From the SelectedWorks of Rebecca Gould

January 1986

Jamāl al-Dīn al-Ghāzīghumūqī, al-Adab al-

marḍīyah fī al-ṭarīqah al-Naqshabandīyah

Contact Start Your Own Notify Me

Author SelectedWorks of New Work

Available at: http://works.bepress.com/r_gould/78

Soeiety fbr Central Asian Studie~
Reprint series N° 10
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JEMALEDDIN OF KAZIKUMUKH All -A.zua6 YJl-Maj)3lll1
AL-ADAB UL-MARZIYA I

HAKlDBAH.lUI9CIQfA TPAKTAT

NAQSHBANDI TREATY Apa6cICHii TeICCT. PyccICHii Depeao,Q.

Arabic Text - Russian Translation

OXFORD

@The Society for Central Asian Studies
P.O.Box 131, Oxford OXI 2NJ, England
1986
CAUCASIAN MURIDISM IN SOVIET
HISTORIOGRAPHY
Marie Broxup
The century-long resistance of the North Caucasian Moun-
taineers to Russian conquest began in the late 18th century
with the Chechen sheikh Mansur Ushunna. It continued until
1859 under the leadership of the three great Naqshbandi imams,
Ghazi Muhammad, Hamzat beg and Shamil. Revolt erupted
again in 1877-1878 in Daghestan and Chechnia, and once again
in 1920-1921 when Said Shamil and imam Najmuddin of GOtso
(Gotsinski) led the Daghestani and Chechen Murids in their last
important resistance movement against the Soviets .
.The resistance of the Mountaineers had the character of a
«Holy War». It was a nation-wide movement in which all classes
of Mountaineer society participated. It was headed by the Naq-
shbandi Sufi brotherhood. All the leaders of Miiridism from
Mansur to Uzun Haji and Najmuddin of Gotso were Naqshbandi
sheikhs, and most of the ghazis belonged to the same brother-
hood. After the defeat of Shamil another Sufi order - the Qadi-
riya (Kunta Haji) - became active in the North Caucasus, es-
pecially in the Chechen country in the late 19th century. To-
gether with the Naqshbandis, the Qadiris took an active part in
the 1877-1878 uprising and in the 1920-1921 revolt.
Inspite of their continuous efforts over half a century, the
Soviets never succeeded in completely eradicating the Sufi tari-
5
~ 'their annexation to the Tsarist Empire - «the prison of na-
qa from the North Ca~casus. After the cru~g of the.. 19~0-
1921 uprising the religIous elements - especially the murshi!is
and Sufi adepts. - were subjected to long and bloody persecu-
tion, but the Naqshbandis and Qadiris fought back: in 1928
both tariqa took part in a major revolt which broke out in the
northeast Caucasus. It was followed by similar revolts in 1934
and in 1940-1942 in the Chechen-Ingush Republic. This last up-
rising was led by non-religious nationalist elements, icluding
members of the Communist Party, but Q~iri and Naqshbandi
Moods were nUmerous among the guerilla fighters. Today both
tQriqa are well entrenched in Daghestan (especially the Naqsh-
~andis) and in the Chechen-Ingush Republic (especially the Qa-
diris). (On this subject see: A.Bennigsen and S.Enders Wimbush,
Mystics and Commisan - Sufism in the Soviet Union, London,
C.Hurst, 1986.)
The survival of the Sufi organizations in the North Cauca-
sus (and also in other parts of the USSR) is due to different fac-
tors, foremost among which is undoubtedly the immense pres-
tige of the long history of gallant resistance of the Caucasian
Moods to the Russian army. Today the figures of Shamil, of his
predecessors and followers, still belong to the treasured patri-
mony of the Mountaineers. They provide a model of heroism,
and their deeds show that resistanse to the Russian «elder bro-
ther» was possible in the past and may yet be possible in the
future.
Before the. Revolution Shamil and the Caucasian Murids
were universally praised by their Russian adversaries, who ad-
mired Shamil's military genius and the gallantry of the ghazis,
and by the enemies of the Tsarist regime, including Karl Marx
himself. During the first years of the Soviet regime all national
liberation movements among non-Russian peoples were conside-
red «popular» and «progressive». Until the early 1930's the his-
torical school of Pokrovski - an old Bolshevik and a personal
friend of Lenin - dominated Soviet historiography. This school
argued that the conquest of the non-Russian borderlands and
6
tions» (tiurma narodov) - was an imperialist enterprise, an «ab-
solute evil». The resistance to the conquest was therefore de-
picted in a heroic light and its leaders presented as heroes , even if
they belonged to the feudal aristocracy or to a mystical Sufi
brotherhood. Thus Shamil and his Murids represented the pa-
triotic movement par excellence. Sufi religious mysticism,
which was the spiritual basis of the Naqshbandi jihad, was either
simply denied or ignored, or else rationalised in such a way as to
disappear completely behind secular motives.
The school of Pokrovski rema.qted in ascendance until the
early 1930's, when the progressive character of various non-
Russian Slavic liberation movements (Ukrainians, Byelorussians)
against Tsarist rule began to be questioned. Soviet historio-
graphy began to present the annexation of their lands by the
Moscovite state in the 17th -and 18th centuries as a positive
historical fact. But in reSpect to the Muslims, and especially to
Shamil, the official attitude remained unchanged. The jihad
waged by the Oaghestani and Chechen Murids against the
Russian army continued to be treated as a model patriotic move-
ment.
In the late 1930-8, however, the steady emer~ence of
Russian nationalism within the Communist Party and the de
facto abandomnent of internationalism (which among other
attitudes implied an uncompromising hostility to the Tsarist
heritage) resulted in the rejection of Pokrovski's theories. The
old formula «Tsarist conquest - an absolute evil» was replaced
by the new formula of «lesser evil». This expression was used
for the first time on 22 August 1937 in the resolution of the State
Commission on Historical Questions. According to the new inter-
pretation the conquest of the borderlands (including the Muslim
lands of the Caucasus and Central Asia) could not be considered
as an «absolute evil» because it saved the native peoples from a
much more tragic fate: their annexation by other imperialist
countries - Turkey, Iran or even Great Britain. Moreover,
7
l-r
I according to Stalinist historiography in the late 1930's the an-
nexation of the Muslim lands had _another positive advantage:
it brought the conquered people into direct contact with ~e
advanced and progressive· Russian people, their «elder brother».
Thanks to such contacts the Muslim nations of the Empire were
able to benefit from the Bolshevik revolution and to achieve the
dictatorship of the proletariat. Thus resistance to Russian con-
quest and rebellions against Russian rule were not considered
wholly «progressive» anymore.
The new theory of «lesser» or «relative» evil was fust
applied to those nations which had renounced their sovereignty
and independance more or less voluntarily - for instance Georgia
and Armenia. Later it was extended to those peoples who where
attached to Russia as a result of military conquest, such as the
Caucasians, the Poles, and the Turkestanis.
During and immediately after World War II, more than a
million North Caucasian Mountaineers (Chechens, Ingush, Kara-
chais, Balkars) as well as the Crimean Tatars and the Buddhist
Kalmyks were accused of «collective treason» and deported to
Siberia. As one of the many corrolaries of this attempted mass
genocide, the formula of «lesser evil» was abandoned. After 1945
Soviet historians and ogitpropshchikis disavowed any progressive
character· to non-socialist liberation movements and condemned
all Muslim uprisings under feudal, «clerical» or bourgeous leader-
ship. But the prestige of Sharnil was so great that it was only
some years later, on 17 July 1950, that the Miirid movement
was declared «reactionary», when Abbas Bagirov - first secre-
tary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Azer-
baijan - speaking at a conference of Azerbaijani intellectuals in
Baku, delivered a violent attack against various nationalist
trends existing in the Caucasus. In his report Bagirovattacked
Islam in general and all anti-Russian rebellions inspired by Isla-
mic ideology in particular. Shamil's holy war was singled out.
Bagirov's speech was reproduced in Bakinskii Rabochii, (Baku,
18 July 1950), and later in Bolshevik, (Moscow XIII, 1950, pp.
8 9
.. 21-37), under the title «Miiridism and ShamiI». It marked a dra-
matic turning point in Soviet historiography. Henceforth Tsa-
rist conquest in the Caucasus became an «absolute good» be-
cause it liberated the Mountaineers from the «feudal yoke» and
«clerical tyranny» of Shamil and his fanatical followers.Further-
mOre, Russian conquest was supposed to have saved the Cauca-
sians from British and Turkish domination. Miiridism was branded
«anti-popular» and «reactionary», and Imam Shamil accUsed of
being -a stooge (stavlennik) of Turkish and British imperialism.
Bagirov's report was followed by a flow of official con-
demnations of Miiridism, and implicitly of those Muslim intellec-
tuals who had recently idealised the movement. Among the
most violent attacks we may note the pamphlet by N .A.Smir-
nov, Reaktsionnaia sushchnost' dvizheniia Miiridizma i Shamilia
na Kavkaze «<The re~ctionary essence of Shamil and the Miirid
Movement in the Caucasus»),Moscow, 1952;and the articles of
A.V .Fadeev • «0 vnutrennei sotsial'noi baze muridskogo dvizhe-
nia na Kavkaze v XIX veke» (<<The Internal Social Basis of the
Miirid Movement in the Caucasus in the 19th Century»), Vop-
rosy Istorii, Moscow, N 6,1955, pp. 67-77; AD.Danialov -
first secretary of the obkom of the Communist Party of Daghe-
stan, «Ob izvrashcheniiakh v osveshchenii Miiridizma i dvizhe-
niia Shamila» (<<Concerning the Deviations in the Interpreta-
tions of Miiridism and Shamil's Movement»); Voprosy Istorii,
N 9, 1950; and the most virulent and outrageous of all: Sh.B.
Tsagareishvili (ed), Shamil, stavlennik Sultanskoi Turtsii i An-
gliiskikh kolonizatorov -:: sboniik dokumental'nyk~ materia-
Iov (<<Shamjl, stooge of the Sultans' Turkey and British coloni-
zers, - A Collection of Documentary Materials») Tbilisi, 1953,
Archival Department of the MVD of the Georgian SSR.
Mter Stalin's death a new approach emerged, probably
under pressure from public opinion in the Caucasus and in
accordance with the efforts of Stalin's successors to show the
world a more human and tolerant face of communism. Even so,
the official line laid down by Bagirov remained until January
r 1956 when the journal Voprosy Istorii convened a conference
of Soviet historians in Moscow. Some of the participants demand-
ed a revision of the unsophisticated and chauvinistic concep-
tions of the late Stalin era. A few even proposed to set aside the
«regretable» theories of Bagirov, who meanwhile had been ex-
pelled from the party and arrested. In March 1956 a Russian his-
torian, A.M.Pikman, published an important article which
marked the beginning of the rehabilitation of Shamil, «0 bor'be
~ Kavkazskikh gortsev s Tsarskimi kolonizatorami» (<<The Struggle
~ of the Caucasian Mountaineers against Tsarist Colonizers»), Vo-
,
.~
/~
prosy Istorii, N 3, 1956. A month later in April 1956 Bagirov
:1 was executed as «traitor to the cause of the proletariat» and
;~
:j «Beria's stooge». In July 1956 a Daghestani historian, G.Dan-
ialov (not to be mistaken with A.Danialov, the fIrst secretary of
the Daghestani obkom) welcomed Bagirov's disappearance with
an article in Voprosy Istorii, N 7, 1956, «0 dvizhenii Gortsev
pod rukovodstvom Shamilia» (<<The Movement of the Mountai-
neers under Shamil's Leadership») which amounted to an al-
most total rehabilitation of Shamil. Far from being a feudal-
clerical movement, argued Danialov, Miiridism had the support
of large sections of the native population. The SufI doctrine
(tarikatizm) - the ideology of the Miirids - was Simply the
surface of the progressive national liberation movement, and
therefore could not be descibed as a manifestation of «clerical
obscurantism». Shamil was a great and shrewd statesman, not a
tyrant, and there had never been any collusion between him and
Turkey or Britain. In short Miiridism was a healthy reaction to
atrocities perpetrated by Russian colonialism.
The rehabilitation of Shamil, however, was incomplete.
Indeed any attempt to present Shamil as a positive hero was a
two-edged weapon that could be used against those who sought
to use it. Everyoody in the Soviet union, and esPeCially in the
North Caucasus, was well aware that the condemnation of the
Tsarist colonial administration implied the condemnation of the
Russian - Tsarist or Soviet - presence in the Muslim lands.
10
Therefore the campaign to rehabilitate Miiridism could easily
take an anti-Russian character. Aware of this danger, the author-
ities in Moscow once again changed their attitude to the pro-
blem of the Tsarist conquest in the 19th century. The renewed
condemnation of Shamil was the fust indication of a return to
the interpretation of the Stalin era.
In November 1956 an important conference of historians
was convened in Moscow. by the Acadenty of Sciences of the
USSR in order to determine, once and for all, whether the Mii-
rid movement had a progressive or reactionary character. But
the debates of the conference, often stonny, did not result in
any answer. The speakers were divided almost equally into two
camps. One was composed mainly of Muslim scholars (with a
few Russians) who defended Miiridism as a national and popular
liberation movement; the opposition represented by Russians
(and a few Muslims) branded Miipdism, once again, as «obscu-
rantist», «tyrannical» and «in the service of Turkish and British
imperialism». However, because the number of speakers defen-
ding Shamil outnumbered those who vilifIed him, the fmal re-
solution of the conference tried to balance the opposing view-
points and was ambiguous. Miiridism, it stated, «was an anti-
colonialist movement directed against Russian autocracy, but it
also served the interests of British and Turkish imperialists»;
«the colonial policy of the tsars was tyrannical, but the annexa-
tion of the North Caucasus to Russia was a progressive historical
fact», and so on.
The complete text of this masterpiece of hypocrisy was
reported in. Voprosy Istorii, December 1956. In the same issue
was published a lengthy article by a professor SK.Bushuev, «0
Kavkazskom Miiridizme», which clearly stated the official view
of the Communist Party. Bushuev's article can be considered to
be the conclusion to this long debate on Shamil. In left no
doubt on the new position of the authorities:
«There can be no denying», wrote Bushuev, «that Russia
11

played a progressiw role with re~d.s to the ~~u~s~
peoples. In consequence any idealisatIon of Mundlsm 18
an anti-Soviet manmuvre».
. A few years later NA.Smirnov raised the subject again
with a monograph,MUridizm naKavlazze. Moscow, Academy of
Sciences, Institute of History, 1963, in which he launched a
vicious attack against Shamil and his Miirids, totally justifying
the annexation of Daghestan to the Russian Empire for its «pro-
gressiw character». However, as Khrushchev's and Brezhnev's
eras lacked the monolithic efficiency of Stalin's rule, Shamil was
blackened in Moscow while Caucasian historians were trying to
whitewash him. The most curious attempt to rehabilitate Sha-
mil was made by a Chechen historian, Andarbek Yandarov (a
member of the Institute of Philosophy and Law of the Acade-
my of Sciences of the RSS of Kazakhstan), working in Alma-
Ata in «Suftzm i ideologiiil owoboditel'nogo dvizheniiil (<<Su-
flsm and the Ideology of the National Liberation Movement»),
Alma-Ata, 1975. According to Yandarov there were two com-
pletely different, even opposing, trends in Caucasian Miiridism:
the popular and warlike Miiridism of Shamil which he. calls
«Miiridism of the Naibat» (Naibskii Miiridizm) which was the
positiw ideology of the ghazavat (holy war), and the mystical
«reactionary» religious Miiridism, which he· calls the «Miiridism
of the tariqa.J (tarikatskii Miiridizm). Shamil ...:. a progressive
hero - was the leader of the flrst trend while the second was
headed by «cowardly and parasitic clerics». Yandarov's endeavour
was a brave but totally mistaken unscientillc attempt to protect
Shamll, his hero, from the attacks of Russian historians. For se~
wral years an unoffIcial modus vivendi was established in Soviet
historiography between the enemies, mainly Russians, and the
partisans, mainly Muslims, of Shamil. Thus in the very offIcial
Kratkii spravochnik ateista (<<Short Guide of the Atheist»), pub-
lished in 1971 in Makhach-Qala, Daghestan ASSR, Shamil is de-
scribed as «the leader of the anti-colonialist struggle of the
Mountaineers» (p. 55)
12
A new, radical change came in 1983 when an Ossetian his-
torian, Marks Maksimovich Bliev (a non-Muslim, judging from
his flrst name and patronymic) published in Istoriia SSSR, N 2,
1983, pp. 54-75, an important article entitled «Kavlcazskaia
voina - Sotsial"nye istoki, suShchnost'» (<<The Caucasian Wars-
Social Roots, Essence»). Bliev goes much further than his pre-
decessors in defending the Russian conquest of the North Cau-
casus. According to him the Caucasian wars were not due to
Russian colonialism and the drive of the Empire towards the
warm seas, but were a defense against the expansion of the
Mountaineers, their raids for booty into the Georgian territory of
Transcaucasia, and against Russian settlements along the frontier
line of the Kuban and Terek rivers. The traditional aggressiveness
of the Chechens and Daghestanis was turned into an imperia-
listic and reactionary doctrine - Miiridism - under the influence
of «xenophobic Islamic clericalism». Thus all aggression and
therefore the responsibility for a century-long war can be laid
with the Mountaineers. The peace-loving Russians only defen-
ded themselves and tried to protect their Georgian and Ossetian
allies against the Cheehens and Daghestanis.
The explanation of this dramatic reinterpretation of Sha-
mil's history lies partly in the impact of the Mghan war on the
Soviet Muslim intelligentsia and in the hidden but deeply felt
sympathy of all levels of the Soviet Muslim community for the
Mghan Mujahidin. In the USSR, where the past serves to justify
the present, the message of Bliev's article is clear: just like the
army of Nicolas I in the Caucasus, the Soviet army was forced
to intervene in Afghanistan because of the provocation of the
Afghan bandits and their protectors, the Chinese, Pakistani and
American imperialists. At the same time everybody in the USSR
understands that to idealise ShamiI's Holy War is tantamount to
justifying the Mghan jihlld.
Another reason may also explain the new anti-Shamil
stand: the increased activity of the Sufi brotherhood, the Naqsh-
bandiya and the Qadiriyain North Caucasus, a phenomenon con-
13
""r'
I finned by nwnerous recent publications in Makhach-Qala and
Groznyi denouncing the activity of the Naqshbandis and Qadiris.
Today, as in the time of Shamil and Uzun Haji, the Sufitariqa
appear as the best defenders of Islam and national traditions
against the encroaching Russians. To defend Shamil implies a
vindication of the Sufi brotherhoods' appeals to resist the So-
viet Russian «infidels».

BmLIOGRAPHICAL I NOTES
The best primary source on the Caucasian wars is the
chronicle of Muhammad Tahir al-Qarakhi, who was Shamil's se-
cretary, in Arabic, Barqat al-suYiufal-Daghestaniya Ii baz al-gllll-
zavat al-Shamiliya (<<The Ughtning of Daghestani Swords in the
!- Holy War of Shamib). The Arabic text,.prepared by A.M.Bara-
!~
banov, was published with an introduction by Uu.Krachkovskii
by the Institute of Orientalism of the USSR Academy of Sciences,
under the Russian title Khronika Mukllllmeda Takhira al-Kara-
1 11
khi,Moscow-Leningrad, 1946. A Russian translation by A.M.Ba-
rabanov was published in Volume XXXV of Trudy lnstituta Vo-
stokovedeniia Moscow-Leningrad, 1941. Another Russian
version, but very inaccurate, was published under the title Tri
lmama - Memuary MUrida Shamilia, Makhach-Qala, 1926.
Among other collections of documents one must mention
General N .Dubrovin's lstoTiia voin i vladychestva Russkikh na
Kavkaze (<<History of the Wars and Russian Rule in the Cau-
casus»), and three collections: Shomik Svedenii 0 Kavkazskikh
GortStlkh (<<Collection of Information Concerning the Caucasian
Mountaineers»), published in Tillis (Tbilisi) from 1868 onwards,
followed by Shomik Materialov dlil;z Opisaniia Mestnosti i Ple-
men Kavkaza «(Collection of Materials for the Description of
the Areas and Tribes of the Caucasus») published in Tillis, and

14 15
Akty sobrannye Kavkazskoi Arkheogra/icheskoi Komissiei problem was treated by Paul B.Henze, «Unwriting History -
(<<Documents. Collected by the Caucasian Archeological Com- The Shamil Problem», published twice, in the Caucasian Re-
mission»), A.P.Berzhe, ed., Tiflis, 1866-1873. . view, N 6, 1958, Munich, pp. 1-29 and in Walter Z.Lacqueur
During the Soviet period the most useful collection of (cd), The Middle East in Transition, London, 1958,pp.415443.
documents published is: Dvizhenie Gortsev Severo-Vostoch- More recently it was analysed by Ann Sheehy, «Yet Another
nogo Kavkaza v 20-50 gg XIX veka (<<The Movement of the Rewrite of the History of the Caucasian War?», Radio Liberty
Mountaineers of the northeastern Caucasus in the 20-50's of Research Bulletin, RL/39/84,January 1984.
the 19th Century»), Makhach-Qala, 1959. This is a solid scien- In this first volume of the Caucasian reprints we reproduce
tific work and a courageous defense of Shamil. In the intro- the Arabic and the Russian texts of the Treaty on the Naqshban-
duction, GA.Danialov, director of the Institute of History, diya tariqa by Sheikh Sayed Iernaleddin of Kazikumukh, the
Language and Literature of the Daghestani branch of the USSR miirshid of Ghazi Muhammad and Sh~. It shows the real face
Academy of Sciences, denounced Bagirov's treatment of Miiri- of Miiridism, its high religious, spiritual and moral tenets, so
dism and implicitly condemned those Russian historians (Smir- different from the image of blind fanaticism presented by Soviet
nov, Fadeev) who followed his anti-Shamil bias: «The move- propaganda.
ment of the Mountaineers, led by Shamil ... was a popular re- The Arabic text was published in Petrovsk (Daghestan) in
action against Tsarist colonialism ... It was a struggle of the 1905 under the title Al-Adab al-Maziya /il-Tariqa al-Naqshban-
broad Caucasian masses for their freedom. The participation of diya (<<The Laudable Rules of the Naqshbandiya Tariqa»). The
the clerical and feudal elements testifies to the variety of trends Russian translation with an introduction by the author's son,
within the movement, but it does not mean that the movement Sayed Abdurrahman, was published in Sbomik Svedenii 0 Kav-
itself could be called 'feudal'». kazskikh Gortsakh, Tiflis, 1969, vol II, pp. 2-22.
In Turkey, among several interesting studies by emigres
from the Caucasus, we may single out two monographs: Ismail
Berkok, Tarihte Kafkasya Istanbul, 1958, and ~refeddin Erel,
Da/lStan ve Dag,stanlzlar, Istanbul, 1961. In the West the most
important works are: W.E.Allen & P.Muratoff, Caucasian Battle-
fields - A History of the Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border;
I.F.Baddeley, The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus, London,
1908; and The Rugged Flanks of the Caucasus, Oxford, 1940,
2 vol.; and Lesley Blanch, The Sabres ofParadise, London, 1960.
The conflict over the interpretation of Miiridism in Soviet
histOriography has been extenSively examinated in the West by
Lowell R.Tillet, The Great Friendship, Chapel Hill, 1969, which
is the standard work on the subject, and in «Shamil and Miiri-
dism in Recent Soviet Historigraphy», The American Slavic and
East European Review, N XX, 1961, pp. 236-269. The same
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21
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25
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26
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27
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28
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30
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38
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39
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40
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42
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