DARYL MAE TANOLA
reading that this reader submits to himself.
FSM-1A
KINDS OF READING
1. Skimming- This is the easiest and fastest kind of
reading. If a reader skims reading material, he just
reads the sign posts or clues in the selection such as
the heading and the topic sentence.
2. Scanning- When the reader’s purpose is to locate
a particular information in the text, he resorts to this
kind of reading- scanning. He does this by browsing
over the pages and giving a quick look over them.
3. Idea reading- This is to get the main idea of the
material. This involves the three psychological
processes of reading- Sensation, Perception, and
Comprehension.
4. Exploratory reading- This is done when the reader
wants to know how the whole selection is
presented.
5. Analytic reading- A careful examination of each
work to identify word relationship is the main
purpose of analytic reading.
6. Critical reading- This makes the reader weigh
facts, information, or ideas presented in the
selection, so that he, too, can perform judgements
or conclusions about them.
7. Narcotic reading- This is done by a person who
wants to get rid of his everyday troubles,
depressions, frustrations, problems, through reading
magazines, stories, novels, essays, and others.
8. Extensive reading- If the reader spends his leisure
time by reading any kind of material that is
interesting to him, he will consider his act of reading
extensive reading.
9. Intensive reading- Doing serious reading books,
periodicals, and other library materials for research
work or a report is the main concern of this kind of
reading.
10. Developmental reading- In case the reading
activities of a person are under a comprehensive
reading program that consists of several stages
starting from the reader’s preschool period to his
collegiate level developmental reading is the kind of
STAGES OF READING
STAGE 1: THE EMERGENT PRE-READER (TYPICALLY
BETWEEN 6 MONTHS TO 6 YEARS OLD) During the
initial phase of the reading development process
children sample and learn from a full range of
multiple sounds, words, concepts, images, stories,
exposure to print, literacy materials, and just plain
talk during the first five years of life.
STAGE 2: THE NOVICE READER (TYPICALLY
BETWEEN 6 TO 7 YEARS OLD) During the second
phase of the reading development process children
are learning the relationships between letters and
sounds and amongst printed and spoken words. The
child begins to read stories with high-frequency
words and phonically regular words and uses
emerging skills and insights to “sound out” new one-
syllable words.
STAGE 3: THE DECODING READER (TYPICALLY
BETWEEN 7 – 9 YEARS OLD) During the third phase
of the reading development, process children are
beginning to read familiar stories and text with
increasing fluency. This is accomplished by
consolidating the foundational decoding elements,
sight vocabulary, and meaning in the reading of
stories and selections that the child is already
familiar with.
STAGE 4: THE FLUENT, COMPREHENDING READER
(TYPICALLY BETWEEN 9 – 15 YEARS OLD) During the
fourth phase of the reading development process,
reading is used to acquire new ideas to gain new
knowledge, to experience new feelings, to acquire
new attitudes, and to explore issues from multiple
perspectives. Reading includes the study of
textbooks, reference works, trade books,
newspapers, and magazines that contain new ideas
and values, new vocabulary and syntax.
STAGE 5: THE EXPERT READER (TYPICALLY FROM 16
YEARS AND OLDER) During the fifth phase of the
reading development process, the learner is reading
from a wide range of advanced materials, both
expository and narrative, with multiple viewpoints.
Learners are reading broadly across the disciplines,
including the physical, biological and social sciences
as well as the humanities, politics and current affairs.
PROCESS OF READING
Pre-reading- Pre-reading is where students prepare
themselves to read. They may decide or be told why
they're going to read a piece of text. They may use
their background knowledge to make predictions of
what the text is going to be about. Teachers may
have them use a concept map called a KWL chart
where students put down what they know (K), what
they want to know (W), and after they have read
what they learned (L) from their reading.
Reading- This is where you get down to the actual
reading part. The text can be delivered to students in
a variety of ways. Students can engage in individual
reading, or they can be read aloud to. Teachers may
use big books or print projected somewhere in order
to do a group reading session.
Responding- Responding is where a students reacts
to what they have read. Most often this is through
discussion.
Exploration- This is where students explore their
new information. They may re-read part or all of the
text. They may read more texts to expand their
knowledge of the new subject. Students may learn
new vocabulary words that they came up against in
the text. Exploration is a very broad stage that can
take many paths.
Applying- During the applying stage students take
the new knowledge they have learned and do more
with it. Often they will have projects that measure
how much they have learned. They may read books
related to the original text or participate
BARRIERS OF READING
Lack of grammatical and linguistic competence:
Many people cannot read effectively because they
fail to decrypt grammatical and lexical units of
language in the text. They lack the ability to
differentiate and recognize the words, sentences,
expressions, used in the text. It hampers the process
of reading. The reader may stop reading further if he
fails to understand the text grammatically.
Lack of motivation: Reading for information and
knowledge requires motivation and discipline. Many
people think reading as boring and time consuming
task. Lack of proper motivation and goal may create
barrier to reading.
Lack of concentration: If the reader lacks
concentration while reading, he just will turn pages
after pages without much comprehension. Reading
is psycholinguistic process. It requires careful
attention of the reader.
Proper light and ventilation: A reader has to
struggle a lot to read in dim light or dark rooms. If
proper ventilation is not there in the reading room,
reader may feel suffocated or tired.
Size of the book: Normally, people prefer reading
small size articles and texts. If the book contains
volumes of pages, it decreases the interest of the
reader.
Articulating the words and sentences loudly: Many
readers have habit to articulate loudly or murmur
the words in the text. They buzz each word which
creates a barrier to speed reading.
Putting finger, pen or any object on the words and
sentences while reading: Many people put their
finger or pen on the text while reading. They move
the finger or object from word to word which lowers
down the process of reading.
Narrow eye span: Many readers read the text into
independent eye shift between each and every
word. They have narrow eye span. It not only
decreases the speed of reading but also affects the
comprehension. Shorter the eye span, slower the
speed and comprehension. Readers require proper
training and techniques to expand their eye span.
HABITS OF READING
1.Determine Your Reading Goal - In order to create
a reading habit and culture, it’s important to start off
by setting a goal. This goal should be articulate and
backed up with a purpose. Start by thinking about
how a consistent reading pattern can help you grow
in different areas of your life- spiritual, academics,
career, relationships and more. When you find
concrete reasons and a purpose attached to your
goal, you’ll be more motivated to keep pushing and
achieve it. For some, it could be a goal of reading 24
books in a year. Another person might have a goal of
12, depending on various factors. Once you’re done
placing a target figure to your reading goal, then
divide them into smaller goals. An example could be,
reading at least one book per month in order to
achieve a bigger goal of 12 books in a year. Be
determined to make it an enjoyable process; don’t
see it as a tasking chore.
2. Make a List of Books for Each Month- Once
you’re done setting your reading goal for the year,
you’ll need a list to back it up. Write out a list of the
amazing books you want to read. Ask for
recommendations from friends and mentors. It’s
important to keep a journal, notepad or excel
spreadsheet listing the books you’ll like to read for
each month or even a year. By being intentional
about your reading list, you’ll stay focused on your
ultimate goals and avoid lurking at any book that
passes you by. If you feel reading marketing/sales
books would be beneficial to your career path, write
out a list of some great marketing books and follow
through on them. A reading list will also help you
stay organized. Take it a step further by creating a
log attached to that list, including the start and finish
dates, key notes or lessons; to help you easily tick off
once you’re done with each book. Note that, reading
these books doesn’t mean discarding them
afterwards. A list and log with notes about your
thoughts will encourage you to look through them
months later, just in case you need some inspiration
at some point.
3. Read at Least 10-20 Pages a Day - If you’re looking
to create a consistent reading pattern, then setting
out a particular number of pages per day would
work perfectly. Consider setting aside at least 10-20
pages per day to read, especially if you have a busy
schedule. This process will help you stay focused as
you look forward to accomplishing your daily goal of
a specific number of pages. Focus leads to efficiency
and soon enough, reading will become a lifestyle for
you. Be very proactive when you read. Don’t rush
through, but instead take out time to understand
and engage in the reading process. This way, you’ll
be open to learn and be able to transfer that
knowledge to others when opportunity comes.
4. Invest in Tools that Encourage Reading - When it
comes to efficiency, it’s important to invest in the
right tools that will set the pace for a better reading
pattern. For those that love hard copy books,
consider setting aside a good reading environment
with appropriate table and chairs to help you stay
focused. That way, you will gradually get
accustomed to that space and look forward to your
reading time. For most people today, mobile apps,
tablets, news aggregators, ebook readers, and other
online tools actually work wonders. Because the
world is digital, most people prefer having their
handy mobile appliances that would help them stay
on top of their goals. Figure out what tools work best
for you and invest in them.
5. Set Reading Times and Days- Set aside specific
times every day to read your assigned book for the
week/month and any other articles you may have
bookmarked. Put away distractions such as turning
off the TV and other things that may hinder your
reading time. Ready for at least 30-40 minutes a day
is a great start and would help you develop a
concrete reading habit as you’ll always look forward
to having your ‘me time’ that supports your reading
goals. You could also have a reading day to help you
stay dedicated or catch up on other days you might
have fallen back on your goals. 6.Get a Reading
Partner or Book Club- Goals need to be backed up
by accountability in order to help put a check and
encourage you during times you don’t feel
motivated. Get a reading partner who has a heart
and willingness to read, and create a plan to help
you achieve your reading goals. With a book club,
you’ll create a concrete strategy that constantly
keeps you motivated and inspired to grow beyond
your comfort zone. Such gatherings give you an
opportunity to discuss lessons you learnt and other
thoughts. Don’t be a solo ranger and think you can
achieve all your goals alone, no matter how small
they are. You’ll need the right people to help you
stay focused and encouraged towards not just your
reading goals, but general life goals. To develop a
reading culture, you must first analyze your current
reading habits. Do you read at all? Do you start off
and stop at some point? Do you plan your reading or
just read randomly? In order to truly achieve your
reading goals and build a consistent reading habit,
you’ll need to set up simple systems, use the right
reading tools, find accountability partners, and
generally be hungry to grow beyond your comfort
zone.
KINDS OF WRITING
Expository – Writing in which author’s purpose is to
inform or explain the subject to the reader.
Persuasive – Writing that states the opinion of the
writer and attempts to influence the reader.
Narrative – Writing in which the author tells a story.
The story could be fact or fiction.
Descriptive – A type of expository writing that uses
the five senses to paint a picture for the reader. This
writing incorporates imagery and specific details.

PROCESS OF WRITING
Prewriting
1. Prewriting is anything you do before you write a
draft of your document. It includes thinking, taking
notes, talking to others, brainstorming, outlining,
and gathering information (e.g., interviewing people,
researching in the library, assessing data).
2. Although prewriting is the first activity you engage
in, generating ideas is an activity that occurs
throughout the writing process.
Drafting
1. Drafting occurs when you put your ideas into
sentences and paragraphs. Here you concentrate
upon explaining and supporting your ideas fully.
Here you also begin to connect your ideas.
Regardless of how much thinking and planning you
do, the process of putting your ideas in words
changes them; often the very words you select
evoke additional ideas or implications.
2. Don’t pay attention to such things as spelling at
this stage.
3. This draft tends to be writer-centered: it is you
telling yourself what you know and think about the
topic.
Revising
1. Revision is the key to effective documents. Here
you think more deeply about your readers’ needs
and expectations. The document becomes reader-
centered. How much support will each idea need to
convince your readers? Which terms should be
defined for these particular readers? Is your
organization effective? Do readers need to know X
before they can understand Y?
2. At this stage you also refine your prose, making
each sentence as concise and accurate as possible.
Make connections between ideas explicit and clear.
Editing
1. Check for such things as grammar, mechanics, and
spelling. The last thing you should do before printing
your document is to spell check it.
2. Don’t edit your writing until the other steps in the
writing process are complete.
BARRIERS OF WRITING
Writer’s Block- Take a short break from working.
Panicking and concentrating on your lack of progress
is not productive! Talk to someone who can help
you, and try to relax; an answer to your problem will
likely emerge.
Burnout- You may get burned out if you go into your
writing project without first coming up with a
realistic and firm schedule of goals. You might have
just spent ten consecutive hours writing, but this
time could have been psychologically
counterproductive in the long run if you haven’t set
realistic goals for yourself. You can avoid burn out by
writing only short sections at a time and by keeping
your ultimate goal in mind: earning your graduate
degree.
Procrastination- Procrastination is perhaps the most
deadly of collegiate sins, but you can avoid
procrastination by developing a dissertation
schedule early on in your thesis or dissertation
process. Do an even amount of work in the
beginning and end of your timeline to prevent costly
writer’s block hitting you at the worst of times.
Examine your personal tendencies, and reduce your
exposure to distractions and other things that cause
you to avoid your work.
Lack of Motivation- Whenever you get bored with
your writing, think about all the rewards of your
graduate education. Besides the obvious long-term
financial benefits, remember that your education
and your dissertation or thesis will greatly improve
your chances for success in the long run.
Failure to Seek Help- Never become too shy or
proud when you encounter a problem. Schedule
appointments with professors and peers, and don’t
be ashamed to admit that you have encountered
problems or writer’s block. You can find other
articles on this website about where and how to ask
for help.
Lack of Confidence- Don’t downplay your abilities
and achievements that have helped you climb this
far on the academic ladder! You are what you think.
In other words, if you go into writing your
dissertation or thesis thinking that you will
encounter writer’s block and ultimately fail, then
your predictions will likely come true. However, if
you believe in yourself and maintain a positive
attitude, then you will be successful and will produce
rewarding results in your writing.
HABITS OF WRITING
Habit #1: In order to encourage inspiration to
strike, set up a time to meet with it.
James Clear cites a British study that showed that
those who write down specific times when they will
practice their new habit have the highest success
rate. For writers, creating such an “implementation
intention” would involve writing down a sentence
that looks like this: “I will write for (period of time) at
(time of day) at (location).” So, for example, “I will
write for 30 minutes at 3 p.m. at the kitchen table.”
By sitting down each day at 3, you accustom your
brain to this new habit. Once your brain can count
on you to keep your new habit, you may find that
new ideas and inspiration are waiting for you.
Habit #2: If writing is important to you, create an
environment that encourages you to write.
Our environment can create barriers to practicing
our new habits. If your habit is to sit on the sofa to
watch TV, and you had intended to write while
sitting on the sofa, then the TV may prove to be too
big a temptation. Instead, choose a place to write
that isn’t associated with another habit. If you live in
a tiny space with few options, then designate a
specific place to write. It doesn’t have to be a
different room. In a studio apartment, you may
decide to use a different chair or to set up a small
writing corner. You will attach writing to that
particular place, so if you’re in that space, your brain
will expect you to write. Environmental clues can be
used to help reinforce your new habit.
Habit #3: Create temptations that reward you for
your new habit of writing.
Habits are developed because our brain has a
dopamine-driven feedback loop. It is the anticipation
of the reward that causes the release of dopamine
that makes us feel good. In fact, anticipation releases
more dopamine than actually doing the thing we
craved or wanted. You can use a habit you already
have (getting up early, taking the dogs for a walk,
drinking coffee in the morning) to attach the habit
you are trying to develop to a reward that your brain
anticipates. In this way, the habit you are developing
is sandwiched between a daily habit you do anyway,
and is followed by something you want. Clear
provides readers with methods for identifying both
the already established habits and also the things
that individuals consider to be rewards. His system
might look something like this:
After (current habit), I will (habit I need to develop).
After (habit I need to develop), I will (habit I want).
So, if you walk your dog every day after breakfast,
and you need to write, but you also want to spend
time on social media, you could do this:
After I walk the dog, I will write for 30 minutes.
After I write for 30 minutes, I will go on social media.
If going on social media has kept you from writing,
this creates a system where social media is the
reward you use to encourage yourself to write.
Habit #4: Make it easy to practice the habit of
writing.
Wasting time is easy: we carry distractions in our
pocket or give it pride of place in our living rooms. If
we want to develop the practice of writing, we have
to remove barriers to our practice. One way is to
prime your environment with cues to your habit. So,
if your intention is to write in the morning at the
kitchen table, before you go to bed at night, lay out
your writing implements —laptop or pen and paper.
I take it further by making writing easier all the time:
I carry a small notebook in my purse, have one in my
car’s glove box, and leave several throughout my
house. This way, it’s as easy to write as it is to pick
up the phone. Habit #5: Start with the
Two-Minute Rule for new habits and continue from
there.
Maybe you’re afraid that you’ll fail in some way
because your committed writing time is too long.
Clear suggests creating a ritual and following the
Two Minute Rule as a way to prime yourself for your
new habit. If your goal is to write at night, you can
help to cement the habit into your head by attaching
it to a ritual of your choosing, whether that’s a cup
of herbal tea or changing into comfy clothes. Each
evening, as you engage in the ritual, your brain will
anticipate that you are about to sit down and write.
Your ritual primes your habit. Next, write for two
minutes. If you feel done, stop. Clear argues that two
minutes is usually enough to get past any initial
resistance.
Clear has filled Atomic Habits with hints like these
that enable us to change the habits we dislike and
replace them with habits that show who we are. In
order to be a writer, you must develop the habit of
writing, even if it’s one word at a time. As Margaret
Atwood reminds us, “A word after a word after a
word is power.”
KINDS OF LISTENING
Discriminative listening- Discriminative listening is
the most basic type of listening, whereby the
difference between difference sounds is identified. If
you cannot hear differences, then you cannot make
sense of the meaning that is expressed by such
differences. We learn to discriminate between
sounds within our own language early, and later are
unable to discriminate between the phonemes of
other languages. This is one reason why a person
from one country finds it difficult to speak another
language perfectly, as they are unable distinguish
the subtle sounds that are required in that language.
Likewise, a person who cannot hear the subtleties of
emotional variation in another person's voice will be
less likely to be able to discern the emotions the
other person is experiencing. Listening is a visual as
well as auditory act, as we communicate much
through body language. We thus also need to be
able to discriminate between muscle and skeletal
movements that signify different meanings.
Comprehension listening- The next step beyond
discriminating between different sound and sights is
to make sense of them. To comprehend the meaning
requires first having a lexicon of words at our
fingertips and also all rules of grammar and syntax
by which we can understand what others are saying.
The same is true, of course, for the visual
components of communication, and an
understanding of body language helps us understand
what the other person is really meaning. In
communication, some words are more important
and some less so, and comprehension often benefits
from extraction of key facts and items from a long
spiel. Comprehension listening is also known as
content listening, informative listening and full
listening.
Critical listening- Critical listening is listening in order
to evaluate and judge, forming opinion about what is
being said. Judgment includes assessing strengths
and weaknesses, agreement and approval. This form
of listening requires significant real-time cognitive
effort as the listener analyzes what is being said,
relating it to existing knowledge and rules, whilst
simultaneously listening to the ongoing words from
the speaker.
Biased listening- Biased listening happens when the
person hears only what they want to hear, typically
misinterpreting what the other person says based on
the stereotypes and other biases that they have.
Such biased listening is often very evaluative in
nature.
Evaluative listening- In evaluative listening, or
critical listening, we make judgments about what the
other person is saying. We seek to assess the truth
of what is being said. We also judge what they say
against our values, assessing them as good or bad,
worthy or unworthy. Evaluative listening is
particularly pertinent when the other person is
trying to persuade us, perhaps to change our
behavior and maybe even to change our beliefs.
Within this, we also discriminate between subtleties
of language and comprehend the inner meaning of
what is said. Typically also we weigh up the pros and
cons of an argument, determining whether it makes
sense logically as well as whether it is helpful to us.
Evaluative listening is also called critical, judgmental
or interpretive listening.
Appreciative listening- In appreciative listening, we
seek certain information which will appreciate, for
example that which helps meet our needs and goals.
We use appreciative listening when we are listening
to good music, poetry or maybe even the stirring
words of a great leader.
Sympathetic listening- In sympathetic listening we
care about the other person and show this concern
in the way we pay close attention and express our
sorrow for their ills and happiness at their joys.
Empathetic listening- When we listen
empathetically, we go beyond sympathy to seek a
truer understand how others are feeling. This
requires excellent discrimination and close attention
to the nuances of emotional signals. When we are
being truly empathetic, we actually feel what they
are feeling. In order to get others to expose these
deep parts of themselves to us, we also need to
demonstrate our empathy in our demeanor towards
them, asking sensitively and in a way that
encourages self-disclosure.
Therapeutic listening- In therapeutic listening, the
listener has a purpose of not only empathizing with
the speaker but also to use this deep connection in
order to help the speaker understand, change or
develop in some way. This not only happens when
you go to see a therapist but also in many social
situations, where friends and family seek to both
diagnose problems from listening and also to help
the speaker cure themselves, perhaps by some
cathartic process. This also happens in work
situations, where managers, HR people, trainers and
coaches seek to help employees learn and develop.
Dialogic listening- The word 'dialogue' stems from
the Greek words 'dia', meaning 'through' and 'logos'
meaning 'words'. Thus dialogic listening mean
learning through conversation and an engaged
interchange of ideas and information in which we
actively seek to learn more about the person and
how they think. Dialogic listening is sometimes
known as 'relational listening'.
Relationship listening- Sometimes the most
important factor in listening is in order to develop or
sustain a relationship. This is why lovers talk for
hours and attend closely to what each other has to
say when the same words from someone else would
seem to be rather boring. Relationship listening is
also important in areas such as negotiation and
sales, where it is helpful if the other person likes you
and trusts you.
PROCESS OF LISTENING
Hearing- Hearing is the first essential step in the
listening process and relates to the sensory
perception of sound. The listener further processes
the perceived sound. For learning to be effective,
hearing needs to be done with attention and
concentration.
Filtering- The next step involves sensing and filtering
of heard sounds. The heard message is categorized
as wanted or unwanted, useful or useless. The
unwanted message is discarded. In this step, the
sense of judgement of the individual comes into
play, that is, the filtering process is subjective and a
person chooses to retain what makes sense to him.
Comprehending- The next level of listening consists
of comprehending or understanding. The listener
understands or interprets what the speaker has tried
to convey. This activity can be described as
absorbing, grasping or assimilating. In order to grasp
the meaning of the message, the listener uses his
knowledge, experience, perception and cognitive
power. The verbal and auditory message is coupled
with non-verbal communication to understand it.
Remembering- Remembering relates to a process
whereby the assimilated message is stored in
memory to facilitate future recall. Remembering
assumes significance because many times messages
received are meant not for immediate consideration
but for future use.
Responding- For listening to be complete, a
response is important. Responding to a message
may take place at the end of the communication,
immediately after or later. When it is stored for
future use, the response may take place later.
However, if there is a need to seek clarification or to
empathize with the listener, it may take place
earlier. Responding may also take the form of
prodding or prompting in order to show that the
message is being received and comprehended.
BARRIERS OF LISTENING
1. Being preoccupied and distracted- When you’re
preoccupied, your mind wanders. While you think
you look engaged, you’re actually ‘faking attention.’
You can hear what the other party is saying, but
you’re not really taking anything in. You might think
they have no idea that you are not absorbing what
they are saying, people are quite perceptive and can
usually tell exactly what is going on.
There are plenty of factors that can cause us to be
distracted or preoccupied, including:
Phones and devices - You don’t have to feel too
guilty if you suffer from occasional bouts of
distraction – we’ve all paid way too much attention
to our phone or email than is appropriate. However,
when you are supposed to be listening to a speaker
or attending a class, you are missing out on
important information that you will likely need down
the line.
Your emotions – Are you going through a break-up
or ruminating about a fight you had with a loved
one? Maybe you’re worried about money, and you
can’t stop thinking about your finances? Maybe you
are so excited during your last day at work before a
holiday that you can’t concentrate? All of these
emotional states can tank your listening skills.
Visual distractions – When you are trying to have an
important conversation in a pub, can you stop
yourself from glancing at the telly? If you’re anything
like the rest of us, the answer is: probably not. Visual
distractions can suck your attention away from the
task at hand.
2. Communicating in a noisy environment- “Sure, I
heard exactly what you said – was that, ‘purple
monkey dishwasher?’
It is impossible to truly listen effectively when you
can’t actually hear what is going on. The nuance gets
lost, and it become very easy to mishear what
someone is trying to tell you.
If you find yourself struggling and straining to hear
the words the other party is speaking, it’s likely that
you're also going to misinterpret their body
language. You're struggling to understand them, and
it all just seems so difficult. At some point it just
becomes easier to tune out what they are saying,
and that results in conflict and miscommunications.
3. Your personal mind set- Conversations don’t exist
in a vacuum. When you are communicating with
another person, a whole world of personal emotions
and bias are at play. Do you like the person? Do you
have preconceived ideas about what they are
sharing? Do they remind you of another person you
didn’t get along with?
Our own mind set can be one of the biggest barriers
to effective listening. Here are just a few of the
factors that can play into our personal attitudes and
judgements.
Prejudice – Our own prejudice against certain groups
is nothing to be proud of, but refusing to admit we
hold said prejudices is even worse. In fact, when I
went to the Museum of Tolerance in Los Angeles a
few years ago, they have two doors. One is labelled
Prejudiced, and the other Not Prejudiced. Except
that the Not Prejudiced door is not a door at all.
They force you to go through the one marked
prejudiced, to illustrate that every single person has
prejudices to some extent. Our own unconscious
prejudices can mean that we don’t give certain
people the attention they deserve when they are
speaking.
Bias - Though similar to prejudice, bias can be a little
more broad. If you know someone has voted for a
political party you don’t like, or you have heard they
are a fan of a rival sport team, it can be easy to hold
bias against what they have to say.
Jealousy – Did Ms. X or Mr. Y get the promotion you
were after? Have they just landed a big contract or
made a big sale? It can be easy to let our own little
green monster stand in the way of effective listening
when we are seething with envy.
Boredom – None of us are perfect, and sometimes
we get bored at the most inappropriate times!
Boredom with the topic at hand can certainly cause
your mind to wander and your listening skills to go
down the drain.
4. Interrupting the other person- Nothing makes a
speaker feel more disrespected than being
constantly being interrupted. Of course, a
conversation is usually a ‘2 way street,’ and you are
meant to share your own thoughts and opinions.
The problem starts when you accidentally
monopolise the conversation and constantly
interject your own opinions.
When you do interject too much, you start missing
the nuance of what is being said, leading to
mistakes. You’ll also be sending the message that
you don’t care much about what they have to say –
this cause conflict.
Are you just waiting for the speaker to stop talking?
Sometimes a conversation is so exciting and
interesting that you simply feel like you can’t wait to
share your ideas! Maybe you're worried about
forgetting your point, or you think your example is
better than the one currently being shared. Either
way, it can cause you to jump into the conversation
at every opportunity. You’re not listening fully,
you’re actually just waiting for the other party to
stop talking. You're not hearing everything that they
have to say.
Fight the urge to over-empathise by sharing your
own experiences
Interrupting someone is not always a negative or
selfish instinct. In fact, it can actually be a sign that
your compassion and empathy is working in
overdrive! You are so eager to show camaraderie
and let the other person know you empathise that
you interrupt them to share your own experiences.
This can be especially problematic when the topic is
sensitive or hard to approach. While you might be
genuinely trying to boost their morale and show
them that you understand their issue, you can
accidentally come across as try to ‘steal their
thunder’ and one up them. As they bristle, they
might get defensive, preventing them from sharing
the information that you need.
You need to learn how to share your own
experiences in a sensitive, timely, and appropriate
manner that will do more good than harm.
5. Your physical state- Just as with any task, you
physical state plays an important role in your ability
to listen
effectively and absorb information. If you are feeling
uneasy in your own skin, you are far more likely to
be fidgety, agitated and ‘all over the place’ mentally.
Here are just a few of the physical issues that can
negatively affect your listening skills:
Hunger
Tiredness
Physical pain
Depression/Anxiety
Being too hot or too cold
Sitting on an uncomfortable surface
HABITS OF LISTENING
Poor Listening Habits
1. People find the conversation boring and
allow that to affect their concentration or lead
them to tune the speaker out.
2. A listener does not pay attention, daydreams,
or becomes distracted rather than listening to
the person speaking.
3. Those speakers who overreact to something
they disagree with generally tune the speaker
out or just focus on what they want to say in
rebuttal.
4. Poor listening habits would include finding fault
with the speaker. Criticizing the speaker may mean
that you find fault with the way he or she looks,
dresses, or speaks.
5. Poor listeners will try to zone in on just the facts
that the speaker may make, rather than listening to
everything and hearing the support for the facts.
6. Inappropriate listening includes listening with a
closed mind, bias, and/or prejudice regarding the
person or topic.
7. A poor listener may engage in doodling, checking
text messages, making phone calls, snapping gum, or
any number of other tasks, when listening should be
the focus.
8. Poor listeners pay no regard to body language
when it comes time to listen. They may keep their
back to the speaker, avoid eye contact, close their
arms as they listen, or even make faces in response
to what they are hearing.
9. A poor listener would interrupt the speaker to
make his or her own point, attack what is being said,
etc.
10. Those who multitask as they listen to someone
are not demonstrating good listening habits. They
may be talking on the phone, looking at their
computer, etc.
11. Poor listeners will let their emotions get the best
of them. They may interrupt, attack, or tune out
because of them.
Good Listening Habits
1. People who are really listening will not allow a
subject matter to keep them from paying attention
to the key points. They also will make sure they
continue paying attention and avoid distractions.
2. A good listener would not fake paying attention or
engage in daydreaming. She or he knows the
importance of making eye contact and showing
interest.
3. A good listener that disagrees with the speaker or
something the speaker has said will remain calm and
wait for an appropriate time to inquire about the
point of disagreement. 4. Good listening habits
include not evaluating speakers on the way they look
or trying to find fault with them.
5. Good listeners will look more at the bigger picture
and listen to everything, rather than just nitpicking
particular points.
6. A good listener approaches speakers with an open
mind and attitude, showing respect to the speaker.
7. Good listeners will minimize or remove
distractions when they know they should be
listening. By doing so, they have demonstrated to
the speaker that they are attentive and engaged in
active listening.
8. Good listeners realize that a good portion of
communication is done through nonverbal means
and that body language often says much more than
words do. Good listeners make sure their body
language is open, relaxed, and inviting.
9. A good listener would wait for an appropriate
time to bring up his or her own points or ask
questions about what has been said. The listener
also would do it in a non-threatening or attacking
manner.
10. In order to be a good listener, you have to
demonstrate that you are engaged. You should look
at the person that is speaking, even if it means
stopping your work or whatever else you may be
doing.
11. Good listeners have a handle on their emotions
and will keep them in check in order to listen. When
it is time to ask questions, get clarification, or
counter a fact, they do so in a respectful manner and
try to use "I" statements, rather than "you" ones.
STAGES OF LISTENING
Receiving- Receiving is the intentional focus on
hearing a speaker’s message, which happens when
we filter out other sources so that we can isolate the
message and avoid the confusing mixture of
incoming stimuli. At this stage, we are still only
hearing the message. Notice in Figure 4.3 "Stages of
Feedback" that this stage is represented by the ear
because it is the primary tool involved with this
stage of the listening process. One of the authors of
this book recalls attending a political rally for a
presidential candidate at which about five thousand
people were crowded into an outdoor amphitheater.
When the candidate finally started speaking, the
cheering and yelling was so loud that the candidate
couldn’t be heard easily despite using a speaker
system. In this example, our coauthor had difficulty
receiving the message because of the external noise.
This is only one example of the ways that hearing
alone can require sincere effort, but you must hear
the message before you can continue the process of
listening.
Understanding- In the understanding stage, we
attempt to learn the meaning of the message, which
is not always easy. For one thing, if a speaker does
not enunciate clearly, it may be difficult to tell what
the message was—did your friend say, “I think she’ll
be late for class,” or “my teacher delayed the class”?
Notice in Figure 4.3 "Stages of Feedback" that stages
two, three, and four are represented by the brain
because it is the primary tool involved with these
stages of the listening process. Even when we have
understood the words in a message, because of the
differences in our backgrounds and experience, we
sometimes make the mistake of attaching our own
meanings to the words of others. For example, say
you have made plans with your friends to meet at a
certain movie theater, but you arrive and nobody
else shows up. Eventually you find out that your
friends are at a different theater all the way across
town where the same movie is playing. Everyone
else understood that the meeting place was the
“west side” location, but you wrongly understood it
as the “east side” location and therefore missed out
on part of the fun. The consequences of ineffective
listening in a classroom can be much worse. When
your professor advises students to get an “early
start” on your speech, he or she probably hopes that
you will begin your research right away and move on
to developing a thesis statement and outlining the
speech as soon as possible. However, students in
your class might misunderstand the instructor’s
meaning in several ways. One student might
interpret the advice to mean that as long as she gets
started, the rest of the assignment will have time to
develop itself. Another student might instead think
that to start early is to start on the Friday before the
Monday due date instead of Sunday night. So much
of the way we understand others is influenced by
our own perceptions and experiences. Therefore, at
the understanding stage of listening we should be on
the lookout for places where our perceptions might
differ from those of the speaker.
Remembering- Remembering begins with listening;
if you can’t remember something that was said, you
might not have been listening effectively. Wolvin
and Coakley note that the most common reason for
not remembering a message after the fact is because
it wasn’t really learned in the first place.Wolvin, A.,
& Coakley, C. G. (1996). Listening (5th ed.). Boston,
MA: McGraw-Hill. However, even when you are
listening attentively, some messages are more
difficult than others to understand and remember.
Highly complex messages that are filled with detail
call for highly developed listening skills. Moreover, if
something distracts your attention even for a
moment, you could miss out on information that
explains other new concepts you hear when you
begin to listen fully again. It’s also important to know
that you can improve your memory of a message by
processing it meaningfully—that is, by applying it in
ways that are meaningful to you. Gluck, M. A.,
Mercado, E., & Myers, C. E. (2008). Learning and
memory: From brain to behavior. New York: Worth
Publishers, pp. 172–173. Instead of simply repeating
a new acquaintance’s name over and over, for
example, you might remember it by associating it
with something in your own life. “Emily,” you might
say, “reminds me of the Emily I knew in middle
school,” or “Mr. Impiari’s name reminds me of the
Impala my father drives.” Finally, if understanding
has been inaccurate, recollection of the message will
be inaccurate too.
Evaluating- The fourth stage in the listening process
is evaluating, or judging the value of the message.
We might be thinking, “This makes sense” or,
conversely, “This is very odd.” Because everyone
embodies biases and perspectives learned from
widely diverse sets of life experiences, evaluations of
the same message can vary widely from one listener
to another. Even the most open-minded listeners
will have opinions of a speaker, and those opinions
will influence how the message is evaluated. People
are more likely to evaluate a message positively if
the speaker speaks clearly, presents ideas logically,
and gives reasons to support the points made.
Unfortunately, personal opinions sometimes result
in prejudiced evaluations. Imagine you’re listening to
a speech given by someone from another country
and this person has an accent that is hard to
understand. You may have a hard time simply
making out the speaker’s message. Some people find
a foreign accent to be interesting or even exotic,
while others find it annoying or even take it as a sign
of ignorance. If a listener has a strong bias against
foreign accents, the listener may not even attempt
to attend to the message. If you mistrust a speaker
because of an accent, you could be rejecting
important or personally enriching information. Good
listeners have learned to refrain from making these
judgments and instead to focus on the speaker’s
meanings.
Responding- Responding sometimes referred to as
feedback—is the fifth and final stage of the listening
process. It’s the stage at which you indicate your
involvement. Almost anything you do at this stage
can be interpreted as feedback. For example, you
are giving positive feedback to your instructor if at
the end of class you stay behind to finish a sentence
in your notes or approach the instructor to ask for
clarification. The opposite kind of feedback is given
by students who gather their belongings and rush
out the door as soon as class is over. Notice in Figure
4.3 "Stages of Feedback" that this stage is
represented by the lips because we often give
feedback in the form of verbal feedback; however,
you can just as easily respond nonverbally
KINDS OF SPEAKING
To Inform – when the speaker is presenting
interesting facts or lessons to the audience, or
explain how to go about doing something. This could
be a teaching lecturing about the Civil War, a
student giving an oral report or showing how to
decorate a cake or set up a blog, a museum docent
explaining the history of painting, or a doctor
explaining a procedure.
To persuade, Motivate, or Take Action – this is when
the speaker will try influencing the audience in some
way. The speaker might be trying to change your
mind about something, to persuade you to change
your opinion, to motivate to change a behavior, or to
take action. Some examples are explaining the
benefits of a non-profit for the purpose of eliciting
donations, trying to get people to change bad eating
habits by explaining all the benefits of eating
healthily or attempting to convince people to vote
against a candidate in an election.
To Entertain – this type of speaking is often found at
events like banquets, weddings, or dinners. The
speaker is usually sharing a funny story or other
anecdotal information. Some examples of this would
be the best man speech at a wedding or an after-
dinner speech given by a host of a party to thank
guests for coming. They could also be planned as
entertainment at an event. Topics are usually
humorous and light and could serve a very specific
purpose, like introducing a featured guest or giving a
toast.
WORST SPEAKERS
1. Francesco Schettino – Just Unbelievable
2. Todd Aiken & Richard Mourdock – Serious, Sad,
and Stupid
3. Bashar Al-Assad – What Communications Can’t
Cover Up
4. John McAfee – Killing His Own Credibility
5. Hope Solo – Too Much ‘Tude
6. Joe Biden – Over The Top
7. Mark Pincus – Unlikeable, Unreachable &
Unrelatable
8. Ryan Lochte – The Hunk Who’s Hardly Humble
9. David Axelrod – Master of Spin
10. Scott Forstall – Failure To Launch
GOOD SPEAKERS
1. Robin Williams – Remember, You’re Always On . .
. answer is), a quotation (to support your message), or
2. Richard Branson – Mindful of the Experience
3. Wendy Clark – An Energizing Executive
Refreshment
4. Derek Jeter – A New Yorker with Humble
Confidence
5. Jimmy Fallon – Taking Tonight To New Heights
6. Adam Silver – Seriously Sticks to His Point
7. Lupita Nyong’o – Sincerity + Grace
8. Kathy Murphy – Financial Pillar of Strength
9. Taylor Swift – Incredible Audience Connection
10. Tony Fadell – Best in the Nest
PROCESS OF SPEAKING
Step 1: Research and Preparation
Consider the audience that you will be speaking to,
and make sure that the tone and information is
appropriate for that audience. Try to put yourself in
their shoes, and think about what you want the
outcome of your speech to be (e.g., to get people to
go vegan or to adopt an animal instead of buying
one).
Learn as much information as possible about the
issue that your talk is about. You can also e-mail
ATeam@peta.org for additional materials.
Step 2: Writing Your Speech
Before you begin writing, make a list of two to five
main points that you want to present. Write out
each point in one or two sentences. Your
speech will be most effective if you plan your
opening and closing statements and key transitions
down to the last word. Organize the speech logically
with a beginning, a middle, and an end. In other
words, tell your audience what you’re going to tell
them, tell them it, and then summarize what you’ve
told them.
Here are some other quick tips:
Open with an attention-getting fact, a rhetorical
question (making sure that you know what the
a relevant anecdote.
Keep a positive tone and attitude.
Keep it short. Your speech should take less than 20
minutes.
Tell the audience what the problem is, what your
proposed solution is, and what actions they can take
to help.
Plan a snappy conclusion that summarizes your main
points.
Finish with a strong and motivating appeal for
action. Inspire your audience!
Step 3: Practicing
You should know your speech well enough to speak
naturally during your presentation and glance only
occasionally at your notes. Here are some tips for
practicing:
Practice your speech at least three times, and
practice in front of a friend for feedback.
Pace yourself. Your audience will want to hear what
you have to say, so speak clearly!
If someone is being aggressive or antagonistic,
simply say, “I’d be happy to talk with you about this
in greater depth afterward, but I have limited time
and need to address additional questions.” Don’t let
anyone take control of the presentation.

Gestures, movement, and eye contact can add to

your impact, but make sure that they’re natural and
relevant.

Try not to speak from a podium. It’s a barrier

between you and your audience. Put your notes on
it, and then try to walk around.

Step 4: Putting Together Visual Aids

Visual aids are an important aspect of your speech

and will help make unfamiliar and challenging
material more accessible for your audience.
PowerPoint presentations, photos, charts, and
videos can all help you get your point across.

Keep the following in mind:

Visual aids should be simple and colorful, but

remember that red and green are difficult to read
from a distance.

Keep text to a minimum—otherwise your audience

won’t know whether to read or to listen to you.

A few effective slides or charts can help your

audience understand your message, but too many
will distract them.

Videos are a powerful way to get your point across.

Visit PETA’s YouTube page for some options.

Step 5: Handling the Q&A

A well-handled question-and-answer session can

strengthen your credibility, demonstrate your
knowledge, and give you a chance to clarify and
expand on your ideas.

Make a list of possible questions that people might

have about the material that you are presenting, and
prepare answers to those questions.

Check out PETA’s frequently asked questions for a

list of common questions and answers.