin synthesizing huge amount
of hemoglobin
→ When enough hemoglobin has
been accumulated, nucleus and
organelles are ejected
→ Cell collapses inward
→ Result is reticulocyte (young
RBC) because it contains rER
→ Reticulocyte enters bloodstream
to transport oxygen
→ 2 days of release, it ejects
remaining ER and become RBC
→ Entire developmental process
from hemocytoblast to mature
RBC takes 3-5 days
ERYTHROPOIETIN
- Hormone that controls the rate
of RBC production
- Kidney plays a major role in
producing this hormone.
- When blood oxygen level begins
to decline, kidneys step up their
release of erythropoietin which
targets the BONE MARROW,
prodding it into "high gear" to
turn out more RBCs.
• Number of RBC in blood is
determined by the ability of the
available RBCs to transport enough
oxygen.
FORMATION OF WBC &
PLATELETS
COLONY STIMULATING FACTORS
(CSFs) & INTERLEUKINS
- Prompted red bone marrow to
turn out leukocytes
- enhance the ability of mature
leukocytes to protect the body
THROMBOPOIETIN
- accelerates the production of
platelets from megakaryocytes
BONE MARROW BIOPSY
- provides cells for a microscopic
examination
- a special needle is used to
withdraw a small sample of red
marrow from one of the flat
bones
HEMOSTASIS
- stopping the bleeding
- fast and localized response,
involves many substances
normally present in the plasma,
released by platelets and injured
tissue cells.
PHASES OF HEMOSTASIS
(1) VASCULAR SPASMS OCCUR.
VASOCONSTRICTION- immediate
response to blood vessel injury,
decreasinf blood loss until clotting
occur.
Other causes:
• DIRECT INJURY to smooth muscle
cells
• stimulation of LOCAL PAIN
RECEPTORS
• release of SEROTONIN by platelets
(2) PLATELET PLUG FORMS.
• Platelets are repelled by
intact endothelium
• When underlying
COLLAGEN FIBERS are
exposed, platelets become
STICKY and clings to
damaged site.
• Platelets release chemicals
that enhace the vascular
spasms and attract more
platelets.
• As more platelets pile up,
platelet plug forms.
- COAGULATION EVENTS
OCCUR.
• Injured tissues are releasing
TISSUE FACTOR (TF), which
interacts with PLATELET
FACTOR 3 (PF3)
- PF3- a phospholipid that
coats surfaces of the platelets
• The combination interacts
with clotting factors and
calcium ions (Ca2+) which is
essential in CLOTTING
PROCESS, to form an
ACTIVATOR that leads to
formation of THROMBIN.
• THROMBIN joins soluble
FIBRINOGEN proteins into
long, hairlike molecules if
insoluble FIBRIN.
• FIBRIN forms a meshwork
that traps RBCs and forms
basis of clot.
• Within an hour, clot begins
to retract, squeezing that
SERUM (plasma minus
clotting proteins) from the
mass & pulling ruptured
edges of blood vessel closer
together.
BLOOD CLOTS WITHIN 3-6 MINS.
Once CLOTTING CASCADE started,
triggering factors are inactivated to
prevent widespread clotting.
BLOOD GROUPS & TRANSFUSIONS RH BLOOD GROUPS
ANTIGEN - Named because one of eight Rh
- Substance that the body antigens (agglutinogen D) was
recognizes as foreign originally identified in Rhesus
- It stimulates immune system to monkeys
mount defense against it
ANTIBODIES → Anti-Rh antibodies aren’t
- “recognizers” automatically formed by Rh-
- Present in plasma that attach individuals.
RBCs bearing surface antigens → If an Rh- receives Rh+ blood,
different from those on the immune system becomes
patient’s RBCs. sensitized and begins producing
anti Rh+ antibodies against
AGGLUTINATION foreign blood type.
- Phenomenon where the binding
of antibodies causes foreign RBCs HEMOLYSIS
to clump - Rupture of RBCs
- Leads to clogging of small blood - Doesn’t occur in an Rh- person
vessels throughout the body with first transfusion of Rh+
blood because it takes time to
AGGLUTINOGENS react and start making
- Sometimes called to the RBC antibodies.
antigens that promotes clumping
RhoGAM
AGGLUTININS - Immune serum that prevents
- Antibodies that bind sensitization and subsequent
agglutinogens together immune response.
- Treatment in the 28th week of
ABO BLOOD GROUPS pregnancy and again shortly after
- Based on which of two antigens, giving birth
type A or B does a person
inherits HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF THE
- Antibodies form during infancy NEWBORN
against ABO antigens not present - Condition where the RBCs of the
on own RBCs baby is destroyed (due to
antibodies that crossed the
BLOOD TYPE ANTIGEN placenta)
Type A A antigen - The baby is ANEMIC, HYPOXIC,
Type B B antigen & CYANOTIC (skin takes on blue
Type AB A & B antigen cast)
Type O No antigen
 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS WASTE PRODUCTS OF METABOLISM (urea, - occur chiefly in dark-skinned - thrombus that breaks away from
uric acid)
→ Sites of blood cell formation: people living in malaria belt of the vessel wall and floats freely in
RESPIRATORY GASES (O2 and CO2)
Fetal liver and spleen HORMONES (steroids, thyroid hormone: Africa the bloodstream
→ 7th month: Fetus’s red bone carried by plasma proteins)
marrow- chief site of SICKLE CELL TRAIT (SCT) → CEREBRAL EMBOLUS causes
hematopoiesis - carrying just one sickling gene STROKE (brain tissue dies)
→ Day 28: embryonic blood cells - don’t display symptoms but can → Undesirable clotting may be
FORMED ELEMENTS 45% pass on the sickling gene to
are circulating in newly formed caused by anything that
CELL TYPE NUMBER FUNCTIONS
blood vessels (per mm3)
offspring endothelium of blood vessel
→ FETAL HEMOGLOBIN (HbF): Erythrocytes 4-6 Transport oxygen which encourages clinging of
- differs from hemoglobin (RBC) million & carbon dioxide POLYCYTHEMIA platelets
formed AFTER birth Leukocytes 4,800- Defense & - excessive or abnormal increase in
(WBC) 10,800 immunity the number of RBC
- has greater ability to pick up Basophil
THROMBOCYTOPENIA
oxygen Eosinophil - result from marrow cancer - Results from insufficient number
→ After birth: Fetal blood cells are Neutrophil (polycythemia vera) of circulating platelets
Lymphocyte - Arise from conditions that
replaced by RBCs that contain
Monocyte SECONDARY POLYCYTHEMIA
hemoglobin A (HbA) SUPPRESSES BONE MARROW
Platelets 250,000- Blood Clotting
→ Jaundiced: PHYSIOLOGIC 400,000 - a normal physiologic response to (bone marrow cancer, radiation,
JAUNDICE; Situation where fetal living in high altitude certain drugs)
RBCs are destroyed fast that
immature liver can’t get rid the HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE LEUKEMIA PETECHIAE
body hemoglobin breakdown - bone marrow becomes cancerous - Small purplish blotches
products fast enough LEUKOPENIA - huge number of WBC turned out - Resembles rash on skin
- Abnormally low WBC count - excessive production of abnormal
PLASMA 55% - Caused by certain drugs WBC → Vit K deficient- Vit K supplement
CONSTITUENT MAJOR FUNCTION → Liver function is impaired- blood
WATER -90% of volume; solvent THROMBUS
ANEMIA transfusion
-absorbs heat
- A decrease in the oxygen- - clot that develops and lersist in
SALT
(ELECTROLYTES) carrying ability of blood an unbroken vessel HEMOPHILIA
Sodium -Osmotic balance CAUSE: - Applies to several hereditary
Potassium -pH buffering PULMONARY THROMBOSIS
Calcium -regulation of membrane → Lower-than-normal number bleeding disorder
of RBC - blockage forms in blood vessels - Result from lack of factors
Magnesium permeability
serving the lungs needed for clotting
Chloride → Abnormal/ deficient
Bicarbonate - consequences may be DEATH of - Bleeding occurs, hemophiliacs
hemoglobin content in RBC
PLASMA lung tissue and fatal hypoxia are given transfusion of fresh
PROTEINS
Albumin -Osmotic balance, pH SICKLE CELL ANEMIA (SCA) plasma or injections of purified
HYPOXIA clotting factor
buffering - body doesn’t form normal
Fibrinogen -Clotting of blood - inadequate oxygen delivery to
hemoglobin
Globulins -Defense (antibodies); body tissues AIDS
Lipid transport - Abnormal hemoglobin is formed
SUBSTANCE TRANSPORTED BY BLOOD - becomes spiky and sharp when - Acquired immune deficiency
EMBOLUS syndrome
oxygen is unloaded or oxygen
NUTRIENTS (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, content in blood decreases below - Condition of depressed
vitamins) immunity
normal
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM & BODY
DEFENSES
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- Consist of two semi-independent
parts:
(1) meandering network of
LYMPHATIC VESSELS
- transport fluids that escaped
from blood back to
cardiovascular system
(2) various LYMPHOID TISSUES
AND ORGANS
- houses PHAGOCYTIC CELLS &
LYMPHOCYTES, which play
essential roles in body defense
and resistance to disease
- low-pressure, pumpless system
LYMPHATIC VESSELS
- as blood circulates through body,
the nutrients, wastes, & gases are
exchanged between BLOOD &
INTERSTITIAL FLUID
- FUNCTION: to form elaborate
drainage system that licks up
excess interstitial fluid and
return it to the blood.
- also called LYMPHATICS; forms
one-way system, & lymph flows
only TOWARDS the HEART
- thin walled, larger ones have
valves.
INTERSTITIAL FLUID: includes fluid
that remains behind in tissue spaces;
3L daily
EDEMA
- swelling; fluid that accumulates
in the tissues
- impairs ability of cells to make
exchanges with interstitial fluid
and ultimately the blood
LYMPH
- clear water; Interstitial fluid
LYMPH CAPILLARIES
- Weave between tissue cells &
blood capillaries in the loose
connective tissues of body
- absorbs leaked fluid; permeable
MINIVALVES
- flaplike; act as one-way swinging
doors
- formed by the edges of
endothelial cells with their walls
loosely overlap one another
- anchored by fine collagen fibers
to surrounding structure
- GAPE OPEN: fluid pressure is
HIGHER IN INTERSTITIAL
SPACE (allows fluid to enter
lymphatic capillary)
• PRESSURE IS HIGHER INSIDE
LYMPHATIC VESSELS:
Endothelial cell flaps are forced
together, preventing lymph from
leaking back out & forcing it
along the vessel
Proteins, Cell Debris, Bacteria,
Viruses: prevented from entering
BLOOD CAPILLARIES, but enters
LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES
(especially inflamed areas)
• WBC can also travel in lymph
LYMPHATIC COLLECTING VESSELS
- larger lymphatic vessels
(a) LYMPH is transported from
LYMPH CAPILLARIES through
LYMPHATIC COLLECTING
VESSELS, until it returns to the
VENOUS SYSTEM through two
large ducts in thoracic region.
RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT
- drains lymph from RIGHT ARM
and RIGHT SIDE of HEAD and
THORAX
LARGE THORACIC DUCT
- receives lymph from rest of the
body
(b) BOTH DUCTS empty lymph into
SUBCLAVIAN VEIN on their own
side of body.
• Lymph is transported by:
(1) Milking action of skeletal muscles
(2) Pressure changes in thorax during
breathing
(3) Smooth muscles in the walls of
larger lymphatic contracts
RHYTHMICALLY, helping to "pump"
lymph along.
LYMPH NODES
- helps protect body by
REMOVING FOREIGN
MATERIAL & by PRODUCING
LYMPHOCYTES
- clusters along lymphatic vessels
and filters lymph that is
transported towards the heart.
- CONTAINS:
• MACROPHAGES: engulfs &
destroys bacteria, viruses, and foreign
substance in the lymph before it is
returned to the blood
• LYMPHOCYTES: responds to
foreign substances in lymphatic
stream
- vary in size but mostly they are
KIDNEY-SHAPED, 1cm long, &
"buried" in the connective tissue
surrounding it
- Each node is surrounded by a
fibrous CAPSULE from which
TRABECULAE (connective tissue
strands) extend inward to divide
the node into a number of
compartments
- INTERNAL FRAMEWORK:
network of soft reticular
connective tissue ("cellular
bleachers")
- provides place for continually
changing population of
lymphocytes to "sit" as they
monitor lymphatic stream.
LYMPHOCYTES
- arise at the ted bone marrow but
migrates to lymph nodes & other
lymphatic organs
CORTEX
- outer part of the node
- contains FOLLICLES (collection
of lymphocytes) which have
GERMINAL CENTERS (dark-
staining centers)
GERMINAL CENTERS
- enlarges when B CELLS are
generating PLASMA CELLS
(daughter cells)
PLASMA CELLS
- releases ANTIBODIES
T-CELLS
- lymphocytes "in transit"
- made up of the rest of the
cortical cells
- circulates continuously between
BLOOD, LYMPH NODES,
LYMPHATIC STREAM,
performing its SURVEILLANCE
ROLE.
MEDULLARY CORDS
- inward extensions of cortical
tissue
- contains both B & T Cells
• Phagocytic macrophages are
located at CENTRAL MEDULLA
of the LYMPH NODE.
• LYMPH enters the CONVEX
SIDE (LYMPH NODE) via
AFFERENT LYMPHATIC
VESSELS -- flows through # of
SINUSES (space) -- exits from the
node at HILUM (indented
region) via EFFERENT
LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
OTHER LYMPHOID ORGANS
A. SPLEEN
- DESCRIPTION: soft organ
- LOCATION: left side of abdominal
cavity, beneath diaphragm, curls
around the anterolateral aspect of
stomach.
- FUNCTION:
(1) Filters and cleanses BLOOD of
bacteria, viruses & debris
(2) Provides site for LYMPHOCYTE
PROLIFERATION & IMMUNE
SURVEILLANCE
(3) Destroy WORN-OUT RBC &
return some of their breakdown
products to LIVER.
(4) Platelet Storage
(5) Blood Reservoir
(6) For fetus: important
hematopoietic site; Adult: production
of lymphocyte
B. THYMUS
- DESCRIPTION: lymphoid mass
- LOCATION: anterior
mediastinum overlying the heart
- FUNCTION: functions at peak
level only during youth
C. TONSILS
- DESCRIPTION: small masses of
lymphoid tissue
- LOCATION: deep to the mucosa
surrounding the pharynx (throat)
- FUNCTION: trap & remove
bacteria or other foreign
pathogens entering throat
TONSILITIS
- tonsils are congested with
bacteria and becomes swollen,
red, and sore
D. PEYER’S PATCHES
- DESCRIPTION: Resembles
tonsils
- LOCATION: wall of distal small
intestine
- FUNCTION: their macrophages
capture and destroy harmful
bacteria, preventing them from
penetrating the intestinal wall
(E) APPENDIX
- DESCRIPTION: Tube-like
offshoot
- LOCATION: proximal large
intestine
- FUNCTION: their macrophages
capture and destroy harmful
bacteria, preventing them from
penetrating the intestinal wall
MUCOSA-ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID
TISSUE (MALT)
- collection of small lymphoid
tissues
- Includes: Peyer's Patches,
Appendix, Tonsils
- acts as SENTINEL
- protect upper respiratory &
digestive tracts from constant
attacks of foreign matter entering
those cavities
BODY DEFENSES
IMMUNE SYSTEM (functional
system)
- Structure: variety of molecule
that INHABITS LYMPHOID
TISSUES & ORGANS and
CIRCULATES IN BODY FLUID.
Most Important Immune Cells:
Lymphocytes, Dendritic Cells,
Macrophages (both innate & adaptive
mechanism)
TWO TYPES OF DEFENSE
MECHANISMS:
(Makes up the immune system)
1) INNATE DEFENSE
MECHANISM
2) ADAPTIVE DEFENSE
MECHANISM
INNATE DEFENSE SYSTEM
- NONSPECIFIC DEFENSE
SYSTEM
- responds immediately to protect
body
- generally PREVENTING THE
ENTRY & SPREAD OF
MICROORGANISMS in the body
Includes: Intact Skin & Mucous
Membrane, Inflammatory
Response, Number of Proteins
produced by Body Cells
ADAPTIVE DEFENSE SYSTEM
- SPECIFIC DEFENSE SYSTEM
- fights invaders that gets passed
the innate defense by mounting
an attack against one or more
particular foreign substance
- needs to be sensitized by initial
exposure to an antigen (foreign
substance) before it can protect
body against invader.
- it "remembers" which invaders it
has fought
IMMUNE SYSTEM PROTECTS:
a) DIRECTLY: cell attack
b) INDIRECTLY: releasing
mobilizing chemicals &
protective antibody molecules
IMMUNITY
- highly specific resistance to disease
INNATE BODY DEFENSES
- Refers to mechanical barriers that
cover body surfaces and to the cells
and chemicals that act on initial
battle-fronts to protect body from
pathogens (harmful microorganism)
SURFACE MEMBRANE BARRIER
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE includes:
SKIN & MUCOUS MEMBRANE
SKIN
- Keratinized epidermis is a strong
physical barrier
- MUCOUS MEMBRANE
- provides mechanical barrier
- lines all body cavities open to
exterior
- produces variety of protective
secretion:
• acidic pH of skin secretion
(acid mantle) -- inhibits
bacterial growth; SEBUM
contains chemicals that is
toxic to bacteria; vaginal
secretions (very acidic)
• Sticky mucus -- traps
microorganisms that enter
DIGESTIVE &
RESPIRATORY passageways
• Stomach Mucosa -- secretes
gastric juice containing HCl
& protein-digesting enzymes
• Saliva & Lacrimal Secretion --
contains LYSOZYME
INTERNAL DEFENSES: CELLS &
CHEMICALS
SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE
- uses enormous number of cells &
chemicals
- rely on the destructive powers of
cells called PHAGOCYTES and
NATURAL KILLER CELLS (NK
CELLS)
NK CELLS
- roam the body in blood and
lymph
- -unique group of aggressive
lymphocytes that can lyse (burst)
& kill cancer cells, virus-infected
body cell, other non-specific
targets well before the adaptive
arm of immune system is listed
to fight.
- recognizes certain sugars on the
"intruder's" surface
- attack target cell's membrane &
release lytic chemicals called
PERFORIN & GRANZYMES
(enzymes) which degrades target
cell contents.
- releases powerful inflammatory
response
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
- Response triggered when body
tissue is injured
FOUR COMMON INDICATORS
(Cardinal Signs) OF ACUTE
INFLAMMATION
1) REDNESS
2) HEAT
3) PAIN
4) SWELLING (edema)
INFLAMMATORY PROCESS
- begins with: Chemical "alarm"
- When cells are damaged, they
release HISTAMINE and KININS
• Causes Blood Vessels in area to
DILATE
• Make Capillaries LEAKY
• Attracts PHAGOCYTES & WBC
(POSITIVE CHEMOTAXIS: cells
are moving toward high
concentration of signaling
molecules)
-- Dilation of blood vessels
increase blood flow in the area,
accounting for redness amd heat
observed.
-- Increased permeability allows
fluid to leak from blood into
tissue spaces, causes LOCAL
EDEMA, which activates pain
receptors in area
-- If the swollen, painful area is a
JOINT, its function is impaired.
-- LIMITATION OF JOINT
MOVEMENT (fifth cardinal sign
of inflammation)
ONCE INFLAMMATORY PROCESS
HAS BEGUN:
1) NEUTROPHILS enter blood from
bone marrow & roll along blood
vessel walls
2) Point where CHEMICAL
SIGNALS is at its STRONGEST,
they FLATTEN OUT and
SQUEEZE through CAPILLARY
WALLS (DIAPEDESIS)
3) NEUTROPHILS gather at the site
of tissue injury, after an hour,
they devour any foreign material
present
--- Monocytes follows
Neutrophils into inflamed area.
MONOCYTES
- fairly poor phagocytes
- within 12 after entering the
tissue- it becomes
MACROPHAGES with insatiable
appetites.
Other protective events occurring at
inflamed site:
• CLOTTING PROTEINS are
activated & begin to WALL OFF
damaged area with fibrin to
prevent spread of harmful agents
to neighboring tissue.
• FIBRIN MESH forms scaffolding
for permanent repair.
(Local heat increases metabolic rate
of tissue cells, speeding up defense
actions & repair process)
ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS
- enhance the innate defenses
either by ATTACKING
MICROORGANISMS DIRECTLY
or by HINDERING THEIR
ABILITY TO REPRODUCE
- most important of these are
COMPLEMENT and
INTERFERON.
COMPLEMENT
- refers to a group of at least 20
plasma proteins that circulate in
the blood in an inactive state
• If complement becomes
attached or fixed to foreign
cells, or mismatched RBC, it
is activated & becomes a
MAJOR FACTOR in FIGHT
AGAINST FOREIGN CELLS.
COMPLEMENT FIXATION
- Occurs when complement
proteins bind to certain sugars or
proteins on foreign cell's surface.
RESULT OF COMPLEMENT
FIXATION
1) Formation of Membrane Attack
Complexes (MAC)
- produces holes or pores in the
foreign cell's surface.
2) Pores allows water to rush in the
cell
3) Causing it to burst or lyse.
• Activated complement: amplifies
inflammatory response
• Some molecules released during
activation process:
VASODILATORS &
CHEMOTAXIS CHEMICALS
(attract neutrophils and
macrophages into region)
OPSONIZATION
- cause cell membrane of foreign
cells to become STICKY so they
are easier to phagocytize
CASCADE
- particular sequence that must
activate complement proteins
- insures that complement is not
accidentally activated.
INTERFERON
- molecules that diffuse to nearby
cells and bind their membrane
receptors
- the binding stimulates the
synthesis of proteins that
interfere with ability to multiply
of viruses within healthy cells
FEVER
- abnormally high body
temperature
- systemic response to invading
microorganism
HYPOTHALAMUS
- regulates body temperature
- body's thermostat
PYROGENS
- Chemicals secreted by WBC and
macrophages exposed to foreign
cells or substance in the body
ADAPTIVE BODY DEFENSE
- body's third line of defense;
specific defense system
- stalks & eliminates with nearly
equal precision almost any type
of pathogen
- functional system that recognizes
antigens and acts to inactivate or
destroy them.
IMMUNE RESPONSE
- increased internal nonspecific
defense and provides protection
carefully targeted against
SPECIFIC antigen.
IMMUNOLOGY: study of immunity
IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF
ADAPTIVE DEFENSE
1) It is ANTIGEN SPECIFIC (act
against particular pathogen)
2) It is SYSTEMIC (not restricted to
initial infection site)
3) It has MEMORY (recognizes and
mounts stronger attacks on
encountered pathogen)
OVERLAPPING ARMS OF
ADAPTIVE DEFENSE SYSTEM
1) HUMORAL IMMUNITY
(ANTIBODY-MEDIATED)
- provided by antibodies (immune
proteins) present in the body's
humor.
2) CELLULAR IMMUNITY (CELL-
MEDIATED)
- Lymphocytes defends body
CELLULAR TARGETS of CELLULAR
ARMS:
• Virus-infected cell
• Cancer cell
• Cells of foreign grafts
Lymphocytes acts against target:
• DIRECTLY: Lysing antigen
• INDIRECTLY: releasing
chemicals that enhance
inflammatory response or
activate immune cells
CELLS INVOLVED IN IMMUNE
RESPONSES
ANTIGEN
- substance capable of provoking
an immune response
- not normally present in our
bodies; NONSELF.
• PROTEINS: provoke
strongest response
• ANTIGENIC: Pollar grains &
microorganism (bacteria,
fungi, virus) -- their surface
bear such foreign molecules
SELF-ANTIGENS
- don't trigger own immune
response
- strongly antigenic to other
people
RULE: small molecules aren't
ANTIGENIC. But when linked to own
proteins, immune system might
attack.
HAPTEN
- INCOMPLETE ANTIGEN;
troublesome small molecules
CELLS OF ADAPTIVE DEFENSE
SYSTEM: OVERVIEW
Crucial cells of adaptive system:
• LYMPHOCYTES
- originate from
HEMOCYTOBLAST in red bone
marrow.
- immature (naive) lymphocytes
released from marrow are
IDENTICAL.
- "Identity" depends on where in
the body it becomes
IMMUNOCOMPETENT (capable
of responding to specific antigen
by BINDING to it with
ANTIGEN-SPECIFIC
RECEPTORS)
Major Lymphocytes:
(a) B LYMPHOCYTES (B CELLS)
- produce antibodies & oversee
HUMORAL IMMUNITY
- target SPECIFIC extracellular
antigens
- develop immunocompetence in
BONE MARROW
(b) T LYMPHOCYTES (T CELLS)
- don't produce antibodies &
constitute CELL-MEDIATED
defense
- can recognize & eliminate
SPECIFIC virus-infected or
tumor cells
- Arise from lymphocytes that
migrate to THYMUS (where they
undergo maturation for 2-3 days)
- Only maturing T Cells with
SHARPEST ABILITY to identify
FOREIGN antigens survive.
- MATURE T CELLS circulate
continuously throughout the
body
Once lymphocyte is
IMMUNOCOMPETENT, it will be
able to react to ONE DISTINCT
ANTIGEN.
• ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS
- do not respond to specific
antigen
- activates lymphocytes
- major role is to ENGULF
antigens, PRESENT fragments
where T Cells can recognize
them.
MAJOR CELLS ACTING AS APCs:
Dendritic Cells, Macrophages, B
Lymphocytes
(1) DENDRITIC CELLS
- present in connective tissues and
epidermis (also called
LANGERHANS CELLS)
- body's frontiers, act as MOBILE
SENTINELS
(2) MACROPHAGES
- Widely distributed at
LYMPHOID ORGANS and
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
- Act as PHAGOCYTES in innate
defense system
- tend to remain fixed in lymphoid
organs
→ When they present antigens,
DENDRITIC CELLS &
MACROPHAGES activate T
CELLS.
→ ACTIVATED T CELLS release
chemicals that prod
MACROPHAGES to become
ACTIVATED.
→ ACTIVATED MACROPHAGES
become true "killers" that are
insatiable phagocytes and secrete
BACTERICIDAL CHEMICALS.
THIRD ANTIGEN CAPTURE AND
DELIVERY SYSTEM: Migration of
dendritic cells to secondary lymphoid
organs.
DENDRITIC CELLS:
- efficient antigen catcher (due to
long, wispy extension)
- once they ENGULF antigens
(phagocytosis), they ENTER
nearby lymphatics to get to
lymphoid organ where they will
present antigens to T Cells
- most effective antigen
- key link between innate and
adaptive immune response
HUMORAL (ANTIBODY-
MEDIATED) IMMUNE RESPONSE
• B Cells (immunocompetent,
immature) is stimulated to
complete development: when
ANTIGEN binds with its
SURFACE RECEPTORS.
• Binding activate lymphocytes to
"switch on" & undergo CLONAL
SELECTION.
CLONAL SELECTION
- Lymphocytes begins to grow and
multiplies rapidly to form army
of cells exactly like its self
CLONES
- resulting family of identical cells
descended from SAME ancestor
cell
CLONE FORMATION
- primary humoral response to
antigen
PLASMA CELLS
- Descendants of most cell clone
members
- produce same highly specific
antibodies (2,000 molecules per
second)
- this flurry of activity lasts only
for 4-5 days; then plasma cells
begins to die
MEMORY CELLS
- B cell clone members that don't
become plasma cells
- long lived; capable of responding
to same antigen
- responsible for
IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY
SECONDARY HUMORAL
RESPONSES
- Later immune responses,
produced much faster, more
prolonged, more effective than
primary response.
ACTIVE & PASSIVE HUMORAL
IMMUNITY
ACTIVE IMMUNITY
- produces ANTIBODIES when B
Cells encounter antigens
- May be: NATURALLY
ACQUIRED (bacterial & viral
infection; which develop signs &
symptoms of disease and suffer a
little) or ARTIFICIALLY
ACQUIRED (through vaccines:
contains pathogens that are dead
or attenuated/weakened)
Benefits from VACCINES:
1) Spare SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
2) Weakened antigens are still able
to stimulate antibody production
& promote immunological
memory
BOOSTER SHOTS
- Intensify immune response at
later meetings with same antigen
HERD IMMUNITY
- phenomenon which population
of people are generally protected
because most of a given
population is immune to a
disease or infection
PASSIVE IMMUNITY
- antibodies are obtained from
SERUM of an immune human or
animal donor.
- B cells are not challenged,
immunological response doesn't
occur, temporary protection end
when it degrades in the body
- is conferred NATURALLY on
fetus: Mother's antibodies cross
 placenta and enter fetal - formed in response to huge IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASSES 4. Opsonization
circulation, after birth, number of different antigens Class Location Biological Function 5. Precipitation
IgM -Attached to -Fixes complement
breastfeeding. B CELL
- Cross linking reaction
- is conferred ARTIFICIALLY: ANTIBODIES: BASIC STRUCTURE - Free in - Antigen-antibody complex are so
Person receives immune serum • Consist of FOUR PLASMA large that they become insoluble
or GAMMA GLOBULIN POLYPEPTIDE CHAINS IgA PLASMA -Bathes & protects and settle out of solution
(monomer), mucosal surfaces
(Donated antibodies) linked by DISULFIDE SECRETIONS
(sulfur-to-sulfur) BONDS (dimer) CELLULAR (CELL MEDIATED)
GAMMA GLOBULIN • TWO of four chains are IgD Always -receptor of IMMUNE RESPONSE
- Commonly administered after IDENTICAL: HEAVY attached to B immunocompetent MAIN DIFFERENCE:
CELL B cell
exposure to hepatitis. CHAINS --B cells SECRETES antibody
-important in
- provides immediate protection, • TWO other chains are also activation of B cell “weapons” whereas T cells FIGHT
but effect is short lived (2-3 IDENTICAL but only HALF IgG Abundant in -MAIN ANTIBODY antibody directly.
weeks) as long as heavy chains: PLASMA, 75- of both primary & --IMMUNOCOMPETENT T cells are
- Other IMMUNE SERA are used LIGHT CHAINS 85% of secondary response activated to form a clone by binding
circulating -crosses placenta
to treat: • Y-SHAPED antibodies -provides PASSIVE with “recognized” antigen
• poisonous snake bites • Each of four chains had IMMUNITY to fetus --T CELLS aren’t able to bind with
(antivenom) VARIABLE (V) REGION at -Fixes complement FREE antigens
• botulism one end, CONSTANT (C) IgE Secreted by -binds to MAST --Antigens must be “presented” by a
PLASMA CELLS &
• rabies REGION at another end. CELLS in BASOPHILS macrophages & double recognition
• tetanus (antitoxin) skin, -triggers release of occur.
ANTIGEN-BINDING SITE mucosae of HISTAMINE
MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES - formed by variable regions of gastrointestin -allergic responses 2 TYPES OF THAT ARE INVOLVED
al &
- are descendants of a single cell heavy & light chains; uniquely respiratory IN ACTIVATION PROCESS
and pure antibody preparations shaped to "fit" specific antigen tract, tonsils (1) HELPER T CELL
that exhibits specificity for only (2) CYTOTOXIC T CELL
one antigen. "STEM" or CONSTANT REGION OF ANTIBODY FUNCTION
- being used for early cancer ANTIBODY Ways of Inactivating Antibodies ANTIGEN PRESENTATION
diagnosis, pregnancy, hepatitis, - determines type of antibody 1. Complement Fixation - Known to be essential for
and rabies formed COMPLEMENT activation and clonal section of T
- how antibody class carry out its --chief antibody ammunition cells.
ANTIBODIES immune roles in the body used against cellular antigens
- Also referred to as - determines the cell types or 2. Neutralization CYTOKININE
IMMUNOGLOBULINS (Igs) chemicals with which antibody - Antibodies bind to specific sites - Chemicals released by
- constitute the gamma globulin can bind on bacterial exotoxins (toxic macrophages and dendritic cells
part of blood proteins chemicals secreted by bacteria) - Plays important roles in immune
- -soluble proteins secreted & ANTIBODY CLASSES or on viruses that cause cell response
activated by B cells or by plasma Major Ig Classes: MADGE injury.
cell offspring in response to Antibodies IgD, IgG, IgE: Y-shaped 3. Agglutination CYTOTOXIC T CELLS
antigen Antibody IgA: occur in both - Clumping of foreign cells - Specialize in killing virus-
- capable of binding specifically monomer and dimer (two linked - Occurs when mismatched blood infected, cancer, or foreign graft
with that antigen monomer) forms is transfused and is the basis of cells directly.
Antibody IgM: pentamers test used for blood typing.
One way a cytotoxic T
cell accomplishes killing virus is by:
1. Binding tightly to a foreign cell
2. Releasing toxic chemicals called
PERFORIN and GRANZYMES
from its granules
3. PERFORIN enters foreign cell’s
plasma membrane (delivering
lethal hit). Pores appear in target
cell’s membrane
4. Granzymes enter and kill foreign
cells
5. Cytotoxic cell then detaches and
seeks other foreign prey to
attack.
HELPER T CELLS
- Act as “director” or “managers” of
adaptive immune response
- Once activated, they circulate
through the body, recruiting
other cells to fight the invaders.
REGULATORY T CELLS
- formerly called suppressor T cell
- released chemicals that suppress
activity of both T and B cells
- vital for winding down &
stopping immune response
- prevents uncontrolled or
unnecessary immune system
activity
ORGAN TRANSPLANTS &
REJECTION
4 MAJOR TYPES OF TRANSPLANT
(1) AUTOGRAFTS
- Tissue grafts transplanted in the
SAME PERSON
(2) ISOGRAFTS
- Tissue grafts donated by
genetically identical person
(identical twin)
(3) ALLOGRAFTS
- Tissue grafts taken from person
other than identical twin
(4) XENOGRAFTS
- Tissue grafts harvested from
different animal species.
Ideal donor organs/tissues:
AUTOGRAFT & ISOGRAFT
IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE THERAPY
- received by patient after surgery
to prevent rejection
- includes: CORTICOSTEROIDS
(suppress inflammation),
ANTIPROLIFERATIVE DRUGS,
RADIATION (X-RAY) THERAPY,
& IMMUNOSUPPRESSOR
DRUGS.
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS
5TH WEEK: Lymphatic vessels &
main clusters of Lymph Nodes
Before birth: lymphoid organs are
poorly developed (except thymus and
spleen)
After birth: they become heavily
populated by lymphocytes as
immune system begins to function
ELEPHANTIASIS
- tropical disease which lymphatics
become clogged with parasitic
worms
EDEMA: result when Lymphatic
vessels are blocked, or removed
1ST MONTH OF EMBRYONIC
DEVELOPMENT: STEM CELLS
originate in SPLEEN & LIVER
LATER: BONE MARROW becomes
predominant source of stem cells
(Hemocytoblast)
In late fetal life/ shortly after birth:
young lymphocytes develop SELF-
TOLERANCE &
IMMUNOCOMPETENCE in
"programming organs" (THYMUS &
BONE MARROW)
NERVOUS SYSTEM
- help to control the activity of the
immune response.
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Large numbers of bacteria and virus
are trapped in the nodes: Nodes
become INFLAMED, SWOLLEN, &
TENDER TO TOUCH.
LYMPH NODES: can be secondary
cancer site
PUS
- Mixture of dead or dying
neutrophils, broken down tissue
cells, living and dead pathogens
- If inflammatory mechanism fails
to fully clear the area of debris,
sac of pus becomes walled off
forming ABSCESS.
PENICILLIN REACTION
- Binding of penicillin to blood
proteins
ALLERGIES
- Also called HYPERSENSITIVITY
- Abnormally vigorous immune
responses which immune system
cause TISSUE DAMAGE as it
fights off perceived “threat”
ALLERGEN (allo=altered;
erg=reaction)
--used to distinguish this type of
antigen from producing normal
immune response.
TYPES OF ALLERGIES
1. Reaction where cells are LYSED
2. Inflammation due to ANTIGEN-
ANTIBODY COMPLEXES
(glomerulonephritis)
IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVITY
- Also called acute hypersensitivity
- Most common type of
hypersensitivity
ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK
- Body-wide, systemic, acute
allergy response
- Occurs when allergen directly
enters blood and circulates
rapidly through body
DELAYED HYPERSENSITIVITY
- Mediated mainly by special
subgroup of helper T cell,
cytotoxic T cell, & macrophages
take much longer to appear than
any acute reactions produced by
antibodies
- Chemicals mediating this
reaction: CYTOKINES (released
by activated T cells.)
ALLERGIC CONTACT DERMATITIS
- Most familiar delayed
hypersensitivity reaction
- Follows skin contact with poison
ivy, some heavy metals & certain
cosmetic and deodorant
chemicals.
MANTOUX & TINE TEST
- Skin test for detecting
tuberculosis, depend on delayed
hypersensitivity reactions.
AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
- Body produces antibodies and
sensitized T cells that attack and
damage its own tissues
MOST COMMON:
RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
- Systematically destroys joints
MYASTHENIA GRAVIS
- Impairs communication between
nerves and skeletal muscles
MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
- Destroys the white matter
(myelin sheaths) of brain and
spinal cord
GRAVE’S DISEASE
- Thyroid gland produces excessive
amounts of thyroxine in response
to autoantibodies that mimic
TSH
TYPE 1 DIABETES MELLITUS
- Destroys pancreatic beta cells,
resulting in deficient production
of insulin
SYSTEMIC LUPUS AIDS
ERYTHEMATOSUS (SLE) - Acquired immune deficiency
- Systemic disease that occurs syndrome
mainly in young women & - Currently most important & most
particularly affects kidneys, devastating of acquired
heart, lungs, and immunodeficiency
- Cripples immune system by
GLOMERULONEPHRITIS interfering with activity of helper
- Severe impairment of kidney T cells
function due to acute
inflammation
Trigger normal state of self-tolerance
break down:
→ New self-antigens appear.
“hidden” antigens are found in
sperm cell, eye lens, and certain
proteins in thyroid gland.
→ Foreign antigens resemble
self-antigens.
Streptococcus bacteria are
known to cross-react with heart
antigens
RHEUMATIC HEART FEVER
- Age-old disease
- Causes damage to both heart
muscle and valves, as well as
joint and kidneys.
IMMUNODEFICIENCIES
- Include both congenital and
acquired conditions in which
production or function of
immune cells or complement is
abnormal.
SEVERE COMBINED
IMMUNODEFICIENCY (SCID)
- Most devastating congenital
condition
- There is a marked deficit of both
B and T cells.