REVIEWER IN STS WHAT IS SOCIETY

 Term society emerged in the 15th century

WHAT IS SCIENCE?  derived from French société,
 From Latin scientia- knowledge  Latin: societas, “a friendly association
 A body of organized knowledge about with others
nature  Socius-“companion, associate, comrade,
 A system of acquiring knowledge based business partner”
on scientific method, organized body of  Society-group of people with common
knowledge gained through such research territory, interaction & culture.
FIELDS OF SCIENCE:  Social group-consists of 2 or more people
 Natural Science-Study of natural interact & identify with one another.
phenomena, (biological life)
 Social Science- Study of human behavior TERRITORY
& societies  Most countries have formal boundaries
& territories
Science
 Society’s boundaries doesn’t have to be
geopolitical borders
Formal Natural Humanistic Applied
 Members of society, members &
Math Logic Biological Physical Behavioral Social Engineering Medicine
nonmembers, recognize particular l& as
belonging to that society.
LAW-observed phenomenon that is absolute CULTURE
true, cannot be changed  People of same society share aspects
THEORY-Idea that attempt to explain something, of their culture, (language, beliefs)
not yet proven, not always generally true despite  Refers to language, values, beliefs,
strong evidence behavior, material objects that
PRINCIPLE-preposition that serves as constitute people’s way of life. A
foundation of beliefs & ideas defining element of society.
INTERACTION
WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY?  Members of society must come in contact
 From Greek word technologia, techno- with one another
(art, craft, skills)  If a group of people in a country has no
logia-word regular contact with other group, those
 Application of scientific knowledge for groups can’t be considered as part of
practical purposes same society.
 Involves design, products, systems,  Geographic distance & language barriers
process that affect quality of life can separate societies within a country.
 Applied enterprise concerned producing
appliances, tools, machine, techniques
 Products are called INVENTIONS

A. Artifacts/Hardware-products fabricated
by humans to meet specific needs. Tools,
machines, implements.
B. Knowledge/Methods-system of tacit &
explicit knowledge, techniques, materials
utilized in using, making or repairing a
certain kind of artifact
C. Human cultural activity/Profession-e.g.
military, engineers, crafters, machinists
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY ACROSS TIME
PREHISTORIC & ANCIENT WORLD (2000 B.C-
A.D 699)
 Prehistoric period, people used bronze for
tools
 Hunting-gather lifestyle is more prominent
(used stone tools)
 Period of discovery of fire
STONE AGE- Stone tools have been the first
recognized technology
 H. Habilis & H. Rudolfensis were
associated with broken pebbles
 H. Ergaster & H. Erectus greatly improved
stone tools by creating distinctive shapes
with only single cutting edge called H&
AXES (bifaces), SCRAPERS or
CHOPPERS
 H.Heidelbergensis & H.Neanderthalensis
& H.Sapiens devised different parts of
different toolkits(Included awls, needles,
burins (engraving tools),
 Hunting weapons such as slings, bow,
bolo, fish hook, spear thrower are the
innovations in this period
 Math & Astronomy –linked as marks of
artifacts
 Interpreted as tall markers or counters,
calenders, records of lunar cycle
MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION
 SUMERIAN-(sumerians)
 Communication-development of first
h&rwriting system: CUNEIFORM
 Architecture- they built City of Uruk
using mud or clay from river, mixed w/
reeds, producing sun-baked bricks
 BABYLONIAN-
 Science-Astornomy, showed
remarkable talent
 Knew the rule that lunar eclipses could
only be possible during new moons &
full moons
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
 Architecture-known for construction of
PYRAMIDS & other monuments
 Science- specialized in ASTRONOMY &
MATH helped in constructing pyramids
 Communication- contributed the use of
paper or PAPYRUS (thin sheets, less
breakable, lighter than clay tables)
ANCIENT CHINESE CIVILIZATION
 Science- linked with ASTRONOMY &
MATH. Confucius, chinese astronomers
calculated occurrence of eclipses
 Inventions-gunpowder, paper, woodblock,
printing, compass
GREEK CIVILIZATION
 Architecture- invented Doric, Ionic &
Corinthian columns. (e.g. Parthenon)
 Inventions-alarm clock & water mill
ROMAN CIVILIZATION
 Architecture-adopted greek architecture
 Made buildings such as basilica,
monumental aqueduct, amphitheater,
granary building that are intricately
decorative
 Communication-first newspaper in this
civilization. GAZETTE (engraved in metal
or stone tables)
 Record keeping-produced first books
CODEX, stacked up papyrus, to form
pages of books
MIDDLE AGES/RENAISSANCE (700-1449)
 Middle ages/Dark ages marks the fall of
Rome
 Period of relative cultural darkness,
severe wars, plagues, lack of learning
development
 Renaissance=Rebirth
 Period where there was renewed interest
in artworks
 Beginning of revival & innovation of
Science, Literature & Culture, visibly
changed Europe
 Period of discovery & exploration of new
continents
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION (1450-1699)
 Period started Nicolas Copernicus on the
revolutions on Heavenly Spheres in 1543
 Development of Science is big in this
period, new methods & ideas were made
 Period when development in Math,
Physics, Astronomy & Chemistry
transformed the views of society about
nature
 Period started with the idea of Heliocentric
cosmos

AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT (1700-1799)
 Age of Reason or The Age of Optimism
 Period known as the century of philosophy
 Time where there was an increased in
questioning religions, government, duly &
obligations
 Period where growth of intellectual
reason, individualism where freedom,
democracy, reason as primary values of
society
 Politics, philosophy, science
communications were radically reoriented
during this period
 Period of intellectual & philosophical
movement
AGE OF INVENTION (1800-1899)
 Is called the Industrial Revolution
 Industrial machines perform the works of
human laborers
 Time where world witness different
developments like telephone, telegraphs,
steamboats, electric lights, movies,
sewing machines, cars, electric motors,
railroad, Ferris wheels & aspirin
TIME OF EXTREMES (1900-1949)
 Time of WW1 & WW2
 Period of war where science & weapons
were developed for the benefit of warfare
 Period where new technologies &
materials invented were more deadly
instruments for war but also lengthened
human lives
TECHNOLOGICAL AGE (1950-2000)
 Also known as Digital Age, advent of
personal computers
 Television replaced radio, newspapers,
magazines as primary source of
entertainment & information
 There is a shift from mechanical &
analogue tech to digital electronics
 Space race between Russia & America
were popular
 First man l&ed on the moon
 Cold war happen where they feared that
nuclear warfare could break the world
st
21 CENTURY (2000-present)
 Age of Information technology
 Fueled by a knowledge of economy that
values problem solving & critical thinking
 Internet is more accessible to most people
 Major developments has been growing
because of the use digital
telecommunication technology
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
 All knowledge came from Catholic
Church
 Catholic Church and Bible were source
of what was true and false of the world
 Ancient Greek and Roman
& philosophers, such as Aristotle said
what was true about the natural world
 Most ancient people believed the sky
was a solid dome with Sun, moon and
stars embedded on it
A. Earth was composed of elements: Earth, fire,
water and air
B. Stars and planets are made of perfect
substance called Aether, 5th heavenly element
C. Earth was the center of the Universe
D. Moon, sun and stars are held in place by
invisible crystalline spheres
E. Planets known: Sun-Saturn
F. Earth is stationary at the center of heaven
G. Sun and planets revolved around Earth
H. Firmament is the place of stars are placed
I. Spheres are perfectly circular
J. Planets move in circular orbit
K. Sun and moon are perfect creations
ARISTOTLE
 Earth is the center of the universe
 All other heavenly bodies are attached to
47-56 transparent concentric spheres
which rotates around the Earth
PTOLEMY
 Geocentric Model
ARISTHARCUS OF SAMOS (310-230 B.C)
 Ancient greek astronomer and
mathematician
 Presented first known model as Sun is the
center of the universe and Earth revolve
around it
 Central fire=Sun, put other planets in
correct order of distance around the sun
 Stars were just other bodies like Sun
 First to deduce the rotation of the Earth on
its axis
Retrogaded Motion: as a faster moving planet
overtakes & passes a slower moving superior
planet appears to move backwards as you pass  The inquisition was the tribunal of the
by it roman catholic church
HELIOCENTRIC THEORY  Inquisition made galileo kneel before them
 Helio= Sun and confess that heliocentric was false
 Centric=center  CRATERS ON THE MOON
 Sun is the center of the solar system o Moon is not perfect
 Earth rotates on its own axis and revolves o Has craters and mountains
around the sun  SUNSPOTS
Key Limitations: o has dark spots
 The early models used circular orbits o sun is not perfect
(didn’t explain the apparent motions of o sun rotates, earth rotates
planets)  MOONS OF JUPITER
 Elliptical orbits, orbital speeds were o January 7-15, 1610
added, apparent motions could be o Revolve around Jupiter
explained and predicted o Form a miniature solar system of
NICOLAS COPERNICUS (1473-1543) their own
 All spheres revolve around Sun (midpoint)  PHASES OF VENUS
 Sun is the center of the Universe/Solar
System
 Motion of earth: sun rise, sun set
 Earth has more than one motion
Heliocentric Model:
a. Sun is the center of the Solar System
b. Earth spin on its axis
c. Earth move around the sun just like other
planets, moon revolves around Earth
d. Earth revolves in uniform circular motion
e. Stars don’t move (earth spins, earth orbit)
TYCHO BRAHE (1546-1601)
 Danish astronomer who made
JOHANNES KEPLER (1571-1630)
measurements of planet and stars.
 German theologian and mathematician
 Most accurate measurements that hade
 Sought to prove Copernican model correct
been made yet
 He saw the model representing God in the
 Tychonic System
center of the universe with his creation
 His observatory were used for 20 years
surrounding him
 His observatory: largest quadrants in the
 Kepler succeeded Tycho as the imperial
world
mathematician
 Made the most accurate observation’s of
 He worked for 4 years trying to derive the
planetary and star positions (±1
motions of Mars from Brahe’s observation
arciminute)
 He discovered that the plane of Earth and
 1 arciminute is 1/60 of a degree
Mars passed through the Sun
GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642)
 Suspected that the Sun had a force over
 First person to point a telescope at the
the plane’s, he investigated magnetism
night sky
 It did lead him to the idea of elliptical
 In 1610, he wrote The Starry Messenger
orbits
in which he published his observations
 “With reasoning derived from physical
 His observations strengthened his belief
principles agreeing with experience, there
of Copernicus’ theory
is no figure left for the orbit of the planet
 His observations angered the catholic except a perfect ellipse.”
church
  Kepler’s 3 Planetary Motion laws:
1. The planets move in orbits about the
sun that are ellipses
2. The planets move such that the line
between the Sun and the Planet
sweeps out the same area in the same
area in the same time no matter where
in the orbit.
3. The square of the period of the orbit of
a planet is proportional to the mean
distance from the Sun cubed
 Kepler derived his laws for the 6 planets
known to him. The laws also apply to the
3 discovered planets and any other body
orbiting the Sun. (Asteroids, Comets, etc.)
KEPLER AND BRAHE
 Kepler needed Tycho’s precise
observations to prove his model of nested
spheres.
 Tycho needed Kepler’s theoretical &
mathematical mind to prove Tycho’s
model to be correct.
ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727)
 Develops Laws of Motion
 Develops idea of gravity to get Edmund
Halley off his back
 Halley paid to publish Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy
 Derived Kepler’s 3 laws of planetary
motion using laws of motions and gravity
 He derived the law of gravitation between
2 masses.
 Since Sun is the massive object of
planetary system, all planets would
naturally be attracted to it and revolve
around it, in the same manner of Moon
and Earth.
 He proposes a force of which controls the
motion of the planets- GRAVITY
 The larger the mass, the larger the force
of gravity
 The further the distance, the smaller the
force of gravity
 Kepler’s third law can be derived from
Newton’s law of gravity
 F=GMm/r2=mg
MISCONCEPTIONS
 Copernican model has a force between
the sun & planets. The natural motion of
the celestial spheres drove the planetary
motions.
 Copernican model was simpler than the
Ptolemaic one. Though Copernicus
eliminated circles to explain retrograded
motion, he added more smaller ones to
account for nonuniformities of planetary
motions
 Copernican model predicted the planetary
motions better. Because both models
demanded uniform motion around the
centers of circles, both worked just about
as well-with errors as large as few
degrees at times.
Galileo was right all along! In 1992, the
church finally repealed the ruling of the
Inquisition against Galileo. The church gave
pardon to Galileo & admitted that the
heliocentric theory was correct. This pardon
came 350 years after Galileo’s death.
DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
 Theory of Evolution
 Evolution is any change in the heritable
traits within population across
generations.
 Evidences of evolution:
o Comparative anatomy
o Embryology & development
o Fossil record
o DNA comparison
o Species distribution
o Evolution observed
o Predictive power of evolution
o Nested hierarchies of traits
 Common Descent-a group of organisms
derived from common ancestors
 Descent with Modification- each living
organism has descended, with changes
from other species over time.
 Natural Selection- the process by which
random evolutionary changes are
selected by nature in a consistent, orderly,
non-random way
Beliefs before Darwinian Revolution:
 All Species are FIXED and ETERNAL
o All species remained from the
start and didn’t changed over
time
 o Old testament holds that
species were individually
designed by God and therefore
perfect
 Species are not linked in a single
‘family tree’
 Earth is young (thousand years only)
 Chain of Being
o Aristotle tried to categorize
living things. He organized life
from lower to higher forms
 Scala Naturae- refers to a linear
progression of organisms according to
their complexity of structure and
functions
 Principles of Essentialism
o Carolus Linnaeus interpreted
organismal adaptations as
evidence that the creator had
designed each species for a
particular purpose
Erasmus Darwin
 Grandfather of Charles Darwin
 Respected botanist and naturalist
 Formulated one of the first formal theories
in evolution in Zoonomia or The Laws of
Organic Life (1794-1796)
 Discussed with grandson such how life
evolved from a single common ancestor
forming ‘one living filament’
Voyage of Beagle
 Year 1831-1836
 H.M.S Beagle
 Voyage around the world
 Evidence to propose a revolutionary
hypothesis how life changes over time
How Darwin came up with this theory
 Patterns of Diversity
o Argentina and Australia had similar
grassland ecosystem
o Grassland were inhibited by
different animals
o Posed a question “why there are no
rabbits in Australia” and “why there
are no kangaroos in England”
 Living Organisms and Fossils
o Experience an earthquake in Chile
and observed uplift of rocks
o Collected the preserved remains of
ancient organisms called fossils
o Some fossils resembled organisms
that are alive today while other
looked unlikely any creature he had
ever seen
o Posed a question ”why such
species disappeared” and “how
they were related to living species”
 The study of fossils helped to lay
groundwork for Darwin’s ideas
 Fossils are remains or traces of
organisms from the past, usually found in
sedimentary rock which appears in layers
or strata
The Galapagos Islands
 Smallest, lowest islands were hot, dry and
nearly barren hood island sparse
vegetation
 Higher islands had greater rainfall and a
different assortment of plants, animals
 Animals found in Galapagos Island:
o Land Tortoises
o Darwin Finches
o Blue-footed Booby
o Marine Iguanas
Land tortoises
 Variation among tortoises
 Intermediate shell, saddle-back shell and
dome shaped shell
 Giant tortoises varied in predictable ways
from one island to another
 Shape of shell was used to identify which
island it inhabits
Darwin Finches
 Each finches species was well-suited for
its environment and role
 Cactus-eater, insect eater, seed-eater
IDEAS THAT SHAPED DARWIN’S THINKING
George Cuvier
 Paleontologist
 Speculated each boundary between strata
represents catastrophe that destroyed
many species (Catastrophism)
James Hutton
 1795 Theory of Geological change
 Forces change Earth’s surface shape
 Changes are slow (gradualism)
 Earth is much older than thousands of
years
Charles Lyell
 Book: Principles of Geography
 Geographical features can be built up or
torn down
 Darwin thought if earth changed over
time, what about life?
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
 His own Theory of Evolution
o Tendency toward perfection
(Giraffes’ necks)
 Lamarck thought that if an animal
acquired characteristic during its lifetime,
it could pass it onto its offspring
 Hence, giraffes got their long necks
through generations of straining to reach
higher branches
Thomas Malthus
 19th century English economist
o If population grew (more babies
born to die)
 Population growth
o Insufficient living space
o Food runs out
o Darwin applied this theory to
animals
Publication of Origin of Species
 Russel Wallace wrote an essay
summarizing evolutionary change his field
work in Malaysia
 Gave Darwin the drive to publish his
findings
SUMMARY OF DARWIN’S THEORY
 Common descent
 Natural selection
 Gradualism
 Multiplication of Species
 Perpetual change
 Individuals in nature differ from one
another
 Each organism is unique, each has
advantages & disadvantages in the
struggle for existence
 Organisms in nature produce more
offspring than can survive, those who do
not survive do not reproduce
 More organisms are produce than survive,
each species must struggle for resources
 Individuals best suited for the environment
survive & reproduce most successful
 Species change over time
 Species alive today descended with
modification from species alive in the past
 All organisms are united into a single
family tree of life by common descent
Natural Selection and Artificial Selection
 NATURAL VARIATION- differences
among individual of species
 ARTIFICIAL SELECTION- nature
provides the variation among different
organisms, & humans select those
variations they find useful
Evolution by Natural Selection
 STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE-members
of each species have to compete for food,
shelter, other life necessities
 SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST-some
individuals better suited for the
environment
Natural Selection
 Results in changes in inherited
characteristics of a population. These
changes increase a species fitness in its
environment
Evidence of Evolution
 The Fossil record
o Homologous structure- structures
that have different mature forms in
different organisms but developed
from the same embryonic tissue
o Geographic Distribution of Living
Things- similar environments have
similar type of organisms
o Similarities in Early development
Evolution of Drug-resistant bacteria
 Staphylococcus aureus is commonly
found on people’s skin or in nasal
passages
 Methicilin-resistant S. aureus strains are
dangerous pathogens
 Became resistant to penicillin in 1945, 2
years after 1st widely use
 S. aureus became resistant to methicillin
in 1961, 2 years after 1st widely use
Tree of Life
 New species came from pre-existed
species and all species share common
ancestor
 Evolution is the process by which one
species give rise to another and Tree of
life grows
FREUDIAN REVOLUTION
Psychology (Sigmund Freud) (1856-1939)
 Austrian, doctor
 Father of Psychoanalysis
 First psychologist to study human
motivation
 Psychiatry vs. Psychology
 Up until 20th century frontal lobotomies
(surgical operation involves incision into
prefrontal lobe of brain, used to treat
mental illness) performed on patients
Victorian Era
 Covers most 19th century
 Generally peaceful & prosperous period in
Europe
 Industrial revolution
 Development of democracy throughout
continent
 Named after Queen Victoria
Victorian Era views on Mental Illness
 Extreme puritanical restriction about
expression of any expression about
sexuality
 Social etiquette were very strict, specially
in upper class
 Psychologists didn’t exist, people with
psychological problems have no where to
go
 Patients were treated like outcasts
 Patients were put in asylums and received
antiquated, some barbaric care like:
o Alternating hot & cold baths
o Period of drug-induced sleep
o Brain surgery resulted to death
o Put in restraints
o Locked in boxes
 Cures (torture):
o Beatings
o Withholding food
o Mercury pills
o Bleeding
o Induced vomiting
 Many patients didn’t survive their
treatments, buried on asylum grounds
Hysteria
 Common among women in Victorian Era
 Freud was interested in hypnotheraphy
 Charcot’s work with hypnotheraphy opens
a new sight for Freud
 October 1885: Freud went to Paris with
Jean-Martin Charcot (renowned
neurologist) conducting scientific research
on hypnosis
1886
 Freud began using hypnosis
 Treatment of one particular patient of
Josef Breuer’s proved to be
transformative for Freud’s clinical practice
 Anna O. (Bertha Pappenheim) suffer from
hysteria (condition which patient exhibits
physical symptoms such as convulsion,
hallucinations without an apparent
physical cause. Her doctor (and Freud’s
teacher) Josef Breuer succeed in treating
Anna by helping her to recall forgotten
memories of traumatic events
 Anna O. was invited to talk about her
symptoms while under hypnosis (talking
cure) became reduced in severity as she
retrieved memories of traumatic incidents
associated with their onset
 Anna O. condition was cause by seeing
her hated dog drink from the water they
have been drinking
 Freud concluded that more consistent &
effective symptom relief could be
achieved by encouraging patients to talk
freely, without censorship or inhibition,
about whatever ideas or memories
occurred to them
1896:
 Freud used the term
“PSYCHOANALYSIS” a set of theories &
therapeutic techniques related to the
study of unconscious mind, which
together form a method of treatment for
mental-health disorders
 He believed that mental illness is a result
of NURTURE, not nature “What makes
people do things?”
 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
 Being deprived of need arouses a feeling
of drive or desire, animals respond
indistinctively, human learns various ways
to respond
 Some of these desires cause people to
have behave irrationally
 People are born with a certain number of
instincts or DRIVES
 Human mind has 3 aspects which 5 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF
influences behavior: EGO, SUPEREGO, DEVELOPMENT
ID.

HOW DO YOU GET OUT OF THIS?

 Free Association
o Ink blot pictures
 Hypnosis
 ID- unconscious part of mind o Way of freeing the unconscious
o Part of mind seeks to bring us mind
pleasure  Dreams
o Primitive parts of our personality o Dreams are unconscious mind
including aggression and sexual talking to you.
drives o Very symbolic and difficult to
 EGO-conscious part of mind analyze
o Rational self  Meditation
o Decides what takes action to take
for positive means and what to do TURING’s REVOLUTION
based on what is believed is the WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?
right thing to do  Mental quality that consists of the abilities
o Aware of reality o To learn from experience
 SUPEREGO-unconscious part of mind o Adapt to new situations
that acts as conscience o Understand & handle abstract
o Reminds what we should do concepts
 The ID and SUPEREGO are in constant o Use knowledge to manipulate one’s
conflict. Drive tells you to do one thing environment
while society tells you to do something WHAT IS ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE? (A.I)
else  Also called machine intelligence,
 If you don’t resolve this conflict, you may demonstrated by machines
experience unhappiness or mental  Refers to computing system that perform
distress tasks normally considered within the
 Thus, you must understand what is in your realm of human decision making
unconscious memory. Basis for
psychoanalysis
Alan Turing said: CLEVERBOT
“A computer would deserve to be called  Was created by British AI scientist Rollo
intelligent if it could deceive human into believing Carpenter
that it was human.”  Participated in Turing Test at 2011
technique fest at the Indian Institute of
Turing Test Technology Guwahati on September 3,
 Human questioner asks a series of 2011. Out of 1334 votes cast, cleverbot
questions to both respondents, after was judged to be 59.3% human compared
specified time, the questioner tries to to the rating of 63.3% human achieved by
decide which terminal is operated by the human participants. A score of 50.05% or
human respondent and which terminal is higher is often considered to be a passing
operated by computer grade.
ELIZA CAPTCHA
 Imitates Rogerian psychotherapist by  “Completely Automated Public Turing test
encouraging them to talk more and to tell Computer and Humans Apart”
reflecting their own question back at them  a type of challenge- response test used in
 Joseph Weizenbaum (1923-2008) creator computing to determine whether or not the
of pre-internet dialogue system, Eliza user is human
(1966) to investigate natural language TURING MACHINE
understanding  hypothetical computing machine
PARRY  provides simple yet powerful
 Attempted to imitate a person with mathematical model of computation,
paranoid schizophrenia functionally equivalent to lambda calculus
 Written in 1972 by psychiatrist Kenneth in terms of computational power
Colby (Stanford University)
 Program implemented a crude model of
behavior of a person with paranoid
schizophrenia based on concepts,
conceptualizations and beliefs
 Embodied a conversational strategy
 Eliza with attitude
 Was tested in early 1970s using variation
of Turing Test
 A computer model of a mythical 28 year
old single, Caucasian, native English man
complete with paranoid behavior such as
fixed delusions of persecution by
gangsters
 In tests, psychiatrists found it difficult to
distinguish PARRY from a 22-year old
human patient suffering from paranoia
CATHERINE
 1997 winner of Loebner Prize
 mostly talked about Bill Clinton
EUGENE GOOSTMAN
 simulates a 13- year old Ukrainian boy,
passed the Turing test in 2014
 fooled quite a people but there are
actually few red flags that prove it didn’t
pass