University of Benghazi

Faculty of Engineering
Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department

Sound Waves Transmission via IR Laser : The Laser

Microphone

Ghassan Ahmed Alhota (17820)

Supervisors
MEng: Salaheddin Kuwairi

Spring. 2014

1
Copy write © 2015. All rights reserved, no part of this project may be reproduced in any form,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, scanning, or any information, without
the permission in writing from the author or the department of electrical and electronic
engineering, university of Garyounis.

2
 ‫بسم اهلل الرحمن الرحيم‬
‫كمْ تَفَّسَحُوا فِي الْمَجَاِلسِ‬
‫قال اهلل تعالى‪ {:‬يَا َأُيهَا الَذِينَ آمَنُوا ِإذَا قِيلَ لَ ُ‬
‫كمْ وَِإذَا قِيلَ انشُزُوا فَانشُزُوا يَرْفَعِ ال َّلهُ الَذِينَ آمَنُوا‬
‫ّسحِ ال َّلهُ لَ ُ‬
‫ف َ‬‫فَا ْفّسَحُوا يَ ْ‬
‫كمْ وَالَذِينَ أُوتُوا ا ْلعِ ّْلمَ َدرَجَاتٍ وَال َّلهُ بِمَا َتعْمَّلُونَ خَبِيرٌ } [المجادلة‪]11 :‬‬
‫مِن ُ‬

‫صدق اهلل العظيم‬

‫بسم اهلل الرحمن الرحيم‬
‫الحمد هلل على سابغ نعمه ‪ ،‬وعظيم إحسانه ومننه ‪ ،‬ال نحصي ثناءً عليه هو كما أثنى على نفسه ‪ ،‬فلك الحمد اللهم ربنا كما خلقتنا‬
‫‪ ،‬ورزقتنا ‪ ،‬وهديتنا ‪ ،‬وعلمتنا ‪ ،‬وأنقذتنا ‪ ،‬وفرجت عنا ‪ ،‬اللهم نحمدك حمدا يليق بجالل قدرك وعظيم سلطانك ‪ ،‬قال تعالى‬
‫ل وَكَّبِ ْرهُ تَكّْبِيراً) (اإلسراء‪.(111:‬‬
‫‪ ):‬وَقُلِ الْحَمْدُ لِلَهِ الَذِي لَمْ يَتَخِذْ وَلَدًا وَلَمْ يَكُنْ لَ ُه شَرِيكٌ فِي الْمُ ْلكِ وَلَمْ يَكُنْ لَ ُه وَلِيٌ مِنَ الذُ ِ‬

‫بعد حمد اهلل نهدي هذا العمل المتواضع ألهلنا وذوينا وخصتا والدينا اللذين قدام لنا الدعم المعنوي والمادي ومن ثم نتقدم بجزيل‬
‫الشكر و اسمى آيات الشكر والعرفان لألستاذ الراحل صالح كويري ‪.‬‬

‫‪In memory of MEng: Salaheddin Kuwairi, May‬‬

‫‪your Soul rest in peace.‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
The project entitled:

Laser Microphones Using Infrared Invisible Light

Which is being submitted by

Ghassan Alhmed Alhota (17820)

4
Table of variables and definitions :

Symbole Meaning Unit/expression Equation

Number
I Intensity of Light at the surface of the sphere (W/m2) (1.1)
P Power transferred per unit area (W) (1.1)
A Area of the sphere (m2) (1.1)
R Radius of the sphere (m) (1.1)
〈𝑼〉 Time averaged energy density of the light wave (J/ m3 ) (1.2)
𝜺0 Absolute permittivity (F/m) (1.2)
N Refractive index / (1.2)
E Complex amplitude of the electric field(Intensity) (N/C) (1.2)
UE Energy Density of the Electric field (J/ m3 ) (1.3)
UB Energy Density of the Magnetic field (J/ m3 ) (1.4)
𝝁 Permeability (H/m) (1.4)
B Magnetic Field Intensity (Tesla) (1.4)
C Speed of light (m/s2 ) (1.5)
𝛁𝝋 phase shift Degree/radius (1.11)

5
 L path length (m) (1.11)
𝝀 Wave length of the light wave (m) (1.11)
𝛅 changes in the length (m) (1.11)
L Angular momentum (J·s) (2.1)
H Plank's constant (J·s) (2.1)
ℏ reduced Planck constant (J·s) (2.1)
P Linear momentum (kg m/s) (2.2)
R position vector of the particle relative to the origin (m) (2.2)
N an integer ≥1 (n = 1, 2, 3 … etc.) / (2.2)
Fo frequency of the radiated wave (Hz) (2.4)
E1 Energy of level 1 (J) (2.4)
E2 Energy of level 2 (J) (2.4)
N1 Population of the lower atom / (2.5)
N2 Population of the upper atom / (2.5)
T Equilibrium temperature (℉) (2.5)
k Boltzmann's constant (J/k) (2.5)
R(z) radius of curvature of the beam's wavefronts (m) (2.7)
z axial distance from the beam's narrowest point (m) (2.7)
zR Rayleigh range (m) (2.7)
w(z) radius at which the field amplitude drops to 1/e and field (m) (2.8)
2
intensity to 1/e of their axial values, respectively.
W0 Waist size (m) (2.8)
b Depth of focus (m) (2.11)
𝛉 Divergence of the beam Degree (2.12)
p Sound pressure (pascals) (3.1)
v Speed of sound (particle velocity ) (m/s) (3.1)
ρ Density of medium (kg/m³) (3.1)
ξ Particle displacement (m) (3.1)
E Sound energy density (W·s/m³) (3.2)
I Sound intensity (W/m²) (3.2)
Pav Sound power or acoustic power (W) (3.3)
A Area m² (3.3)

6
 𝛚 Angular frequency radians/s (3.4)
B Bulk modulus (pascal) (3.5)
Tc Air Temperature Degree (3.7)
QE(𝜼) Quantum Efficiency (amps per watt) (4.1)
ib Photocurrent (amp) (4.2)
e Electric Charge (coulomb) (4.2)
P Optical power (W) (4.2)
𝝓 Photon Flux (m-2s-1) (4.3)
R Reflection Coefficient at the air-semiconductor surface / (4.3)
𝜶 Absorption factor (dB/cm/MHz) (4.3)
d Distance were the optic power is absorbed (m) (4.3)
𝝃 Fraction of the e-h pairs contributed to the ib / (4.3)
R Responsivity A/w (4.4)
3
Uparticle Energy density as function of the photons number (J/ m ) (5.1)

Introduction :

The technique of using a light beam to remotely record sound probably originated with Léon
Theremin in the Soviet Union at or before 1947, when he developed and used the Buran
eavesdropping system. This worked by using a low power infrared beam (not a laser) from a
distance to detect the sound vibrations in the glass windows. Lavrentiy Beria, head of the KGB,
had used this Buran device to spy on the U.S., British, and French embassies in Moscow,
It has been reported that the National Security Agency makes use of laser microphones.

The idea of communicating by use of light is an idea that has been around since at least the
1880s . The laser microphone is generally used as a surveillance device and is somewhat
notorious for its supposed invention and implementation during the cold war period of the Soviet
Union. It now serves more as a novelty.

A laser listener using infrared laser is designed to allow eavesdropping with a minimal chance of
exposure. ideally an infrared laser would be used to ensure that the chances of detection are kept
as low as possible, but for safety reasons, a visible laser should be used instead in bigining .

7
So many factors have to be in your favor, such as the type of window, the alignment of the
structure, the time of day, and the level of sound, The Laser Listener goes by several names such
as Laser Microphone, Laser Spy, Laser Bug, and a few other similar names. By building our own
Laser Listener, we could experiment with this technology as you can adjust this primary design
to suit your needs.

Small vibration contains interesting information in some occasions, for instance, vibration of a
window corresponds to sound in a room, However, small vibration is nearly invisible to human
eyes and currently there is not an effective and low-cost method to detect it robustly. This project
explores the possibility of using low-cost equipments to perform reliable vibration detection
,Using an infrared laser pointer and simple circuits. It was shown that this device allows
transmission of high-quality audio signal via laser.

8
 Simple Structure Of Laser Microphones.

This design is a basic proof of concept test system that will show you how the Laser Listener
converts vibration into sound and how careful alignment of the laser and receiver are required for
optimal performance.
This system is operated by transmitting an infrared laser to the window of the target room. The
window pane is slightly vibrating in accordance to the sound waves emanating from speech. The
beam is reflected from the window pane according to the law of optics, ie. the angle of incidence
is equal to the angle of reflection. The receiver picks up the reflected beam that is modulated by
the window pane vibrations, and the optical signals are automatically converted into electronic
signals.

We will be starting with the basic concepts of how the Laser Spy converts vibration into sound
and how careful alignment of both the laser and receiver are required for optimal performance.
As you will find out, the key to spying with a laser beam is in the alignment and reception of the
beam, not some magical black box full of fancy filters and optical components.
The obvious first component in the Laser Spy system is the laser, which will target a distant
reflective object and send the beam back to your receiver for decoding.

The window behaves like a microphone, In a microphone, sound vibrates the plates of a
capacitor and causes output voltage fluctuations which can be manipulated electronically and
later reconstituted as sound. Similarly, sound vibrates the surface of the window and produces
interference patterns in the reflected laser beam. The photodetector in the receiver converts these
interference patterns to voltage fluctuations which are electronically manipulated and
reconstituted as sound.

These laser spying devices do not work on modulation of the laser beam like some laser
communication devices. Modulation of the laser beam is impossible because it would take some
type of circuitry installed in the laser driver to actually modulate the intensity of the beam, and
the laser is going to be installed at your location, not the target location. The principal that is at

9
work here is not modulation, but movement! As the laser reflects from the target window, the
slight vibrations from conversations or noise that vibrate the windows cause a very slight change
in position of the returning laser beam. This change in position is converted into voltage as the
sensor in the receiver catches the returning laser beam .So movement, not modulation the
principal on which this system operates .

Any room with windows is vulnerable to an eavesdropper with a laser eavesdropping device. The
eavesdropper, from a remote location, can listen to and record any conversation in the room.
In this project we'll use Laser eavesdropping device operating in the near-infrared region use
Lasers which radiate an invisible beam with a wavelength somewhere between 700 and 1000
nanometers (nm) .

Chapter 1:
The History of Light and its Fundamental concepts

Introduction:
In the mid-19th century one of the scientific heroes would make the next giant leap toward
unraveling the key to the cosmos named James Clerk Maxwell, a Victorian scientist who was
fascinated by light, in 1861 his deep found fascination with light led to him inventing color
photography ,he was so far head of his time ,it would take another 30 years before the next full
photo color was taken , but that was just the beginning of what that remarkable man had
achieved, it was when he turned his attention to a different way of physics that everything
changed .

He started by finding a connection between magnetism and electricity, There is nothing

complicated about it ,move a magnet near a wire and you'll cause an electricity to flow through
the wire ,put electricity through a wire it will deflect a compass acting like a magnet, so what
connected them? Maxwell big idea was that magnetism and electricity are actually two facets of
the same thing , a wave of energy which is a part electrical and part magnetic , he called them
electromagnetic waves ,but then came a surprise , the mathematics told him that these
electromagnetic waves travels at an extraordinary speed 186 thousand miles per second, the
10
exact same speed that already had been determined to be the speed of light ,That led to a one of
the most historical conclusion, Light is an Electromagnetic wave.

Maxwell connected electricity ,magnetism and light in a series of a four famous equations know
as Maxwll equations govern everything from the auroras that dawn over the north and south
poles to the modern electrical and communications technology that powers the planet ,Virtually
every machine in the modern world from the computer to a power station to a washing machine
works to the rules Maxwell reviewed, Electromagnetism quite literally lights up our planet, But
light is much more interesting than is Maxwell himself realized.

In 1801, Thomas Young (1773–1829) provided the first clear demonstration of the wave nature
of light. Young showed that, under appropriate conditions, light rays interfere with each other.
Such behavior could not be explained at that time by a particle theory because there was no
conceivable way in which two or more particles could come together and cancel one another.
Additional developments during the nineteenth century led to the general acceptance of the wave
theory of light, the most important resulting from the work of Maxwell.

Although the wave model and the classical theory of electricity and magnetism were able to
explain most known properties of light, they could not explain some subsequent experiments.
The most striking of these is the photoelectric effect, also discovered by Hertz: when light strikes
a metal surface, electrons are sometimes ejected from the surface. As one example of the
difficulties that arose, experiments showed that the kinetic energy of an ejected electron is
independent of the light intensity. This finding contradicted the wave theory, which held that a
more intense beam of light should add more energy to the electron. An explanation of the
photoelectric effect was proposed by Einstein in 1905 in a theory that used the concept of
quantization developed by Max Planck (1858–1947) in 1900. The quantization model assumes
that the energy of a light wave is present in particles called photons hence, the energy is said to
be quantized. According to Einstein’s theory, the energy of a photon is proportional to
the frequency of the electromagnetic wave: E = h*f .

In view of these developments, light must be regarded as having a dual nature: Light exhibits the
characteristics of a wave in some situations and the characteristics of a particle in other
situations. Light is light, to be sure. However, the question “Is light a wave or a particle?” is
inappropriate. Sometimes light acts like a wave, and at other times it acts like a particle.
11
Light travels at such a high speed (3× 108 m/s) that early attempts to measure its speed were
unsuccessful. Galileo attempted to measure the speed of light by positioning two observers in
towers separated by approximately 10 km. Each observer carried a shuttered lantern. One
observer would open his lantern first, and then the other would open his lantern at the moment
he saw the light from the first lantern. Galileo reasoned that, knowing the transit time of the light
beams from one lantern to the other, he could obtain the speed. His results were inconclusive.
Today, we realize (as Galileo concluded) that it is impossible to measure the speed of light in this
manner because the transit time is so much less than the reaction time of the observers.

1.1 What is Light?

Light, particularly that from the sun, is one of the most important factors affecting the earth.
Almost all life on earth relies directly or indirectly on light (and heat) from the sun. But what is
light?

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, and includes visible light (and by some definitions)
ultraviolet and infrared radiation. Other forms of electromagnetic radiation include gamma rays,
x-rays, microwaves and radio waves. Light exhibits both particle-like and wavelike behaviors,
The "particles" (while not truly particles) are bundles of electromagnetic energy called photons.
A photon is defined as a quantum of electromagnetic radiation. They have zero mass, no
electrical charge and an indefinitely long lifetime. Photons always travel in straight lines, unless
under the influence of gravity. The effect of gravity is so small that for practical purposes we can
assume light travels in a straight line.

Ignoring amplitude (height), waves have two important characteristics: frequency and
wavelength and these are in a reciprocal relationship. Increase the frequency and the wavelength
gets smaller. Decrease the frequency and the wavelength increases. Waves on the ocean also
exhibit this characteristic. The wavelength is the distance between the wave peaks and the
frequency is the number of wave’s peaks that pass in a certain period of time.

While light is not truly made of waves, it can behave like it is. Light may be described as being
composed of different wavelengths and frequencies. Light at a wavelength of 555 nm has a
12
frequency of 540 × 1012 hertz. The energy of the photon is based on its frequency. The shorter
the wavelength, the higher the frequency and the greater the energy of the photon.

Photons may be reflected and they may be refracted by passing at angles through objects of
different densities. Light travels at 3× 108 m/s through a vacuum and nearly as fast through air,
however, its velocity is greatly reduced in dense media such as water or glass.

Primary properties of visible light are intensity, propagation direction, frequency or wavelength
spectrum, and polarisation, while its speed in a vacuum, 299,792,458 meters per second, is one
of the fundamental constants of nature. Visible light, as with all types of electromagnetic
radiation (EMR), is experimentally found to always move at this speed in vacuum.

1.2 Properties of Light:

Understanding the basic concepts of light like reflection is very important in order to get the idea
of microphones, microphones based on lasers, lasers are concentrated light, we'll start with the
most important property of light :

1.2.1 Reflection of light:

When light reflects off a mirror or similar surface, the rays reflecting off the surface will exit at
the same angle on the other side of line perpendicular to the surface as the incident rays. This is
the law of reflection.

This type of reflection, where the majority of the rays follow the law of reflection, is known and
specular reflection, and is what you normally see from polished aluminum reflectors in lamps. If
the surface is particulate, most light rates do not follow the law of reflection and instead are
reflected in multiple directions. This is called diffuse reflection as is the characteristic of most
painted surfaces. Light reflected off these surfaces appears uniformly bright regardless of the
angle of view.

The difference between these two kinds of reflection as shown in figure 1.1(a,b) : explains why
it is more difficult to see while driving on a rainy night. If the road is wet, the smooth surface of
the water specularly reflects most of your headlight beams away from your car (and perhaps into

13
the eyes of oncoming drivers). When the road is dry, its rough surface diffusely reflects part of
your headlight beam back toward you, allowing you to see the highway more clearly.

Figure 1.1 : (a) specular reflection, where the reflected rays are all parallel to each other, and (b)
diffuse reflection, where the reflected rays travel in random directions. (c) and (d) Photographs
of specular and diffuse reflection using laser light.

Consider a light ray traveling in air and incident at an angle on a flat, smooth surface, as shown
in Figure 1.2. The incident and reflected rays make angles θ1 and θ2, respectively, where the
angles are measured between the normal and the rays. (The normal is a line drawn perpendicular
to the surface at the point where the incident ray strikes the surface.) Experiments and theory
show that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence:

This relationship is called the law of reflection as shown Figure 1.2 where: θ1= θ 2

14
Figure 1.2: According to the law of reflection, θ1 =θ 2. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the
normal all lie in the same plane.

The form o f microphones we'll be using in this project depends totally on the reflection property
of light , the simple form of microphones will be used for simple usage and study , as shown in
figure 1.3 the simple form is used , light is directly reflected from the window , microphones can
take many forms ,these forms will be discussed briefly in later chapters.

Figure 1.3 : Laser microphones using Grazing Detection form

1.2.2 Light Intensity versus Distance:

The farther you are from a light source, the less bright the source looks. The light from a point
light source spreads out uniformly in all directions, so as you move away from the source, less
light reaches you.
Imagine that the light source is surrounded by a transparent sphere. The intensity at a given
distance from the light will be equal to the power output of the light source divided by the
surface area of the sphere through which the light has spread.

15
 𝑃 𝑃
|I| = = (1.1)
𝐴 4𝜋𝑟 2
where I is the intensity at the surface of the sphere, and r is the radius of the sphere.
If the sphere expands so its radius is twice as great, the light intensity at the surface of that sphere
is spread out over an area that is four times larger. If the sphere expands so its radius is three
times as great, the light intensity at the surface of that sphere is spread out over an area that is
nine times larger as shown in figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 : Light Intensity versus Distance.

Anything that can transmit energy can have an intensity associated with it. For an
electromagnetic wave, if E is the complex amplitude of the electric field, then the time-averaged
energy density of the wave is given by:
𝜀𝑜 𝑛2
〈𝑈〉 = |𝐸 2 | (1.2)
2
1
The energy density of an electric field is giving by : UE = 𝜀𝐸 2 (1.3)
2
1 1
While The energy density of a magnetic field is: UB = 𝐵2 (1.4)
2𝜇

𝐶2
In empty space: 𝜀 0=8.854x10−12
𝑁𝑚2
𝑣
Electric field: units of
𝑚
Now we can write in units as :
𝐶2 𝑣
[UE]=
𝑁𝑚2 𝑚
𝑁𝑚
Using C =
𝑉
𝑁 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
[UE]= 3
= =
𝑚 𝑚3 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
We have :
𝐸
B= (1.5)
𝑐

16
Were c the speed of light can be written as :
1
c= (1.6)
√𝜖𝑜𝜇
by subtituting (1.6) to (1.5) we get :
B=E√𝜖𝑜𝜇 (1.7)
Now Subtituting (1.7)) into (1.3)) we get :
1 1 1 1 2 1
UB = (E√𝜖𝜇 )2= E 𝜀𝜇 = 𝜀𝐸 2 = UE (1.8)
2𝜇 2𝜇 2

So the electrical and magnetic energy densities in light are equal. The electric and magnetic
fields each carry half of the total energy of the wave.
We can now write the total energy density as :
Uwave= UE + UB = 𝜀𝐸 2 (1.9)

𝑐
and the intensity is obtained by multiplying this expression by the velocity of the wave :
𝑛
𝑐 𝜀𝑜 𝑛2
I= |𝐸 2 | (1.10)
2

where n is the refractive index, c is the speed of light in vacuum and 𝜖 0 is the vacuum
permittivity.
In physics, intensity is the power transferred per unit area. In the SI system, it has units watts
per metre squared (W/m2). It is used most frequently with waves (e.g. sound or light), in which
case the average power transfer over one period of the wave is used. Intensity can be applied to
other circumstances where energy is transferred, Light intensity however refers to the luminous
power of a light source and it is usually measured in candelas. This is the strength of light as
transmitted from a source of light. Some of the more common measurements include radiant
intensity and luminous intensity.

In laser microphones using a beam of light won't be much successful the intensity will spread
out and less of the light energy will be received, Lasers are devices that produce intense beams
of light which are monochromatic, coherent, and highly collimated, they can keep their high
intensity for long distance and that's exactly what laser microphones need.

1.2.3 Phase Change :

Phase difference is the difference, expressed in electrical degrees or time, between two waves
having the same frequency and referenced to the same point in time. Two oscillators that have
17
the same frequency and no phase difference are said to be in phase. Two oscillators that have the
same frequency and different phases have a phase difference, and the oscillators are said to be
out of phase with each other. The amount by which such oscillators are out of phase with each
other can be expressed in degrees from 0° to 360°, or in radians from 0 to 2π. If the phase
difference is 180 degrees (π radians), then the two oscillators are said to be in antiphase. If two
interacting waves meet at a point where they are in antiphase, then destructive interference will
occur. It is common for waves of electromagnetic (light, RF), acoustic (sound) or other energy to
become superposed in their transmission medium. When that happens, the phase difference
determines whether they reinforce or weaken each other. Complete cancellation is possible for
waves with equal amplitudes.

Figure 1.5 phase shift. The horizontal axis represents an angle (phase) that is increasing with
time.

Light waves change phase by 180 degrees when they reflect from the surface of a medium with
higher refractive index than that of the medium in which they are travelling, A light wave
travelling in air that is reflected by a glass barrier will undergo a 180 degree phase change, while
light travelling in glass will not undergo a phase change if it is reflected by a boundary with air.
For this reason, optical boundaries are normally specified as an ordered pair (air-glass, glass-air);
indicating which material the light is moving out of, and in to, respectively.

We now have 3 sources of phase shifts for a light wave:

1. Reflection: depending on the n of the two media, the reflected wave may or may not be
phase shifted
2. Path Length: path length difference can also lead to a phase shift.
3. Index of Refraction: Light traveling through media with different n can undergo a phase
shift.

2𝜋𝑛∗ 𝛿𝐿
∇𝜑 = (1.11)
𝜆
18
Where L is the path length & 𝛿 represents the changes in the length, 𝜆 is the wave length of the
wave while n is the index of refraction.

1.2.4 light interference :

The classical method of describing interference includes presentations that depict the graphical
recombination of two or more sinusoidal light waves in a plot of amplitude, wavelength, and
relative phase displacement. In effect, when two waves are added together, the resulting wave
has an amplitude value that is either increased through constructive interference, or diminished
through destructive interference.

Figure 6.1 Shows the effect by considering a pair of light waves from the same source that are
traveling together in parallel, but can be adjusted with respect to coherency (phase relationship),
amplitude, and wavelength.

Figure 1.6 constructive & destructive interference

The Figure initializes with two light waves, labeled Wave A and Wave B, propagating parallel to
each other from left to right . The resultant wave arising from the summation of the two waves
by interference is presented as Wave A + B on the right-hand side.

If the vibrations produced by the electric field vectors (which are perpendicular to the
propagation direction) from each wave are parallel to each other (in effect, the vectors vibrate in
the same plane), then the light waves may combine and undergo interference. If the vectors do

19
not lie in the same plane, and are vibrating at some angle between 90 and 180 degrees with
respect to each other, then the waves cannot interfere with one another.

light wave A can interfere constructively with light wave B, because the two coherent waves are
in the same phase, differing only in relative amplitudes. Bear in mind that light intensity varies
directly as the square of the amplitude as in equation 1.10 . Thus, if the amplitude is doubled,
intensity is quadrupled. Such additive interference is called constructive interference and results
in a new wave having increased amplitude.

If the crests of one wave coincide with the troughs of the other wave (in effect, the waves are
180-degrees, or half a wavelength, out of phase with each other), the resultant amplitude is
decreased or may even be completely canceled, as illustrated for wave A and wave C on the
right-hand side of Figure 1.6 This is termed destructive interference, and generally results in a
decrease of amplitude (or intensity).

1.3 Other general properties of light :

1.3.1 Refraction :

When light passes through materials of different densities, the velocity of the light changes
slightly and this causes a bend in the ray at the interface between the two materials. This is
known as refraction and is the principle behind lenses and is also why objects appear larger when
viewed through a face mask underwater. Refraction is dependent on the differences in densities
of the two materials, also called refractive index, and the angle of incidence. Perpendicular rays
are not refracted, but as the angle of incidence increases so does the refraction.

1.3.2 the electromagnetic spectrum :

What do light, X-rays, heat radiation, microwaves, radio waves, and gamma ra diation have in
common? Despite their differences, they are all the same kind of “stuff.” They all travel through
space and have similar electrical and magnetic effects on matter. This “stuff” is called
electromagnetic radiation, because it travels (radiates) and has electrical and magnetic effects.
Electromagnetic radiation is the means for many of our interactions with the world: light
allows us to see; radio waves give us TV and radio; microwaves are used in radar
commu-nications;X-rays allow glimpses of our internal organs ;and gamma rays let us eavesdrop
on exploding stars thousands of light-years away. Electromagnetic radiation is the messen-
ger, or the signal from sender to receiver. The sender could be a TV station, a star, or the
20
burner on a stove. The receiver could be a TV set, an eye, or an X-ray film. In each case, the
sender gives off or reflects some kind of electromagnetic radiation.

All these different kinds of electromagnetic radiation actually differ only in a single property —
their wavelength, When electromagnetic radiation is spread out according to its wavelength, the
result is a spectrum, as seen in Figure 1.7. The visible spectrum, as seen in a rainbow, is only a
small part of the whole electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into
five major types of radiation. As shown in Figure 1.6, these include radio waves (including
microwaves), light (including ultraviolet, visible, and infrared), heat radiation, X-rays, gamma
rays, and cosmic rays.

Figure 1.7 : Light Spectrum .

Your eye can detect only part of the light spectrum. Humans cannot sense any other part of the
electromagnetic spectrum without the aid of special equipment. Other animals (such as bees) can
see the ultraviolet while some (snakes) can see the infrared. In each case, the eye (or other sense
organ) translates radiation (light) into information that we (or the bee looking for pollen or the
snake looking for prey) can use.

The eye is much less sensitive toward the red and purple ends of visible light. The infrared and
ultraviolet portions of the spectrum are invisible to humans.

21
 Chapter 2 :

Basic Laser Principles

Introduction:

The basic operating principles of the laser were put forth by Charles Townes and Arthur Schalow
from the Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1958, and the first actual laser, based on a pink ruby
crystal, was demonstrated in 1960 by Theodor Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories. Since
that time, literally thousands of lasers have been invented (including the edible “Jello” laser), but
only a much smaller number have found practical applications in scientific, industrial,
commercial, and military applications.

Lasers are devices that produce intense beams of light which are monochromatic, coherent, and
highly collimated. The wavelength (color) of laser light is extremely pure (monochromatic)
when compared to other sources of light, and all of the photons (energy) that make up the laser
beam have a fixed phase relationship (coherence) with respect to one another. Light from a laser
typically has very low divergence. It can travel over great distances or can be focused to a very
small spot with a brightness which exceeds that of the sun. Because of these properties, lasers are
used in a wide variety of applications like laser microphones in all walks of life.

The term “laser” is an abbreviation for (L)ight (A)mplification by (S)timulated (E)mission of

(R)adiation. To understand the laser, one needs to understand the meaning of these terms.

22
2.1 The Bohr Atom :
In 1915, Neils Bohr proposed a model of the atom that explained a wide variety of phenomena
that were puzzling scientists in the late 19th century. This simple model became the basis for the
field of quantum mechanics and, although not fully accurate by today’s understanding, still is
useful for demonstrating laser principles. In Bohr’s model, shown in figure 2.1, electrons orbit
the nucleus of an atom. Unlike earlier “planetary” models, the Bohr atom has a limited number
of fixed orbits that are available to the electrons. Under the right circumstances an electron can
go from its ground state (lowest-energy orbit) to a higher (excited) state, or it can decay from a
higher state to a lower state, but it cannot remain between these states. The allowed energy states
are called “quantum” states and are referred to by the principal “quantum numbers” 1, 2, 3, etc.
The quantum states are represented by an energy-level diagram shown in figure-2.1.
For an electron to jump to a higher quantum state, the atom must receive energy from the outside
world. This can happen through a variety of mechanisms such as light. Likewise, when an
electron drops from a higher state to a lower state, the atom must give off energy, either as
kinetic activity (nonradiative transitions) or as electromagnetic radiation (radiative transitions).

Figure 2.1 :The Bohr atom and a simple energy-level .

The Danish physicist Niels Bohr, who first presented this model of the atom, based it on 3
fundamental postulates :

23
(1) Electrons move around the nucleus in circular non-radiating orbits - called “stationary states”.
However, they are not at rest!

(2) An atom only emits or absorbs electromagnetic radiation when an electron makes a transition
from one state to another.

(3) Only certain stationary states are allowed: those where the orbital angular momentum of the
electron is given by:
nh
L= nℏ = (2.1)
2π
where n is an integer ≥1 (n = 1, 2, 3 … etc.) and h is Planck's constant . This is known as the
quantization of angular momentum. The equation implies that an integer number of wavelengths
fit round the orbit:
nh
L= pr = (2.2)
2π
ℎ
Since 𝜆= (de Broglie relation)
𝑝

𝜆n = 2𝜋r (2.3)
Where r is the orbital radius of the electron , p is the momentum.
Equation (2.3) implies that Only waves with an integral number of de Broglie wavelengths
around the orbit are allowed.

2.3 Absorption ,Spontaneous And Stimulated Emission:

To describe the phenomenon of spontaneous emission, let us consider two energy levels, 1 and 2,
of some atom or molecule of a given material, their energies being E1 and E2 where E1 < E2 as
shown in Fig 2.2, the two levels could be any two out of the infinite set of levels possessed by
the atom as, It is convenient, however, to take level 1 to be the ground level. Let us now assume
that the atom is initially in level 2. Since E2 > E1, the atom will tend to decay to level 1. The
corresponding energy difference, E2-E1, must therefore be released by the atom. When this
energy is delivered in the form of an electromagnetic wave, the process will be called
spontaneous (or radiative) emission, The frequency fo of the radiated wave is then given by the
well known expression:
𝐸2−𝐸1
fo = (2.4)
ℎ
Spontaneous emission is therefore characterized by the emission of a photon of energy
hfo=E2 - E1, when the atom decays from level 2 to level 1 (Fig. 2.2-b), Note that radiative

24
emission is just one of the two possible ways for the atom to decay. The decay can also occur in a
nonradiative way. In this case the energy difference E2 - E1 is delivered in some form of energy
other than e.m. radiation (e.g. it may go into kinetic or internal energy of the surrounding atoms
or molecules). This phenomenon is called non-radiative decay.

Figure 2.2 : Schematic illustration of the three process (a) absorption;(b)spontaneous emission;
(c) stimulated emission .

Let us now suppose that the atom is found initially in level 2 and that an e.m. wave of frequency
f=fo (i.e., equal to that of the spontaneously emitted wave is incident on the material Fig. (2.2-c).
Since this wave has the same frequency as the atomic frequency, there is a finite probability that
this wave will force the atom to undergo the transition 2 to 1. In this case the energy difference
E2-E1 is delivered in the form of an e.m. wave that adds to the incident one. This is the
phenomenon of stimulated emission.

There is a fundamental difference between the spontaneous and stimulated emission processes.
In the case of spontaneous emission, the atoms emits an e.m. wave that has no definite phase
relation with that emitted by another atom. Furthermore, the wave can be emitted in any
direction. In the case of stimulated emission, since the process is forced by the incident
electromagnetic wave, the emission of any atom adds in phase to that of the incoming wave and
along the same direction.

Let us now assume that the atom is initially lying in level 1 (Fig. 2.2-a). If this is the ground
level, the atom will remain in this level unless some external stimulus is applied to it. We shall
assume, then, that an electromagnetic wave of frequency f=fo is incident on the material. In this
case there is a finite probability that the atom will be raised to level 2. The energy difference
E2 - E1 required by the atom to undergo the transition is obtained from the energy of the incident
electromagnetic wave, This is the absorption process.

25
 Figure 2.3 : spontaneous and stimulated emission.

Now consider the group of atoms shown in figure 2.4 . The incoming (stimulating) photon
interacts with the first atom, causing stimulated emission of a coherent photon; these two
photons then interact with the next two atoms in line, and the result is four coherent photons, on
down the line. At the end of the process, we will have eleven coherent photons, all with identical
phases and all traveling in the same direction. In other words, the initial photon has been
“amplified” by a factor of eleven. Note that the energy to put these atoms in excited states is
provided externally by some energy source which is usually referred to as the “pump” source.
Of course, in any real population of atoms, the probability for stimulated emission is quite small.
Furthermore, not all of the atoms are usually in an excited state; in fact, the opposite is true.
Boltzmann’s principle, a fundamental law of thermodynamics, states that, when a collection of
atoms is at thermal equilibrium, the relative population of any two energy levels is given by :
𝐸2−𝐸1
𝑁1
= 𝑒− 𝑘𝑇 (2.5)
𝑁2
where N2 and N1 are the populations of the upper and lower energy states, respectively, T is the
equilibrium temperature, and k is Boltzmann’s constant. Substituting hf for E2-E1 yields :

26
 ℎ𝑓
Δ𝑁 = 𝑁1-N2= (1-𝑒 ) 𝑘𝑓 (2.6)

Figure 2.4 :Amplification by stimulated emission.

For a normal population of atoms, there will always be more atoms in the lower energy levels
than in the upper ones. Since the probability for an individual atom to absorb a photon is the
same as the probability for an excited atom to emit a photon via stimulated emission, the
collection of real atoms will be a net absorber, not a net emitter, and amplification will not be
possible. Consequently, to make a laser, we have to create a “population inversion.”

2.3 Population Inversion:

2.3.1 Three-level lasers :

To achieve non-equilibrium conditions, an indirect method of populating the excited state must
be used. To understand how this is done, we may use a slightly more realistic model, that of a
three-level laser. consider a group of N atoms, this time with each atom able to exist in any of
three energy states, levels 1, 2 and 3, with energies E1, E2, and E3, and populations N1, N2, and
N3, respectively.

Note that E1 < E2 < E3; that is, the energy of level 2 lies between that of the ground state and
level 3.

27
Initially, the system of atoms is at thermal equilibrium, and the majority of the atoms will be in
the ground state, i.e., N1 ≈ N, N2 ≈ N3 ≈ 0. If we now subject the atoms to light of a frequency
1
f 13= (E3-E1) the process of optical absorption will excite the atoms from the ground state to
ℎ

level 3. This process is called pumping and does not necessarily always directly involve light
absorption; other methods of exciting the laser medium, such as electrical discharge or chemical
reactions, may be used. The level 3 is sometimes referred to as the pump level or pump band,
and the energy transition E1 → E3 as the pump transition, which is shown in figure 2.5 as the
arrow marked P in the diagram on the right.

If we continue pumping the atoms, we will excite an appreciable number of them into level 3,
such that N3 > 0. In a medium suitable for laser operation, we require these excited atoms to
quickly decay to level 2. The energy released in this transition may be emitted as a photon
(spontaneous emission), however in practice the 3→2 transition (labeled R in the diagram) is
usually radiationless, with the energy being transferred to vibrational motion (heat) of the host
material surrounding the atoms, without the generation of a photon.

An atom in level 2 may decay by spontaneous emission to the ground state, releasing a photon of
frequency f12 (given by E2 – E1 = hf12), which is shown as the transition L, called the laser
transition in the diagram. If the lifetime of this transition, τ21 is much longer than the lifetime of
the radiationless 3 → 2 transition τ32 (if τ21 ≫ τ32, known as a favourable lifetime ratio), the
population of the E3 will be essentially zero (N3 ≈ 0) and a population of excited state atoms will
accumulate in level 2 (N2 > 0). If over half the N atoms can be accumulated in this state, this will
exceed the population of the ground state N1. A population inversion (N2 > N1 ) has thus been
achieved between level 1 and 2, and optical amplification at the frequency f21 can be obtained.

Figure 2.5 : A three-level laser energy diagram.

28
Because at least half the population of atoms must be excited from the ground state to obtain a
population inversion, the laser medium must be very strongly pumped. This makes three-level
lasers rather inefficient, a three-level system could also have a radiative transition between level
3 and 2, and a non-radiative transition between 2 and 1. In this case, the pumping requirements
are weaker. In practice, most lasers are four-level lasers.

2.3.2 Four-level lasers :

Here, there are four energy levels, energies E1, E2, E3, E4, and populations N1, N2, N3, N4,
respectively. The energies of each level are such that E1 < E2 < E3 < E4,In this system, the
pumping transition P excites the atoms in the ground state (level 1) into the pump band (level 4).
From level 4, the atoms again decay by a fast, non-radiative transition Ra into the level 3. Since
the lifetime of the laser transition L is long compared to that of Ra (τ 32 ≫ τ43), a population
accumulates in level 3 (the upper laser level), which may relax by spontaneous or stimulated
emission into level 2 (the lower laser level). This level likewise has a fast, non-radiative decay
Rb into the ground state,As before, the presence of a fast, radiationless decay transition results in
the population of the pump band being quickly depleted (N4 ≈ 0). In a four-level system, any
atom in the lower laser level E2 is also quickly de-excited, leading to a negligible population in
that state (N2 ≈ 0). This is important, since any appreciable population accumulating in level 3,
the upper laser level, will form a population inversion with respect to level 2. That is, as long as
N3 > 0, then N3 > N2 and a population inversion is achieved. Thus optical amplification, and
laser operation, can take place at a frequency of f32 (E3-E2 = hν32).Since only a few atoms must
be excited into the upper laser level to form a population inversion, a four-level laser is much
more efficient than a three-level one, and most practical lasers are of this type.

Figure 2.6 : A four-level laser energy diagram.

29
2.4 The Resonator :

Although with a population inversion we have the ability to amplify a signal via stimulated
emission, the overall single-pass gain is quite small, and most of the excited atoms in the
population emit spontaneously and do not contribute to the overall output. To turn this system
into a laser, we need a positive feedback mechanism that will cause the majority of the atoms in
the population to contribute to the coherent output. This is the resonator, a system of mirrors that
reflects undesirable (off-axis) photons out of the system and reflects the desirable (on-axis)
photons back into the excited population where they can continue to be amplified.
Now consider the laser system shown in figure 2.7, The lasing medium is pumped continuously
to create a population inversion at the lasing wavelength. As the excited atoms start to decay,
they emit photons spontaneously in all directions. Some of the photons travel along the axis of
the lasing medium, but most of the photons are directed out the sides. The photons traveling
along the axis have an opportunity to stimulate atoms they encounter to emit photons, but the
ones radiating out the sides do not. Furthermore, the photons traveling parallel to the axis will be
reflected back into the lasing medium and given the opportunity to stimulate more excited atoms.
As the on-axis photons are reflected back and forth interacting with more and more atoms,
spontaneous emission decreases, stimulated emission along the axis predominates, and
we have a laser.

Figure 2.7 : Schematic diagram of a basic laser.

30
2.5 Propagation Characteristics of Laser Beams:

2.5.1:Coherent , Monochromatic and collimated :

1. Coherent : Different parts of the laser beam are related to each other in phase. These phase
relationships are maintained over long enough time so that interference effects may be seen or
recorded photographically. the emitted photons are "in step" and have a definite phase relation to
each other.

2. Monochromatic : Laser light consists of essentially one wavelength, having its origin in
stimulated emission from one set of atomic energy levels.

3. Collimated. :Because of bouncing back between mirrored ends of a laser cavity, those paths
which sustain amplification must pass between the mirrors many times and be very nearly
perpendicular to the mirrors. As a result, laser beams are very narrow and do not spread very
much.

2.5.2 Beam Waist And Divergence :

Diffraction causes light waves to spread transversely as they propagate, and it is therefore
impossible to have a perfectly collimated beam. The spreading of a laser beam is in accord with
the predictions of diffraction theory. Under ordinary circumstances, the beam spreading can be
so small it can go unnoticed. The following formulas accurately describe beam spreading,
making it easy to see the capabilities and limitations of laser beams. The notation is consistent
with much of the laser literature. Even if a Gaussian TEM00 laser-beam wavefront were made
perfectly flat at some plane, with all rays there moving in precisely parallel directions, it would
acquire curvature and begin spreading in accordance with:
𝑧𝑟 2
R(z) = z [1 + ( ) ] (2.7)
𝑧

And

𝑍 2
w(z) = w0 √1 + (𝑍𝑅) (2.8)

𝜋𝑤𝑜2
where zR = (2.9)
𝜆
zR is called the Rayleigh range.
where z is the distance propagated from the plane where the wavefront is flat, 𝜆 is the wavelength
of light, the spot size (radius) w(z) will be at a minimum value w0 at one place along the beam

31
axis, known as the beam waist, and R(z) is the wavefront radius of curvature after propagating a
distance z.

Figure 2.8: Growth in beam diameter as a function of distance from the beam waist

At a distance from the waist equal to the Rayleigh range zR, the width w of the beam is :

w(±z) = √2w0 (2.10)

The distance between these two points is called the confocal parameter or depth of focus of the
beam:
b= 2zR (2.11)
The parameter w(z) increases linearly with z for z≫zR. This means that far from the waist, the
beam is cone-shaped. The angle between the straight line r = w(z) and the central axis of the
beam (r=0) is called the divergence of the beam. It is given by :
𝜆
𝜃= (2.12)
𝜋𝑤0
Because the divergence is inversely proportional to the spot size, a Gaussian beam that is focused
to a small spot spreads out rapidly as it propagates away from that spot.

2.6 IR Lasers/Infrared Lasers:

Infrared lasers have been rapidly changing roles in how we perceive the use of IR. Lasers in this
spectrum have adapted well in the surveillance industry as well as the foreign and domestic
intelligence agencies. Military forces have long used IR lasers to illuminate hostile targets
without revealing its position. This is due to the fact infrared lasers are invisible to the human

32
eye. At the same time, IR also enhances night vision equipment capabilities by flooding forward
positions with invisible light that enhances light gathering performance and increasing the ability
to detect objects at greater lengths.

The rationale behind selection of a near infrared laser is equally straightforward. Covert
operation requires an invisible beam. This eliminates lasers which operate in the visible light
spectrum. Atmospheric absorption factors eliminate ultraviolet lasers. Therequirement that the
laser be portable eliminates many of the more exotic lasers and further limits the choice to the
infrared spectrum. Infrared radiation is often associated with heat. This is somewhat ironic
because the longer the wavelength of light, the cooler the "blackbody" radiator which produced
it. Infrared light is significantly "cooler" than visible or ultraviolet light. For this reason, night
vision devices which are intended to detect the "heat" from living beings operate in the mid-
IR(10,000 to 14,000 nm) region and air to air missile seekers which home in on the hot metal
parts of jet engines operate in the near-IR (1,000 to 4,000 nm).
This also means that the longer the wavelength of the laser light, the more potential sources of
interference ("noise") exist. For a laser eavesdropping device, it is important to design the system
to avoid as much interference or "noise" as possible. Consequently the shorter wavelengths of
lasers in the near IR region, make them preferable to lasers in the mid and far IR regions. By
process of elimination, the laser of choice for laser eavesdropping devices is a semiconductor
laser diode operating in the near IR (between 700 nm -1550 nm).
The selection of a near-IR laser is reinforced by the choice of detectors for the receiver. The
longer wavelengths typically require cryogenically cooled detectors for optimum sensitivity,
while the near infrared spectrum can be received by either silicon or indium gallium arsenide
uncooled detectors. Both silicon and indium gallium arsenide detectors are readily available,
relatively inexpensive, reliable and effective in the near IR spectrum. Silicon detectors typically
operate in the spectrum of 400 nm to 1100 nm. Indium gallium arsenide detectors operate in the
spectral range of 800 nm to 1700 nm.

33
 Chapter 3 :

Sound Waves Propagation

Introduction :
The general discussion of wave motion is important because the idea of wave propagation is one
of laser microphones keys to understand how they work . In nearly all areas of science (and
therefore real life) energy is transferred via the vibrations that make up waves. Examples of wave
motion include waves on strings, water waves, sound waves, all electromagnetic radiation
including light, heat, x-rays, etc. There are many common elements to all the various types of
wave motion that can be described.
A sound wave is an air pressure disturbance that results from vibration. The vibration can come
from a tuning fork, a guitar string, steam escaping from a radiator, the diaphragm of a
loudspeaker, or anything that vibrates in a frequency range that is audible to a listener (roughly
20 to 20,000 cycles per second for humans). The two conditions that are required for the
generation of a sound wave are a vibratory disturbance and an elastic medium, the most familiar
of which is air.

3.1 Classification of sound waves :

It is useful to first classify wave motion into several different categories. mechanical waves and
electromagnetic waves. This discussion will only deal with mechanical waves since sound
waves are the most common example of Mechanical waves, Mechanical waves can be either
longitudinal or transverse. The distinction will be whether the disturbance that is being
propagated is in the direction of travel of the wave or perpendicular to it.

3.1.2 Longitudinal Waves:

When a wave propagates through some medium, if the local displacements of the medium that
constitute the disturbance are in the direction of travel of the disturbance, then the wave is
longitudinal. In a longitudinal wave the particle displacement is parallel to the direction of wave
propagation. Figure 3.1 shows longitudinal sound wave propagating in the air . The particles
simply oscillate back and forth about their individual equilibrium positions. The wave is seen as
the motion of the compressed region (ie, it is a pressure wave), which moves from left to right.

34
 Figure 3.1 : Sound As a Longitude wave

3.1.3 Transverse Waves:

A disturbance that is perpendicular to the direction of travel are called Transverse waves.
Examples are waves on strings, surface waves on the water, etc. That is, the wave itself travels
along the string or water surface – but displacements of the medium through which the wave
travels are perpendicular to the direction of the wave propagation.

Figure 3.2 : Transverse Waves

Figure 3.2 shows a transverse plane wave propagating from left to right. The particles do not
move along with the wave; they simply oscillate up and down about their individual equilibrium
positions as the wave passes by.

35
3.2 The Propagation of sound through materials :
A sound wave is a disturbance. When it travels through air, it bounces the air molecules around
and they vibrate. They then hit other molecules and cause a chain reaction. In a different
material, such as metal, sound actually travels faster. this is because the molecules are much
more tightly packed (water is not dense because the molecules just roll over each other, and air
is even less dense, with its molecules simply floating). This means the disturbance (sound wave)
can hit more molecules and travel faster. Imagine having a big line of soccer balls, each 1 foot
apart. When you kick the first, it takes a while for it to hit the second, then longer to hit the
third, and so on. But if the balls were so close they almost touched, as soon as you kicked one,
the last ball on the end would be moving almost instantly. This is how sound waves travel
through metal and air, Sound waves travel through different materials – solids, liquids or gases -
but not through a vacuum, as there are no particles to oscillate.

Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called
compression waves. Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal waves
and transverse waves,Sound waves in a gas cannot support transverse waves. This is because a
gas is not resistant to shear forces, Shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a
body in one direction, and another part the body in the opposite direction.

In a fluid (liquid or gas) the particles are distributed at random as in figure 3.3.I They can move
freely in any direction and there will be local 'clumps' where the molecular density is temporarily
higher or lower than average.
A pressure or longitudinal wave is nothing more than organizing these clumps to form a regular
pattern of higher and lower density (pressure).
In a solid there is a regular array and the molecules are not free to move about. Instead they can
'vibrate' about their mean positions, as dictated by the bonds with their immediate neighbors.
Vibration along the bonds axes is energetically preferred.
So if we can organize a wave train of vibrations to pass down the array it can be either
longitudinal or transverse.

36
 Figure 3.3 : Particles movements in fluids and solids

3.3 Sound Waves Classification based on Frequency :

Sound waves are divided into three categories that cover different frequency ranges. (1) Audible
waves lie within the range of sensitivity of the human ear. They can be generated in a variety of
ways, such as by musical instruments, human voices, or loudspeakers. (2) Infrasonic waves have
frequencies below the audible range. Elephants can use infrasonic waves to communicate with
each other, even when separated by many kilometers. (3) Ultrasonic waves have frequencies
above the audible range.

You may have used a “silent” whistle to retrieve your dog. The ultrasonic sound it emits is easily
heard by dogs, although humans cannot detect it at all. Ultrasonic waves are also used in medical
imaging , those types are shown in figure 3.4.

37
 Figure 3.4 :Sound waves frequency spectrum.

It is important to make sure we first understand how to describe sound waves. The frequency of a
wave is defined as the number of cycles the wave completes in a unit of time. More specifically,
frequency of 1Hz, or one hertz, indicates that the wave oscillates one cycle over a time period of
1 second. Look at what happens to a sine wave when its frequency is increased from 1Hz to 5Hz.
Figure 3.5 The sine wave on the left of (Figure 3.5) completes 1 full cycle within 1 second or, in
other words, has a frequency of 1 Hz. The wave on the right of (Figure 3.5) oscillates 5 times in
1 second time or has a frequency of 5 Hz. For humans, the impact of the frequency limits means
our ears cannot process sounds that complete less than 20, or more than 20000, oscillations per
second.

Figure 3.5 :Sine wave changes from 1 to 5 Hz.

3.4 Sound Waves Characteristics :

3.4.1 : Sound pressure and Particle displacement:

Particle displacement or displacement amplitude (represented in mathematics by the lower-case

Greek letter ξ) is a measurement of distance of the movement of a particle from its equilibrium
position in a medium as it transmits a wave. In most cases this is a longitudinal wave of pressure
(such as sound), but it can also be a transverse wave,. In the case of a sound wave travelling
through air the particle displacement is evident in the oscillations of air molecules with, and
against the direction in which the sound wave is travelling.

38
Since a sound wave consists of a repeating pattern of high-pressure and low-pressure regions
moving through a medium, it is sometimes referred to as a pressure wave. If a detector, whether
it is the human ear or a man-made instrument, were used to detect a sound wave, it would detect
fluctuations in pressure as the sound wave impinges upon the detecting device. At one instant in
time, the detector would detect a high pressure; this would correspond to the arrival of a
compression at the detector site. At the next instant in time, the detector might detect normal
pressure. And then finally a low pressure would be detected, corresponding to the arrival of a
rarefaction at the detector site. The fluctuations in pressure as detected by the detector occur at
periodic and regular time intervals. In fact, a plot of pressure versus time would appear as a sine
curve. The peak points of the sine curve correspond to compressions; the low points correspond
to rarefactions; and the "zero points" correspond to the pressure that the air would have if there
were no disturbance moving through it.

The relation between the sound pressure and the Particle displacement is giving by :

P = v 𝜌2𝜋f ξ (3.1)
Where P is the sound wave pressure in Pascal ,ρ the density of air and v is the speed of sound in air
and f is the frequency of the wave (typically taken to be 1kHz).

The sound energy density or sound density (symbol E or w) is an adequate measure to describe
the sound field at a given point as a sound energy value and giving by as :
𝐼
E= (3.2)
𝑓𝜆

3.4.2 Sound Intensity:

The intensity of a wave is simply the energy per unit time that is transferred per unit area of a
surface that the wave impinges on. But energy per time is just the power that is delivered by the
source. And that energy is distributed over an ever increasing area as the wave propagates away
from the source. Assuming a point source of sound, with waves spreading outward in spherical
wave fronts – and assuming no energy dissipation as the wave propagates through the air - the
intensity decreases as the inverse square of the distance from the source as the energy is spread
over an ever increasing spherical surface. So the intensity, or power per unit area, is simply given
by :
𝑃𝑎𝑣 Pav
I= = (3.3)
𝐴 4𝜋𝑟 2
where Pav is the power emitted by the source and r is the distance from the source. The intensity
39
I would be measured in watts per square meter. In practice, the intensity of a sound is much
more complicated, since the above expression assumes a point source of sound that spreads out
uniformly in all directions. Ignored in this expression is the absorption of sound by the air itself
and reflections from surfaces that the sound , Graphing the intensity as a function of

Figure 3.6 : intensity as a function of distance.

distance from the source shows how intensity diminishes as the energy of the sound waves is
spread over an ever increasing area. As the distance from the sound source increases, the
intensity decreases until it would be undetectable, sound waves radiating isotropically in a free
field obey the inverse square law, i.e., their intensity diminishes inversely with increasing
distance from their source because a fixed amount of energy is being radiated through
successively larger areas The weakest sound intensity that most humans can hear is about
10−12w/𝑚2 . That level is called the threshold of hearing and is assigned the symbol Io. All other
sound intensities can be related to Io. That is, a sound intensity one hundred times the threshold
of hearing would be written I=102 I0., etc. The loudest sounds that humans can endure over any
prolonged time - although that level is physically uncomfortable - has an intensity of about 1
watt/𝑚2 and is called the threshold of pain. And we can detect much larger intensities even than
that - although they can cause permanent hearing loss.
The Intensity and displacement amplitude are related by :
1
I = 2 𝜌 v 𝜔2 𝛏 2 (3.4)

3.4.3 : Speed of sound waves :

The speed of sound waves in a medium depends on the compressibility and density

40
of the medium. If the medium is a liquid or a gas and has a bulk modulus B and density, the
speed of sound waves in that medium is :
𝑩
v=√ (3.5)
𝝆

In fact, the speed of all mechanical waves follows an expression of the general form :
elastic property
v=√ (3.6)
inertial property

For longitudinal sound waves in a solid rod of material, for example, the speed of sound
depends on Young’s modulus Y and the density 𝜌. Table provides the speed of sound
in several different materials as shown in Table 3.1 .

Table 3.1: The speed of sound in Different Materials

The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the medium. For sound traveling through
air, the relationship between wave speed and medium temperature is :

Tc
v = (331 m/s) √1 + (3.7)
273℃

41
where 331 m/s is the speed of sound in air at 0°C, and TC is the air temperature in degrees
Celsius. Using this equation, one finds that at 20°C the speed of sound in air is
approximately 343 m/s.

3.5 : Speakers :
Speaker is one of the most general electronic transducer, speakers are transducer because they
convert one form of energy(electric) to another(sound). Depending on the type of speaker their
internal assembly and manufacturing may be little different but almost all the speakers work on
the principle of electromagnetism. We all might have observed that we hear sound when the
diaphragm (that black paper) vibrates, but lets see how the whole thing works :

Figure 3.7 : The internal structure of the speaker

The most important thing here is to note is that "iron metal" and "copper coil" both are
attached to the diaphragm, and vibrates along with the diaphragm. Now as we apply small
voltage to the coil, the coil magnetizes "iron metal" (simple electromagnetic concept). As you
can see adjacent to "iron metal" there is a "permanent magnet" also present in assembly. Since
north/south pole generated in the "iron metal" changes with the direction of current flow in
"copper coil", and depending on this direction of current "iron metal" will either attract or repel
"permanent magnet" as per simple magnetic law (same poles repel each other and opposite
poles attract). As the amount of current and direction changes frequently the diaphragm
vibrates rapidly which results into generation of sound.
42
3.6 Microphones :
A microphone is an example of a transducer, a device that changes information from one form to
another. Sound information exists as patterns of air pressure; the microphone changes this
information into patterns of electric current. The recording engineer is interested in the accuracy
of this transformation, a concept he thinks of as fidelity.

A variety of mechanical techniques can be used in building microphones. The two most
commonly encountered in recording studios are the magneto-dynamic and the variable condenser
designs.

Figure 3.8 : Microphones Internal Structure

In the magneto-dynamic, commonly called dynamic, microphone, sound waves cause

movement of a thin metallic diaphragm and an attached coil of wire. A magnet produces a
magnetic field which surrounds the coil, and motion of the coil within this field causes current
to flow. The principles are the same as those that produce electricity at the utility company,
realized in a pocket-sized scale. It is important to remember that current is produced by the
motion of the diaphragm, and that the amount of current is determined by the speed of that
motion. This kind of microphone is known as velocity sensitive.

3.7 : Audio Signal :

An audio signal is a representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals have
frequencies in the audio frequency range of roughly 20 to 20,000 Hz (the limits of human
hearing). Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a
microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or

43
headphones convert an electrical audio signal into sound. Digital representations of audio
signals exist in a variety of formats.
A digital representation expresses the pressure wave-form as a sequence of symbols, usually
binary numbers. This permits signal processing using digital circuits such as microprocessors and
computers. Although such a conversion can be prone to loss, most modern audio systems use
this approach as the techniques of digital signal processing are much more powerful and
efficient than analog domain signal processing.

Figure 3.9 : Sampling and quantization of a signal (red) for 4-bit PCM

44
 Chapter 4 : Photo Detectors

Introduction:
Photo detectors are used primarily as an optical receiver to convert light into electricity. The
principle that applies to photo detectors is the photoelectric effect, which is the effect on a circuit
due to light. Max Planck In 1900 discovered that energy is radiated in small discrete units called
quanta; he also discovered a universal constant of nature which is known as the Planck’s
constant. Planck’s discoveries lead to a new form of physics known as quantum mechanics and
the photoelectric effect E = hf which is Planck constant multiplied by the frequency of radiation.
The photo electric effect is the effect of light on a surface of metal in a vacuum, the result is
electrons being ejected from the surface this explains the principle theory of light energy that
allows photo detectors to operate. Photo detectors are commonly used as safety devices in homes
in the form of a smoke detector, also in conjunction with other optical devices to form security
systems.
4.1 Photo detectors:
4.1.1 What is a Photo detector?
An optical detector is a device that converts light signals into electrical signals, which can then
be amplified and processed. The photo detector is as essential an element of any fiber optic
system as the optical fiber or the light source. Photo detectors can dictate the performance of a
fiber optic communication link.

Figure 4.1: a typical Photo detector

45
A photo detector operates by converting light signals that hit the junction to a voltage or current.
The junction uses an illumination window with an anti-reflect coating to absorb the light
photons. The result of the absorption of photons is the creation of electron-hole pairs in the
depletion region. Examples of photo detectors are photodiodes and phototransistors. Other
optical devices similar to photo detectors are solar cells which also absorb light and turn it into
energy. A similar but different optical device is the LED which is basically the inverse of a
photodiode, instead of converting light to a voltage or current, it converts a voltage or current to
light.

4.1.2: Photodetector Classifications :

There are different types of semiconductor photodetectors: photoconductors, Schottky barrier

photodiodes, metal–semiconductor–metal (MSM) photodiodes, metal–insulator–semiconductor
(MIS) structures, p–n and p–i–n photodiodes, and field-effect and bipolar phototransistors. The
schematic structure of these devices is depicted in figure :

Figure 4.2 Different types of photo detectors.

4.2 Semiconductor Photodiodes :

Semiconductor photodiodes are the most commonly used detectors in optical fiber systems since
they provide good performance, being small in size, and are of low cost. Semiconductor
photodiodes are made of silicon, germanium, GaAs, InGaAs, etc.

46
4.2.1 Brief overview of semiconductor materials:
The energy structure of a semiconductor consists of a valence band corresponding to molecular
bonding states and a conduction band representing the molecular anticoding states. The energy
range lying between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band is known
as the forbidden band, or more commonly the band gap. An electron situated in the valence band
is in a ground state and remains localized to a particular atom in the crystal structure, whereas an
electron situated in the conduction band exists in an excited state, in a regime where it interacts
very weakly with the crystalline structure.
What differentiates semiconductors from insulators is essentially the size of the band gap: we
refer to semiconductors where the band gap of the material is typically less than or equal to 6 eV,
and to insulators when the band gap is more than 6 eV.

Semiconductor materials are mostly divided into two large classes: elemental semiconductors
(group IV of the periodic table): silicon, germanium, diamond, etc. and compound
semiconductors: IV-IV (SiC), III-V (GaAs, InP, InSb, GaN) and II-VI (CdTe, ZnSe, ZnS, etc.).
Impurities can be introduced into the volume of the semiconductor material and can modify its
electrical conduction properties, sometimes considerably. An impurity is known as a donor when
it easily releases a free electron into the conduction band, The characteristic energy level of the
impurity is therefore in the band gap, slightly below the conduction band.
For example, in the case of compound semiconductors in group IV of the periodic table such as
silicon, the main donor impurities are those which, being from group V of the periodic table
(arsenic, phosphorous, etc.), are substituted in place of a silicon atom in the crystal structure:
since silicon is tetravalent, these atoms naturally form four covalent bonds with the silicon atoms
Around them, and also easily give up their surplus electron to the crystal structure.

These electrons become free to move, subject to a weak activation energy provided by thermal
agitation. In this case we refer to n-type doping. In the case of silicon, a group III element
incorporated into the crystal structure of silicon naturally forms three covalent bonds around it,
and then completes its own outer-shell electronic structure by capturing an electron from its
fourth nearest neighbor silicon atom, again subject to a weak thermal activation energy. Such an
impurity is known as an acceptor, and doping with acceptors is known as p-type doping. A hole
carrying a positive elementary charge and corresponding to a vacant energy state in the valence
band is therefore left in the crystal structure of the silicon.

47
4.3 How Does a Photo detector Work?

The following illustration shows how a photo detector work. The detector is electrically reverse-
biased. (In contrary, LEDs and Lasers are forward-biased to emit light).

Figure 4.3: The Mechanism of the photodetectors

In the first illustration when there is no light, the reverse bias draws current-carrying electrons
and holes out of the p-n junction region, creating a depleted region, which stops current from
passing through the diode.

48
In the second illustration when there are lights on the detector, photons with the proper energy
(wavelength) can create electron-hole pairs in this region by raising an electron from the valence
band to the conduction band, leaving a hole behind. The bias voltage causes these current carriers
to drift quickly away from the junction region, so a current flows proportional to the light hitting
the detector. The wavelengths at which the detector responds to light depend on the detector’s
material composition.

4.3.1 Photo detector Response Curves:

As we said above, the wavelength that a photo detector can respond to depends on its composition.
The following graph shows the detector response curve for different materials.

Figure 4.4 Detector Response Curve For Different Materials

4.4 PIN Photodetector :

This photodiode includes an intrinsic layer in between the P and N type materials. The PIN must
be reverse bias due to the high resistivity of the intrinsic layer; the PIN has a larger depletion
region which allows more electron-hole pairs to develop at a lower capacitance.
49
 Figure 4.5 A PIN Photodiode

PIN photodiode has an intrinsic (very lightly doped) semiconductor region sandwiched between
a p-doped and an n-doped region (as shown in Fig 4.6).

Figure 4.6 The Internal Structure of a PIN Photodiode

The PIN photodiode is reverse-biased as shown above. Since the intrinsic (i) region has no free
charges, its resistance is high, so that most of the reverse-biased voltage is applied to this i
region. The i region is usually wide so that incoming photons have a greater probability of
absorption in the i region rather than in the p or n regions. Since the electric field is high in the i
region, any electron-hole pairs generated in this region are immediately swept away by the field.
e-h pairs generated in the p and n regions have to first diffuse into the depletion region before
being swept away. Also, these e-h pairs may suffer recombination, resulting in a reduced current.

50
4.5 PIN Photo detector Characteristics:

4.5.1 Quantum Efficiency :

Sensitivity measures the response to an optical input signal as a function of its intensity. Photo
detector’s sensitivity can be measured in two concepts: quantum efficiency and responsivity. We
will focus on quantum efficiency in this section, and we will introduce responsively in the next
section. Quantum efficiency η measures the fraction of incoming photons that generate electrons
at the detector. It is defined as

𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

QE = (4.1)
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥

ib ⁄𝑒
Quantum Efficiency = 𝑃 (4.2)
⁄ ℎ𝑓

Where:

ib is photocurrent in the External circuit ,e is the electron charge, P is the optical power

Quantum efficiency η is the ratio of the number of electron-hole (e-h) pairs generated to the
number of incident photons. It can by calculated by:

∅(1 − 𝑅) photons that will enter the photodiode

Where : ∅ is the Photon flux ,R is the reflection coefficient at the air-semiconductor surface, And
(1-𝑒 −𝛼𝑑 ) absorption of the material

Where 𝛼 is the absorption factor,And d is the distance where optical power is absorbed.

So now the The fractional number of the photons absorbed is ∅(1 − 𝑅)(1-𝑒 −𝛼𝑑 )

But not all pairs contribute to the photocurrent so now we have ξ is the fraction of the e-h pairs
contributes to the photo current.

The Quantum Efficiency now can be substituted to 4.1 :

η=∅(1 − 𝑅)(1-𝑒 −𝛼𝑑 ) ξ (4.3)

51
4.5.2 Responsivity :

Responsivity is the ratio of electrical output from the detector to the input optical power. If the
output current varies proportionally to the input, this is measured as amps per watt (A/W). Since
in fiber optic communication systems, input powers are usually in microwatt level, responsivity
is often expressed as uA/uW.

The responsivity R is the photo current generated per unit optical power. The
following formula shows how to calculate responsivity :

ib
R= 𝑃 (4.4)

From equation (4.2) :

e
R= η ℎ𝑓 (4.5)

λ(𝑢𝑚)
R= η 1.24
A/W (4.6)

Where : λ0 is measured in um (micrometers),η is the quantum efficiency,The following figure 4.7

shows the spectral dependence of responsivity and quantum efficiency for different
semiconductor materials.

Figure 4.7 : spectral dependence of responsivity and quantum efficiency for different
semiconductor materials

52
4.5.3 Speed of Response and Bandwidth :

The speed of response and bandwidth of a photo detector depend on three factors.

1. The transit time of the photo-generated carriers through the depletion region
2. The electrical frequency response as determined by the RC time constant, which depends
on the diode’s capacitance
3. The slow diffusion of carriers generated outside the depletion region.

4.5.4 Rise Time & Fall Time

Rise time is the time the output signal takes to rise from 10% to 90% of the peak value after the
input is turned on instantaneously while Fall time is the the time the output signal takes to drop
from 90% to 10% of the peak value after the input is turned off abruptly.

Figure 4.8 Rise Time & Fall Time of a Photodiode

4.5.5 Photodetector Bandwidth

Detector bandwidth usually is defined as the frequency at which the output signal has dropped to
3dB (50%) below the power at a low frequency. This means that only half as much signal is
getting through the detector at the higher frequency.In a square wave function, the highest
frequencies are responsible for the sharp edges. Frequencies higher than the bandwidth
frequency (50%) are attenuated even more. As bandwidth decreases, the pulses become more
rounded.

53
 Figure 4.9 : Normalized response in (dB) vs Frequency

4.6 Photodiode External Circuit :

The following figure shows the symble of a PIN photodiode :

Figure 4.10 : Photodiode Symbol

A second optoelectronic device that conducts current when exposed to light is the
Phototransistor. A phototransistor, however, is much more sensitive to light and produces more
output current for a given light intensity that does a photodiode.
Figure 4.11 shows one type of phototransistor, which is made by placing a photodiode in the base
circuit of an NPN transistor. Light falling on the photodiode changes the base current of the
transistor, causing the collector current to be amplified. Phototransistors may also be of the PNP
type, with the photodiode placed in the base-collector circuit.

54
 Figure 4.11 : Phototransistor

Phototransistors may be of the two-terminal type, in which the light intensity on the photodiode
alone determines the amount of conduction. They may also be of the three-terminal type, which
have an added base lead that allows an electrical bias to be applied to the base. The bias allows
an optimum transistor conduction level, and thus compensates for ambient (normal room) light
intensity.

Figure 4.12 : schematic symbols for the various types of phototransistors.

55
Unfortunately, even under the best conditions, photodiodes (and reversed LEDs) don’t provide a
lot of current flow. The output of the photodiode needs to be amplified for the light-detection
signal to be useful in most circuits. A photodiode amplified by a built-in transistor is called a
phototransistor.

You can connect a standalone photodiode to the input of a standalone transistor. But, it isn’t easy
to control the gain of a single-transistor amplifier, and there are issues with signal noise and the
amount of input current required. Instead, a better method for amplifying low-power signals in a
high-quality repeatable way is an op amp chip (operational amplifier).

Photo-diode is a two-terminal semiconductor P-N junction device and is designed to operate with
reverse bias. The basic biasing arrangement, construction and symbols for the device are given in
figure 4.12. It is either mounted in translucent case or has its semiconductor junction mounted
beneath an optical lens. The output voltage is taken from across a series-connected load resistor
R. This resistance may be connected between the diode and ground or between the diode and the
positive terminal of the supply, as illustrated in figure 4.12..

Figure 4.12 : Typical circuit for use of a photodetector,

illustrated here as a photodiode

56
 Chapter 5
Laser Microphones

Introduction :
Detecting vibrations remotely in the environment or from human body is useful in many
applications, such as audio recording, heart beat detection, production quality control in industry,
etc. However, small vibration is nearly invisible to human eyes and its detection can be done by
The laser microphones. The Laser Spy System was said to be invented in the Soviet Union by
Leon Theremin in the late 1940s. Using a non-laser based infrared light source, Theremin's
system could detect sound from a nearby window by picking up the faint vibrations on the glass
surface. The KGB later used this device to spy on the British, French and US embassies in
Moscow.

When several years ago, the national news media revealed that there was a serious health risk for
employees of the U.S. embassy Moscow posed by the continuous bombardment of the embassy
by microwaves, it was mentioned that the exposure resulted from the microwave beams of
microwave eavesdropping devices operated by Soviet intelligence agencies. These devices were
Maser-Bounce Listening Devices, older, lower frequency versions of Laser-Bounce Listening
Devices, the basis of laser eavesdropping systems.

Laser eavesdropping systems were once very exotic, very sophisticated, and very expensive – the
exclusive province of university laboratories, intelligence agencies, and the military. Today both
lasers and laser eavesdropping systems are cheap, plentiful, easy to obtain, and easy to use.

Laser eavesdropping systems operating in the near-infrared region use lasers which radiate an
invisible beam with a wavelength somewhere between 700 and 1550 nanometers (nm).The
reflected beam is received by either a silicon photo detector operating between 400 nm and
1100 nm or an indium gallium arsenide photo detector operating between 800 nm and 1700 nm.

In this project, a infra-red laser microphone was developed, which detects nearly invisible
vibrations using an off-the-shelf laser pointer and simple analog circuits. This device is based on
detecting the varying amount of reflected laser beam received by a single photo detector. the
57
incident angle of the laser beam forms a small angle with the surface normal, so that the surface
vibration along the normal vector induces lateral displacement of the reflected laser beam and
hence causes variation in the amount of received laser.

5.1 Theory :
The simplest embodiment of the laser microphone consists of a laser source which is reflected
off of a vibrating object. The reflected beam is collected onto a photosensitive detector where the
signal is amplitude modulated by the deflections induced in the beam by the vibrating object.
This signal is converted into an electronic signal by the detector which can be amplified and
transduced back into audio by way of a speaker (in the case of headphones) or recorded similar
to a standard microphone. Figure 5.1 is a diagram illustrating this simplest embodiment.

Figure 5.1 : Simple Structure of Laser Microphone

The limitation of this setup is that the sensor position is critical. The laser edge must be
positioned such that the amplitude modulation is a result of the beam physically translating
across sensor. In this case, the amplitude will increase if more of the beam overlaps the sensor
and the amplitude will decrease if less of the beam overlaps.
When the window vibrates, so does the laser's mark on the photo resistor. The collector detects
these vibrations as minute changes in intensity; these changes are the sound waves from inside
the room.. This output signal is interpreted as sound waves which power a speaker so the
eavesdroppers can listen to sound from inside the room the block diagram of the theory cab be
illustrated as shown in figure 5.2.

58
 Figure 5.2 The Laser Microphone Block Diagram.

As mentioned in early chapters you have to clearly understand that the laser spying devices do
not work on modulation of the laser beam like some laser communication devices. Modulation of
the laser beam is impossible because it would take some type of circuitry installed in the laser
driver to actually modulate the intensity of the beam, and the laser is going to be installed at your
location, not the target location. The principal that is at work here is not modulation, but
movement! As the laser reflects from the target window, the slight vibrations from conversations
or noise that vibrate the windows cause a very slight change in position of the returning laser
beam. This change in position is converted into voltage as the sensor in the receiver catches the
returning laser beam .So movement, not modulation the principal on which this system operates.

5.3 The Basic Elements of The Laser microphone :

Laser eavesdropping Devices are covert listening devices .Laser eavesdropping systems are
covert because they work from a distance and provide no electronic clues to security personnel
that the conversation is being monitored. There are no radio transmissions from the building, no
electronic variations in phone transmissions, no electronic equipment or bugs of any kind in the
room being monitored.
There is only an invisible beam of laser light reflecting off the outer surface of a window. The
laser eavesdropping device contains two basic elements, a laser and a laser receiver. Most laser

59
eavesdropping system lasers radiate in the near infrared spectrum between 700 nm and 1550 nm.
The reasons for this are straightforward.
A laser which radiates in that spectrum has an invisible beam with good atmospheric
transmission characteristics. Operation in that spectral region is compatible with the use of
inexpensive, uncooled silicon or indium gallium arsenide detectors in the receiver.
The rationale behind selection of a near infrared laser is equally straightforward. Covert
operation requires an invisible beam. This eliminates
The physical arrangement of a typical laser eavesdropping system is as follows:
1)Infrared Laser: The laser will be mounted on a stable platform, similar to a camera tripod or a
surveyor's transit. The laser consist of the laser, its power supply (usually batteries).
So how do you send an invisible beam across the street and attempt to have it land exactly
on the 1mm photo detector when the beam is completely invisible? Well, you can't, so you will
need two lasers - one to do the initial targeting, and the other to do the covert surveillance
work. Now, this may sound completely impossible, but I can assure you that it does work, and
I have managed to target a window using the infrared laser as well. but it can be done if all of the
conditions are in your favor.
2)Receiver: The receiver will also be mounted on a stable platform if possible or can be installed
on the breadboard itself . It could be collocated with the laser transmitter or at a separate
location.
The location is dictated by the geometry of the target area. The receiver contains
supporting electronics forming a simple circuit with op-amp ,resistances and capacitors .
the detector simply converts the reflected laser interference patterns to sound and feeds it to
earphones and a recorder.

5.4 How Do They Work? :

Laser Eavesdropping Devices work because of the two unique characteristics of laser light - laser
light is monochromatic and coherent as explained clearly in chapter 2 .
The target voice produces sound pressure on the outside of the window, This pressure travels in
the air then through the glass causing the displacement amplitude(ξ) of the glass particles to
change according to equation (3.1) . This change in displacement amplitude(ξ) causes vibrations
in the glass pane Which cause the window to flex, changing the center of curvature of the
window, thereby causing the "focal length(=measure of how strongly the system(glass)
converges or diverges light) of the window to change, albeit very slightly. This creates a varying

60
divergence in the reflected laser beam as shown in Fig. 5.3,.as the laser bean is focused on the
window , The beam will split into to beams ,one will go through which is not useful for us ,the
other one will reflect obeying the law of reflection as has been explained in chapter 1.
A laser emits coherent light. Laser light is in phase. There is no destructive interference in the
beam. The round trip distance of a light wave at the edge of the beam from the laser to the
window to the receiver could easily be several feet longer than the round trip distance of a light
wave at the center of the beam. This means that the time it takes to reach the receiver collection
optics is different for light waves in different parts of the laser beam causing a phase change as in
equation (1.11).
Since phase is time dependent, waves with different reflection paths may have different phases
when they reach the receiver focusing optics and an interference pattern detectable by the
receiver is created.
The beam is reflected from the window and the individual light waves add at the receiver to
create an interference pattern as explained in figure 1.6. When two waves are added together, the
resulting wave has an amplitude value E that is increased through constructive interference.
The reason that an interference pattern exists is because as the beam diverges on the way to the
window and back to the receiver, the light waves in different parts of the beam travel different
distances.
Thus, even small the electric field amplitude E cause a measurable variation in the energy
density of the light reaching the photo detector as in equation (1.2) .The variations in the energy
density correspond to the original audio information coming from the target.

Now before we know what happens at the receiver let's summarize the sending process: The
laser beam is focused on the window. Sounds are vibrations in the atmosphere. Sound vibrations
in the room hit against the window and cause it to vibrate. As the window vibrates, the relative
phase of the light waves being reflected change depending on the changes in the distance
between the receiver and the individual reflecting element and the angle of reflecting surface.
The result is a change in the interference pattern at the receiver which corresponds
to the vibration of the reflecting surface.
The detector converts these fluctuations in light intensity into voltage fluctuations which can be
reconstituted as sound.

61
 Figure 5.3 : As the window pane vibrates, its radius of curvature fluctuates. This creates a
reflecting surface with a varying focal length. The divergence of the reflected laser beam
fluctuates.
Equation (1.2) h does not depend on the frequency of the wave.
But now we’re saying that each photon has energy hf, which means that the total energy density
of an EM wave is:
Uparticle = N hf (5.1)

where N is the number of photons per 𝑚3 . This explicitly does depends on the frequency f of the
wave.
These two formulations (5.1) & (1.2) always give the same answer: Uparticle = Uwave
Thus, the number of photons (per unit volume) must be proportional to 𝐸 2 , and the
proportionality constant must depend on the frequency of the wave.
The variation in energy density at the photo detector causes the voltage across the detector to
fluctuate. The detector receives the audio information carried by the modulated light energy
density and transforms it into a fluctuating voltage.
As we know from chapter 4 equation (4.2) any change in the internal quantum efficiency
indicates a change in the photon flux The laser microchips takes a receiver form circuit as
shown in figure 4.12.

62
Also the photocurrent depends utterly on the incident optical power and the photon energy as
giving by :
Pinc
Iph=e 𝜂 (5.2)
ℎ𝑓

Where : Iph is the photocurrent , Pin is the optical power incident .

This voltage signal carries the original audio information, and it is then sent to an amplifier
where it is amplified to a level that can drive the speaker.
One can easily prove that the sound coming from the laser microphone speaker is being carried
by the laser beam and is caused by vibrations in the window glass. Interrupting the laser beam
with your hand will cause the recognizable sounds coming through the speaker to disappear.
Also, tapping lightly on the window with a finger will produce audible sounds through the laser
microphone system.
The window behaves like a microphone. In a microphone, sound vibrates the plates of a
capacitor and causes output voltage fluctuations which can be manipulated electronically and
later reconstituted as sound. Similarly, sound vibrates the surface of the window and produces
interference patterns in the reflected laser beam. The photo detector in the receiver converts these
interference patterns to voltage fluctuations which are electronically manipulated and
reconstituted as sound.

5.4 Design Considerations :

A laser listener can target any object, typically inside a room where a conversation is taking
place, and can be anything that will vibrate in response to sound waves created by noises present
in the room. Preferably, the object has a smooth surface. A laser listener can take three main
forms.

5.4.1 Grazing Laser Microphone:

Probably the most intuitive approach to building a laser microphone, a grazing laser microphone
reflects a LASER beam at an angle to the reflective surface that is to be measured. An angle such
as 45° would be appropriate, allowing the photo detector to be placed at the complementary
angle, and located at a near distance on the other side of the reflective surface.
The reflected beam is collected onto a photosensitive detector, where the signal is amplitude
modulated by deflections induced in the beam by the vibrations of the reflective surface. This
signal will be directly proportional to the amplitude of the vibrations, which is therefore a direct

63
analogue of the original sound waves. This signal can then be converted into an electronic signal
by the detector which can in turn be amplified.

Fig 5.4 : Grazing Laser Microphone

The limitations of a grazing LASER microphone are primarily portability issues. In the case of a
LASER microphone, ideally the unit would be self contained and could be operated from a
single location. In the case of a grazing type microphone, the sensor position is absolutely critical
to achieving a good signal. The LASER edge must be positioned such that the amplitude
modulation is a result of the LASER beam physically translating across the sensor. Therefore,
the amplitude will increase or decrease the more or less the beam overlaps the sensor
respectively.
The laser microphone can take many forms such as the co-located laser microphone or the
michelson interferometer laser microphone , for practicality, a grazing laser microphone is most
suitable for this proof of concept project. Although the Michelson interferometer would produce
significantly better results, it is a much more complex build and would require higher quality
components and a laboratory grade gas laser if the device is to be used at range. Laser pens use
silicon chip lasers, so the coherence path length is very short as the device itself is also short.
Coherence is a change of phase over time due to the nature of the way a laser produces light.
In a Michelson design, this change in coherence would cause a loss of fidelity and increased
noise in the signal if the distance from the object is greater than twice the coherence length. Due
to this, the Michelson design has not been explored in this proof of concept project, but has been
mentioned for completeness.

64
5.5 How to Protect Yourself From Them :
The only way to protect yourself from a laser eavesdropper is to move the conversation which
you wish to protect to an interior room.
However, if you wish to use rooms with windows for meetings and normal conversations, you
need to be able to detect the presence of the laser eavesdropping system laser beam.
Insight Technologies has developed a laser eavesdropping system detector which will detect the
presence of laser beams in the near infrared and sound an alarm.
The Insight Technologies laser detectors are compact devices (approximately 2 inches by 4
inches by 1 inch) which hang in the center of a vulnerable window. The device runs on a 9 volt
battery. The laser detector has three modes - On, Off, and Test. In the Test mode, a standard
television remote control can be used to verify device operation.
To use the device, look out each of the windows in the room which you wish to protect and
determine whether or not there are potential locations from which an eavesdropper could aim a
laser at the window. If there are, then hang an Insight Technologies laser detector in the
center of the window.

When eavesdroppers set up a laser eavesdropping system, they first mount the laser on a
stabilized platform and aim it optically at the target window. At this point the beam is fairly
wide. The receiver is then aimed at the window to intercept the reflected beam. After the receiver
is centered on the reflected beam, the eavesdropper will then tighten the focus of the
laser beam for optimum sensitivity.
The initial laser beam will cover most of the window. The final beam will be about a foot in
diameter and will be aimed at the center of the window for maximum sensitivity. Both beams are
easily detectable by the Insight Technologies laser detector
As soon as the eavesdropper starts to focus the laser beam on the window, the Insight
Technologies laser detector will detect the presence of the beam and sound an alarm. The system
will also light a red light which will stay lit after the alarm cycles off to notify you that the
eavesdropper focused the laser eavesdropping device on the window. When the alarm
sounds, either move the conversation to a safe room or send a security team to remove the laser
eavesdropper.

65
5.6 Summary :
The laser beam is focused on the window. Sounds are vibrations in the atmosphere. Sound
vibrations in the room hit against the window and cause it to vibrate. As the window vibrates, the
relative phase of the light waves being reflected change depending on the changes in the
distance between the receiver and the individual reflecting element and the angle of reflecting
surface. The result is a change in the interference pattern at the receiver which corresponds
to the vibration of the reflecting surface.
The detector converts these fluctuations in light intensity into voltage fluctuations which can be
reconstituted as sound.
The operation of a laser eavesdropping system is completely undetectable by electronic sweepers
and standard counter surveillance equipment. The only indication of the operation of a laser
eavesdropping system is an invisible laser beam reflecting off the exterior surface
of a room window.
Laser eavesdropping systems are covert, readily available, effective, and completely
undetectable by standard anti-bugging devices and procedures and as such represent a new
dimension in the assault on privacy.

66
References:
1- Galeyev, Bulat M.; Translated By Vladimir Chudnovsky (1996). "Special Section: Leon
Theremin, Pioneer Of Electronic Art". Leonardo Music Journal (LMJ) 6. Retrieved 2007.
2-Glinsky, Albert (2000). Theremin: Ether Music And Espionage. Urbana, Illinois: University Of
Illinois Press.
3-"The Rapid Decline Of Transparency And Privacy In America". Future Of Freedom
Foundation. 2008-06-07. Retrieved 2008-10-31.
4-A Simple Laser Microphone For Classroom Demonstration.
James M. Moses, Penn State University – Schreyer Honors College, University Park, PA
K.P. Trout, Penn State University – York Campus, York, PA-(2013).
5- University Of Dayton.A Laser Microphone.Utilizing The Sensitivity Of A Michelson
Interferometer To Detect Vibrations (2006), Long Wang.Jonathan Slagle.Chen Ye
Shiyi Wang.
6- National Instruments UK (2012)/Oliver Pont/Mylaserlistener.
7- (2001)/Lucidscience/Electronics From The Fring /Laser Spy Device.
8- Electromax International, Inc. "Laser Listening Systems"
9-Pimall.Com/Laser Eavesdropping Systems/What They Are. How They Work. By Insight
Technologies.
10-Stephen Hawking's Grand Design/Discovery Channel UK/(2013)
11- Physics for Scientists and Engineers 6th ed.- Saunders College Publishing, 1987 - Serway
and Jewett
12-Bohr Model Of The Atom/BPA university /2009.
13- Hands-on Activity: Measuring Distance with Sound Waves Contributed by: Applying
Mechatronics to Promote Science (AMPS) Program GK-12, Polytechnic Institute of New York
University
14- John E. Greivenkamp (2004). Field Guide to Geometrical Optics. SPIE Press. pp. 6–9.
15- Introduction to Laser Technology/mellesgriot.com/2004.

16-Optoelectronic Sensors/Didier Decoster, Joseph HarariJohn Wiley & Sons,/Jan 5, 2010.

17-Photodetectors fundamentals /Joseph S. Braley/2007.

18- Longhurst, R.S. (1967). Geometrical and Physical Optics. Norwich: Longmans.

19- William Hamby. "Ultimate Sound Pressure Level Decibel Table". Archived from the original
on 2010-07-27.

67
20- Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series (NEETS)/Module 7—Introduction to Solid-
State Devices and Power Supplies/2009.

21- radio-electronics.com/info/data/semicond/phototransistor/photo-transistor-circuits-symbols.

22- hedberg.ccnysites.cuny.edu/F13-PHYS208/8/#/35

23-hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/reflec.(1992)

24-Svelto, Orazio (1998). Principles of Lasers, 4th ed. (trans. David Hanna), Springer.

25- Gould, R. Gordon (1959). "The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation". In Franken, P.A. and Sands, R.H. (Eds.). The Ann Arbor Conference on Optical
Pumping, the University of Michigan, 15 June through 18 June 1959. p. 128. OCLC 02460155.
26-Conceptual physics, Paul Hewitt, 2002.
27-Siegman, Anthony E. (1986). Lasers. University Science Books
28-Budde, W. Optical Radiation Measurements. Vol. 4, "Physical Detectors of Optical
Radiation." New York: Academic Press, 1983
29- Kruse, P.W., L.D. McGlauchlin, and R.B. McQuistan. Elements of Infrared Technology. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962.
30-Lee, T.P., and T.L. Li. "Photodetectors" (Chapter 18), Optical Fiber Telecommunications. S.E.
Miller and A.G. Chynoweth, ed. New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1979.
31-McCormick, M. "Infrared Detector Update." Electro-Optics, June 1983, pp. 62-69.
32-Ready, J.F., Industrial Applications of Lasers. New York: Academic Press, 1978.
33-Ballou, Glen (2005). Handbook for sound engineers (3 ed.). Focal Press, Gulf Professional
Publishing.
34-Clint Goss; Barry Higgins (2013). "The Warble". Flutopedia..
35-M.Born; E. Wolf (1999). Principles of Optics (7th ed.)
36-Loudon, Rodney (2000). The Quantum Theory of Light. Oxford University Press.
37- G. Goubau and F. Schwering (1961). "On the guided propagation of electromagnetic wave
beams". IRE Trans.

68