CIVIL AVIATION TRAINING CENTER Manila, Philippines EORY OF DME ~~ (DISTANCE MEASURING | EQUEMENT) JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT for ANSS CATC, MANILATABLE OF CONTENTS General Principles Of The Dme Systema Introduction Frequency Channels and Specifications Principles of Distance Measuring Simple Transponder Block Diagram Echo Pulses Practical Dme Antenna Installations ‘Antenna Height DME Collocated With Other Navaids VOR/DME VORTAC ILS/DME Operative Use of DME Information Slant Distance Line of Sight Signal Attenuation in Free Space Power and Receiver Sensitivity Gaussian Pulse and The Frequency Spectrum The fo + 0.8 MHz band The fo + 2.0 MHz band Pulse Characteristics Pulse Repetition Frequency Duty Cycle Page No. 23 26 27 27 28 29 29 37Receiver Dead Time and Reply Efficiency 39 Identification Signal 40 Block Diagram for a General Transponder 42 Antenna Circulator Mixer IF Amplifier Ferris Discriminator Video Amplifier 50% Amplitude Detector Decoder “OR” Gate Main Delay Coder Gaussian Pulse Shaper Modulator RF Amplifier Receiver Dead Time Noise Generator Overload AGC Monitor Interrogator 50 Site Selection 56 Attachment 57GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE DME SYSTEM Introduction: DME (Distance Measuring Equipment is « navigational system which-continuously gives / . In the cockpit the stance is given direct on a digital display. The system is approved by ICAO as standard aid for civil aviation. The system has a and a Receiver/Transtitter (Tranisporider)'as'ground beacon! The principles are that the, Interrogator transmits interrogation pi i transmit reply pulses back. The time difference between interrogations and reply pulses is measured in the Interrogator and transformed to distance information. Maximal specified range (slant distance) is approximately 200 NM and accuracy + 0.5 NM or 3% of range, whichever is the greater. are aircraft hei transmitter power and receiver sensitivity. both for Interrogator and peceivel Navan indication, modem transponders normally operate with IKwp power and —120 dBw -receiver sensitivity. A maximum of 100 aircraft may receive distance information at the same time from one Transponder. The different aircrafts recognizes their own pulses because they are transmitted with different BORORERSUNGHPIGqORPTORE Frequency Channels and Specifications: |’ DME operates in the in the dvibandsfrom962ee2i4sMiiz, This band is divided in the 126. one MHz channels for interrogation and 126 one MHz ch: fe ere is (See Fig. 1- 1). Each frequency (100 channels) is paired with a VHF frequency in the band 108.0 MHz to 118.0 MHz, which is the band, used for ILS and VOR systems. Normally the DME is collocated (with respect to frequency and identification) with VOR but it is also Popular to collocate it with ILS localizer. The pilot only tunes to selected and corresponding VHF frequency and receive automatically distance informatio: ‘DMBruse-two: Gaussian pulses 1 2see"apart! (X"=Chaniiels) boty ToF interrOwatiOH iid reply "with @ tise and fall time of 2.5 yisec. The pulse width of each pulse is 3.5 j1se¢. Another possibility to increase the number of operating channels is to use the so-called Y ~ channels. These channels (126) are placed in the interrogation band with respect to frequency but also with difference in pulse spacing, i.e. 36 psec. for interrogation and 30 uusec. for reply. At present the Y — channels are a capacity reserved for the future. It involves also strict requirement from ICAO with respect to the collocated VOR spectrum (50 kHz channel separation). The rise and fall time and pulse width of each pulse in a pair is the same as for X — channels. Figure 1-2 shows the pairing of DME frequencies with the VHF channels occupied by the ILS and VOR systems. The:paiting-withILS-=LbZor sto the transponder, which are triggered toTT aang, syouuey AN UL, Agel fuueyy Abo AED FouEY AT ; XL soyeBousUy X] Joesouauy + bt — 80 x1 repuodsuesy, x] ropuodsues], Ago fouueyd AL A9 jouueg APD sswUEI-K X9TL | uy XD XCD UU XT Zp ciz1_boid_ZHW ISL Xp iopedoua1yy | | Xy sowSounuy | ZH bzOl best ZH 296 XJ sepuodsuexy fu Ost bary ZHW 8801} FHV L801 bord ZHIN SOL} XL Jepuodsuesy xozr PUNY Xb9 xo PUT XT ¢ > pueq yaH pueg M07] PUTTYTT aansy AI WM sojouonbary JHA Jo Sunred (xezD. «Dd ZH E171 THN T96 | ZHINSII ZHW 711 ZHIN 801 < L - awa HOA st (xzs) (xzp ZHAN 8101 ZH 846‘starts at Ghaninel T7X, which coreSpOHENOCLOROOMHy. The pairing.with-VOR starts on.» channel $7X, which corresponds, to 112.0. MHz. Table II shows ICAO specifications and pairing for DME frequencies (X and Y channels) with VHF facilities. Principles of Distance Measuring: Principles for distance information are shown in Figure 1-3. The Interrogator consists basically of a Transmitter/Receiver, and Ranging circuits with indicator. The Interrogator transmits double G: i and which is the operating condition that gives distance information. For modem interrogators, the Search time is normally 1-2 seconds before the distance information is shown in the display. Interrogating pulses use the time t, from aircraft to the Transponder, which consists of a Receiver/Transmitter and a delay circuit (main delay). In this circuit the pulses are delayed _so that the overall delay through the transponder is normally . Interrogating pulses trigger the Transponder to transmit back reply pulses which are 63 MHz apart from the interrogating frequency but with the same pulse characteristics (X channels). The geply pulses. use the time t; from Transponder to Interrogator where the pulses are subtracted SOusec. in time'(i).* = Since the pulses travel with the speed of light (c).and the total time is known (ty + t2 + ts — 4) then the fotal distance (L).can be writen as: <5 1m g M/S. = Sxj0e m/s Tete thowe2, Leann nse The Interrogator calibrates the total time to half because the interested information is the slant distance (L) between the aircraft antenna to the Transponder antenna. Because the pulses are normally delayed 50 psec. in the Transponder and subtracted 50 sec. in the Interrogator any difference in the system delay from different transponder manufacturer can be eliminated. The time which indicates the distance in then only ty. Simple Transponder Block Diagram: ‘The simple block diagram for general Transponder is shown in Figure 1-4 and a short explanation follows: The ixansponderwantenna receives interrogating pulses, which normally is a_stacked array of dipoles. The, polarization is vertical and the_antenna normally radiates omnidirectional in the horizontal plane and has a 9 dB gain at 3°in the _ vertical plane, The antenna is also_broadband within the L-band and so no tuning is required. 5 ‘The ggouplersisolates the Receiver and Transmitter signals and hence the interrogating, -Dulses are passed to the Mixer, which gives 63 MHz (difference between interrogatingVHF eng 7 nisragaing Ground Reply | Ground Reply Channet | Channet | Tyeprogatng | Merrogaine | “Frequency | Pulse Code Mie Mie ‘Mleroseconds Miz Microseconds 5 1025 2 3a 7 5 Tas 36 Toas 30 5 as 2 365 7 = 1026 36 1089 30 s 1027 2 3 2 s 1027 36 1090 30 5 Tos 2 365 2 5 To 3 Toor 30 = 1039 2 7% 2 : 1029 36 To 30 030 7? 367 2 : 1030 38 1085 30 5 TO3t 7 38 2 = Tost 36 O58 30 5 i032 @ 9 2 : i082 % 1095 30 zi 35 2 770 2 o 35 % 1096 3 T0354 2 a 2 Z 34 3% 1097 30 1035 2 72 @ 5 1035 36 138 30 5 i036 2 v5 2 5 i036 36 9 30 5 ToH7 a wa @ = 1057 36 Tio 30 5 Toe 2 75 @ 5 Toa 36 Tor 30 5 1039 2 6 @ 5 1059 36 iro 30 : Toa @ o7 i 3 To%0 36 Tos 30 Toso toa i 38 2 T0805 Toa 36 Tor 30 ToR10 Toa @ v3 7 TOR To 36 Ts 30 T0820 To 2 30 2 T0835 io 36 Tie 30 10830 Toa 2 3a 2 Toa ioe 36 07 30 108.00 1045 2 3a 2 To8as 1085 38 Tie 30 10830 1086 7 38 2 10835 16 36 Toe 30 T0860 ry 2 3a 7 10865 i037 % Tid 3Airborne Airborne Channet | Channet | ‘Mterregaing | Interogeing | Crete” | Tinecale, Frequency | Pulse Code MHz MHz Microseconds MHz ‘Microseconds Tx 10870 Tost 2 785 7 BY, 16875 1088 36 mir 30 sg T0880 109, B 586 2 BY TORS 1049 36 Tm 30 Ed 108.50 1050 2 387 2 IY T0895 1050 36 Ts 30 aK 109.00 1051 2 988 2 BY, 108.05 Tost 36 ie Ey aX 109.10 1082 2 389 2 HY 109.15 1052 36 THs 30 wx 10820 1053 2 350 2 BY, 10835 1055, 36 T116 30 wx 10930) Tose 2 391 2 wy 10935 1058 36 17 3 ux, 1060 055 7 En HW a To94s 055 3% tiie 30 ax 10850 1056 @ 93 2 BY 10955 1056 x6 Tn 30 ad 108.0 1057 7 954 7 Eid 10865 1057 36 Tia 30 Eg 705.70 1058, @ 355 2 HY, 109.75 1058 %6 war 30 35x 109.80 | 1059 2 996 2 Ed 10885 1059, 36 1a 30 HX 109.50 1060 2 oT 7 Ed 10995 1060 36 1 30 ax T1000) To67 @ 58 7 a Tos 061 36 Tze 30 (ee T1010 1062 2 oe @ [oa T1015 1062 t 36 Ts 30 1 [=x 11020 106s} 2 1000 2 1 BY i923] 06s T136 0 wax 71030) Cc 1001 2 oY T1035 [a Ta 30 ax, Tio 1065 2 To0r @ ay Toa 1065 36 Ti 5 ax T1050) 1066 2 1003 @ ay 035 1066 36 19, 30 ax 10.60 1067 2 Toor iB av Tos 1067 38 130) 0 1 ax T1070 106 B i005 2 1 ay T1075 Tot 3% Tia 30 ax T1080 1067 2 Tone 2 SY ios 1068 36 Coie 3% cg 11090 1070 7 1007 2 a6 1055 1070 36 15 0Airborne ‘Airborne cnn | hiker | Mreeine | tering | Someta |” Stns val Frequency Pulse Code vrequency MHz MHz Microseconds MHz ‘MicrosecondsAirborne Airborne Interrogating | Interrogating | Ground Reply | Ground Reply Frequency Pulse Code ‘requency Pulse Code MHz ‘Microseconds Miz “ilcroseconds ness} D 1157 7 1098 36 1031 30 185 2 1158 @ 1095 36 102 30 U4 2 1139 L @ pos 36 103s 0 1097 Be iz 187 36 1B 0 1098 2 Ter iz uns 36 1035 30 1059 2 Tee 2 1059) 36 1036 0 100 @ Tia} Z 00, % 1a} 7 Tor Pe 7 oo 36 30 Ta 2 16s Z Tor % 109 7 To 2 1166 iz Tio 36 i000 30 Tio @ 1a Z Tio 6 Tost 30 1105 7 Tae 7 105 3 — a | a Te 2 1106 36 Toa 7 To? 2 m7 i Tor 3 3 Troe @ um} 7 Troe 6 Tas 0 11 2 77] 7 TH. % 046 35 TH 2 1a a ing %6 ioa7 3 TT 2 7 a Tin 36 nH me as 2 me 36 = 7 ie 2 1176 1 Tp % 1050 0 ue 2 77 a ae 3 vost] 30 ms is 3 wis 36 10880 THe 2 119 7 TH 36 1058 5Airborne Airborne Channet | Chaney | Ierrogating | Inerrogating Geeta) || Geetha Frequency Pulse Code MHz MHz Microseconds MHz Microseconds Bee TIF 7 0 2 BY | Ke 7 3 1058 30 3X | Tha Tis @ Tisi 2 sy | nas Tie 36 1055 30 3x aa 1 2 Tie 2 sey | _a8s Tie 36 1036 30 sex | 190 7120 7 a3 2 sey [9s Tio 36 1057 30 3x | 0 Tat 2 Tree z a [1505 Tt 36 Toss 30 3x is Ti 2 15 2 wy Tae % 1059 30 3x | 1520 TB z TTa6 @ BY | 13a Ts 36 060 30 wx] is30 Tae B Ti @ reoy [1535 Ti 36 Tosi 30 Tox 40 Ts Be 2 voy] sas as 36 Toa 30 Tax | 0 Ti @ Te 7 Tay [ss is 36 1063 30 Tox | a Tae 7 790 2 tov [ase TH 36 i082 30 Tea i570 Ta z si a Tow [1575 Tar 36 Toes 30 106K | 9 30 i TT83 2 Toey [855 19 36 1067 30 ox | 600 TBI @ Tbe To | 1165 Tai 36 i068 30 Toe | ies0 Ti 2 55 2 voy] 6.5 Ti 306 30 TX | ea 113 86 2 toy | 6 13 3 30 Tok [63 114 i 197 i Tio} 11638 Te 3 107i 30 Tix | tea 115 @ 18 B i a Ts 3 i 30 Tax] i630 Tie i 19s @ Tay [116s 1138 3% 1073 30 Tax [ne 17 2 200 2 Tay 1 i665 137 38 1078 30 Tax | 670 18 @ oI z Tay | 67s THs 36 io¥s 30 TX] 6a0 119 @ 02 z Tis | ies 19 38 6 30 Tax | 11630 iia 2 a5 2 wey | i658 TH % Di 30VHE Gm ene Ground Reply | Ground Reply Channet | Channet | Interrogating | Interrogating | “Frequency Pulse Code Frequency | Pulse Code MA MH ‘Microseconds Mie ‘Microseconds Te T1700 Tia a 704 2 iy T1705 iar 36 1078 30 11x TI710 iia 2 1205 2 Ty 17s 11a 36 1079 30 TSX 720 1133 2 1206 2 tig¥ 11725 1133 36 1080 30 OX T1730 Tras @ 1207 7 oY T1733 Ties 36 10 30 Tax Tia Ties 2 108 2 iaiy ni7as iiss 36 1082 30 12x T1730 THa6 2B 13 7 Tay 1738 Tae 36 Toes 30 Tax T1760 Tia7 2 7210 2 | iy 1176s a7 36 i084 30 (ex T1770 ie 2 Tait 2 enay_| 1775 1a 36 1085 30 asx 7.80 Thao 2 1a 2 wiasy | 1n Thee 36 1056 30 DEX, T1750 1150 @ 1a 2 si6y | ui 98 133 36 1687 30 * These channels are reserved exclusively for national allotments ** These channels may be used for national allotment on a secondary basis The primary reason for reserving these channels is to provide protection for the Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) system 108.0 MHz is not scheduled for assignment to ILS service. The associated DME operating channel No. 17X may be assigned to the emergency service. TABLE IL 107 oan ING Jo saidioug sopuodsurs med “fu Ol X 008 = 9 souEIsip WEIS = “TL (1-944 +44) Y, = 7 aoyeB0119}U] c+ () soWwoIpuy, ynou19 puusuy (D soursig (4) asind Supedouayuypunaes = gmc Chops td 954] é and reply frequencies). The signal is amplified in the:IE-unit and also passes a Ferris—= discriminator which is very high selective BP filter. Normally in the IF unit the signal is The signal which is detected is passed to 4,Decoder which checks that the pulse spacing of the so-called (LF pulser) is within 12 +1 psec. (X channels). If so, the ‘Decoder gives out a Remembering that the slant distance is not the same as the ground distance (horizontal _ distance) this will indicate an error when the aircraft is near the Transponder (on high vertical angles). Lower than 10° over horizon almost no error, The maximum error represents the case when the airerat passes evethead the ‘Transponder antenna, This gives an indication of the aircraft height and not zero distance information on the displa / In practice this do not involve any problems, because the DMEsystemuingfirsthandissensi — Normally, the total system delay in a modem Transponder is approximately @Qans@es : so hence, the” Mais ircuit must < obtain the\@veraillidelaylonisOmlisec. The Main delay circuit is mainly a simple monostable multivibrator. The MGedemtembaeoder) will for each spike input give out a with the comectpulse.spacing.and pulse.characteristiesigiven by the ICAO. (The Coder is _ mainly mulrivibrators and a Gaussian filter). This ‘video signal modulates the Transmitier, which produce irs with correct frequency. The Transmitter is either Low ee Wee T00 Wp — PA) or medium power (1kWp PA including valves) or high. The frequencies are always 63 MHz higher or lower the correct interrogating frequencies. ‘The “Transpo have 2 or 3 letters in the Morse code, which indicates the signature of the ground beacon The Transponder operates with a GORS(anL Gul SiGleslc2UppS.. This is necessary to provide old Interrogators with AGC signal, and it also regularly activates high power __ transmitters (klystrons, etc.) to increase the MTBF. MEANTIME GET CT FA LURE Even if no aircraft interrogates the transponder, the duty cycle must be kept constant and this introduces a” NOSE=ZEnstalObewhich givesendisenOis@uitieimpulses, With no interrogations, all 2700 pulse pairs will come from the Noise generator. On the other hand with 100 aircrafts interrogating there will be no pulses from the Noise generator. vEcho Pulses ( PELAX=D POLES), The direct pulses from the aircraft may also be reflected from the terrain, buildings, etc. and because of the longer signal path this delayed pulses (echo pulses) may be accepted by the transponder and hence trigger reply pulses. (See Figure 1-5) These reply pulses originating from echo pulses, may in older DME interrogators be accepted as true signals and hence cause a false lock-on of the order of several nautical 12| 768 — reece) SOG 4. Strap = Snag Dds asin¢ +t Aviag Ais Wed, = ANT cHH fT 9anaiy - sepuodsuedy, jes a. Gv iw ory Suez PONE ado 25d 9 brayep jn hoep vin fepoa wneoyropt FUFLPLE| wre 29" peers rue} sensu, AY Sno egeyrpen |b NE agg, bow et, | prin getece ip apeaig = lomap weg hy |Hfal Ssio5= au, soqdnog * 7 pracy rA190y Swe Bastl Og =09 ZHIN £9F | ‘Aviad Ysa /\ | t 5) wows) fh ae Bo [i Falpe Taaidae |-¥ nal SON sapooaq Ur | at ue roxy SY "4 7H! ay | PW? siti | euuaquy iO) Ory F Ne 2S aay ZHI coF%} sostnd day (-9) sagind Sunedoxoyuy7 echo.pulses to some extent, the Transponder block diagram shows a Teceier Dead Time cuit oes the ecslve nommallcQDuse ond this may give an ———— imately 6 NM error because: = approximate By i . the “false lock on” problem may be eee NEA Kaas Eisley vtch indicates the time the Receiver is not blocked but receive interrogation pulses. We have the following relation: = 12700 ¢ Rx Dead Time 150 psec. the Reply Efficiency will in practice be approximately 50% which is the threshold to maintain distance information. The resultant pulse signals can be divided in two signals, the direct and the reflected signal as Figure 1-6 shows. The direct signal is of amplitude A and pulse spacing 12sec and has the reference phase +. If the 1" pulse of the echo pulses is situated in time approximately as shown in Fig. 1-6 (delay of say = 10 jsec) and in phase with the direct signal, then the 1* resultant pulse is undistorted, but the 2™ resultant pulse will have a positive distorted pulse shape a indicated in the figure. If the amplitude of the echo pulse is more than 50% of the direct pulse, the 50% detection level of the second pulse will move towards the left and the detected “spikes” will be less than 12 psec apart. In the case the result is ~ 10 usec, say, it is out of range of the acceptable spacing for the pulse width decoder. If the phase had been negative, it would subtract from the direct pulse and the result would be that the 50% amplitude point of the resultant 2" pulse could move to the right, ie, we would for instance get say ~ 14usec difference in pulse width as Figure 1-7 indicates, signal for vertical and horizontal polarization. or enaeat_polanizalion & Sila eNO + the so-called onal ies. earth) and there ey L incidence & the abetacle mmegp be SS Breldecs L by 2 14 AngleL\ 24 \ DIRECT PULSE (D) ECHO PULSE (E) : RESULTING PULSE (D + E) DIRECT and ECHO PULSE ADDED IN PHASE FIGURE 1-6 T\S\ DIRECT PULSE (D) JF \__/-\ tcuo Putsz ©) DIRECT and ECHO PULSES ADDED IN ANTIPHASE FIGURE 1-7AMPLITUDE K A a 10 x. 180 HORIZONTAL S POLARIZED CURVES K la VERTICAL POLARIZED os + + 90 0 0° in ss 0UC~«; Fe 90 ANGLE BREWSTER ANGLE REFLECTED EXAMPLES OF CURVES INDICATING AMPLITUDE AND PHASE FOR A. REFLECTED SIGNAL WHICH IS VERTICAL OR HORIZONTAL POLARIZED FIGURE 1-8Earth becomes a more ideal reflector, Brewsters angle goes towards lower angle of incidence. Also since the phase changes to zero after reflection for angles > Op then it is clear that the aircraft is normally near the station (not too high) to get the position of high angle of incidence of the reflected signal resulting in zero phase shift. PRACTICAL DME ANTENNA INSTALLATIONS: Figure 1-9 gives indication of several normal allocations with different systems. Mainly it is the problem of finding a suitable place for the DME antenna with respect to obstruction criteria. (STOL runways are normally approximately 800 m). There are mainly 4 different suitable positions of the DME antenna as indicated in Figure 1-9, * The normal VOR/DME configuration. DME antenna placed on the top of the radome. ‘+ The normal ILS/DME configuration of larger airports. The DME equipment is placed in same shelter as Glide Path and DME antenna mounted on top of GP antenna. Identification to LLZ as normal * . In many STOL airports the geographical position of the runway does not coincide with normal approach. In this cases the LLZ is placed in offset position as indicated and the DME antenna is placed near the LLZ shelter on a self-supporting mast of 6-9 m high (normally). 4 Also, there ate installations where the DME antenna is placed on top of the electronic VDF antenna (Rhode & Schwarts VDF) which is situated on top of the control tower. New transponder equipment, smaller in size and weight and electronically more compact and sophisticated and equipped with transistorized power amplifier is indications coming from different manufacturers. des of the radiated signals in the areas in which reflecting objects may be located; thereby reducing the intensity of the reflected signals (echo signals received by the aircrafis. 18B) A) GP/DME VOR radome ee) ZB DME/GP equipment HHH 112 anenns Oo Liz D) DME antenna. c) | | | VDF antenna DME, antenna THE 2am , | LLZ/DME equipment Offset LLZ DIFFERENT DME ANTENNA CONFIGURATIONS FIGURE 1-9 TOWER DME/VDF equipmentWhen the height of the antenna is less than 18 meters above the ground, null or minima in the vertical radiation pattern may cause loss of DME information to the aircraft for periods varying according to the speed of the aircraff, its altitude and the height of the ground beacon antenna, {As the observation point is moved in the vertical plane, the path length of the direct and reflected signal undergo relative changes, thereby varying the phase between the two signals, and a series of maxima and nulls results. The location of these lobes in the vertical plane depends upon the height above the ground and the wavelengths as Figure Under these conditions, the reflect signal is lower in magnitude than the direct signal and.can never completely cancel the direct signal. Hence, an uptilt of the main lobe has been introduced for the DME antenna. Some results of antenna height with respect to the null position the diagram is plotted in Figure 1-11 for a frequency of 1000 MHz. It can be noted that the higher the antenna the lower the position of the nulls. Figure 1-11 represents the conditions for a perfect ground and denotes the position of either a null or a minimum depending upon whether any difference in level exists between the direct and reflected signals. At grazing incidences, only a small difference exists between the direct and reflected signals thereby causing undesirable deep minima. For higher vertical angles up to approximately 7°, the uptilt becomes more effective and a substantial fill-in of the null is accomplished. For this condition, less dynamic range is required in the receiver for complete recovery and a greater change of successful operation is obtained in case of marginal sensitivity. A further advantage of a null at a higher angle is that the region is intercepted closer to the transmitter and is flown through in less time at any given altitude. However, it should be kept in mind that it is only factor inn determining the optimum height. The above discussion implies that mounting the antenna as close to the ground as possible would appear to be most desirable. Over flat terrain without obstruction, and if range is not an important factor, this would be true. However, it must be remembered that height is often the only recourse in avoiding obstacles in the immediate area. In addition, raising the first null coincidentally raises the first maximum, thereby directing the energy at relatively high angles and limiting the line-of-sight range. In some instances, therefore, it has been found desirable for similar equipment to raise the antenna at a height between 9 and 12 meters to obtain a higher average signal level at low line-of-sight angle. This improvement is limited somewhat by the additional cable loss, but a net gain is realized. EispeeaTie indivituat mutt occuples tess vertical spread, 1 20VERTICAL PLANE HORIZONTAL PLANE. IEIGHTS ABOVE GROUND POLAR DIAGRAMS FOR A HALF WAVE DIPOLE-VERTICAL POLARIZED OF DIFFERENT HI FIGURE 1-10 21Ke SECOND NULL FIRST NULL pop gp tt 3 6 9 12 15 ANTENNA HEIGHT EXAMPLES OF NULL POSITION IN THE VERTICAL DIAGRAM OF AN ANTENNA ABOVE GROUND (Frequency = 1000 MHz) FIGURE 1-11 22average field strength will, in most cases, make these nulls less objectionable. As the antenna is raised to heights in excess of 18 — 21 meters, the lobe structure becomes so fine and contains such a multitude of lobes that a blending appears to occur and the nulls are no longer detectable. Hence, to obtain the multiple advantage of best range, clearance of local obstacles, and freedom from vertical lobe structure, it is recommended that, wherever possible, heights in excess of 18 meters be used. The uptilt characteristics of the DME antenna fortunately permit some deviation from the above recommendation when a special operational application is desired. Figure 1-12 shows an example of a typical vertical pattern from a DME antenna. Example of Typical Vertical Antenna Diagram for DME Antenna Figure 1-12 DME COLLOCATED WITH OTHER NAVAIDS: Normally DME transponders are collocated with respect to frequency and identification with: *¢ VOR ¢ ILS-LLZ In addition Distance Measuring Equipment is part of the TACAN system which gives p/0 information to military aircrafts, VORTAC systems are a civil VOR and TACAN collocated to give p/@ information to both civil and military aircrafts VOR/DME Figure 1-13 shows a typical installation of VOR/DME equipment. The DME antenna is placed co-axial on top of the VOR antenna. Civil aircrafts receive both distance and range information but military aircrafis receive only distance information. DME transmits in the 1 GHz band (UHF) while VOR transmits in the 100 MHz band (VHF). 23MILITARY AIRCRAFT DISTANCE DIRECTION DME ant ve -—O CIVIL AIRCRAFT VOR = DME VOR/DME GROUND STATION FIGURE 1-13 24MILITARY AIRCRAFT DIRECTION von O TACAN ani CIVIL AIRCRAFT VOR ant VOR TACAN VORTAC GROUND STATION FIGURE 1-14 25VORTAC: : Figure 1-14 shows a VORTAC station (VOR+TACAN) and the result is that both military and civil aircrafts receive distance (p) and range (8) information. The TACAN station transmits normally DME pulses on 1 GHz but in addition also gives azimuth (range) information on the same frequency but differently with respect to a VOR. ILS/DME For landing purposes on the ILS beam it is often necessary to have continuous distance information from a DME transponder as indicated in Figure 1-15, Because of obstruction criteria the DME antenna is situated 10-20 meters from the electronic equipment. ©. DME ANTENNA, ee ere LUZ ANTENNA O06. 09. COURSE SECTOR LLZ/DME Installation Figure 1-15 OPERATIVE USE OF DME INFORMATION: A single DME installation is of no use if the pilot does not know from which direction the signals come from. Hence, the VOR is the most popular equipment collocated with DME. 26SLANT DISTANCE The distance information on the DME display indicates the slant distance as shown in Figure 1-16. This means that when the aircraft is far away, i.e. low vertical height above horizon the difference (error) between the horizontal and the slant distance is very small. As the aircraft has vertical angles above approximately 10° then the difference becomes greater. The maximum error will be when the aircraft is overhead the DME antenna. The DME indicator will show the height above ground and not zero distance. However, this is not a practical difficulty because the aircraft on normal ~ en route — flights cruise on high altitudes and will be in the “cone of confusion” of the VOR signal approximately +45° with respect to antenna axis. The “cone of confusion” indicates “station passage” for the VOR signal. Hy (HORIZONTAL DISTANCE) Slant Distance Figure 1-16 LINE OF SIGHT: Figure 1-17 shows the optical line of sight (4), which is given as follows: d= (2hR)!? + (2h)? where R = earth radius = 6400 km. However, the radiowaves on VHF and higher frequencies follow a curve in the atmosphere, which gives the result that a signal can be received beyond the optical line of sight. Hence the earth radius is used with a modified constant of 4/3 in the above equation to satisfy the radio line path. 27ANTENNA Optical Line of Sight Geometry Figure 1-17 SIGNAL ATTENTUATION IN FREE SPACE: The radio signal in free space between two isotropic antennas as shown in Figure 1-18 is attenuated as follows: Attent In other words, For DME the frequency is almost the same as equal to approximately 1000MHz. Hence the attenuation is only dependent of the distance. If the distance between aircraft and DME antenna increases, then the signal is more attenuated and may be too low to be accepted by the receiver in the aircraft and hence the aircraft will loose distance information. The attenuation can also be calculated sea from the homograph shown in Fig. 1-19. i i the signal-will-be lower and this the amplitude of the pulses will decrease (but not the pulse width) ITEROGATOR ANTENNA TRANSPONDER ANTENNA Frequency FO = +63 MHz Frequency Fo DISTANCE D. Free Space Attenuation between Antennas Figure 1-18 28. Attenuation batween Distance _inotropicanienaue — Hreyuency Wavelength 2 hw a » » viun ake .. ” we o aes » ‘ ” = ww ea ™ . : . - E w » 1 : ™ & wo. ote ” m wee - . ee n ont Raw HH 3 ~ ie ‘ wet IE ae “ ™ - ey “ a = . we v8 ie se ™ wo one wo 08 ee LJ - 4008 see ™ 008 F y000 fas ~ ae FREE SPACE ATTENUATION BETWEEN ISOTROPIC ANTENNA FIGURE 1-19 30NOMINAL DME’ EFFECTIVE -RADIATED POWER REQUIRED necres [TT F TO PROVIDE ~83 dBu/a? POWER DENSITY AT VARIOUS (leet) ‘SLANT FANGES/LEVELS WITI A TYPICAL ANTENNA . LOCATED 35 fe (10,5 m) AROVE GROUND 18 000 (54 090) 12 000 (60 000) 9 000 (30 000) Level above factiiey 6 000 (20 000) 3 000 | + Theea curvee are bused on extensive expert (9 000) ‘matter of festtltter and indtoate the nonina Sffeettor radiated prove to @ apeet Cad pover denaity on a high percentoge of occasions taking into feeceunt prepapition and “goienl grosmd/atreraft Snstallation characteriettes, ° 2 30 1 7100 us 30 us aacteal 200 ‘atl SLANT RANGE DISTANCE FROM DME ANTENNA FIGURE 1-20 31POWER and RECEIVER SENSITIVITY: As explained earlier for VOR the radio line of sight is only dependent of the obstruction and hence the maximum slant distance is given. But of course the Effective Radiated Power (ERP), Receiver sensitivity, propagation characteristics, antenna pattems, etc. are limiting factors in a Transmitter/Receiver system. ICAO gives the minimum power density for Interrogators as -83 dBW/m?, " The power density is on the following assumptions: Airborne receiver sensitivity - 112 dBW Airborne transmission line loss + 3dB Airbome polar pattern loss relative to an isotropic antenna == + 4. dB Necessary power at antenna - 105 dBw — 105 dBW at the antenna corresponds to -83 dBW/m? at the mid-band frequency. The power density for the case of an isotropic antenna may be computed in the following manner Py= Pas 1008.02) where Ra power density ing Wait = power at receiving point in dBW 2. = wavelength in meters Nominal values of the necessary ERP to achieve a power density of — 83 dBW/m? are given in Figure 1-20. For coverage under difficult terrain and siting conditions it may be necessary to make appropriate increases in the ERP. Conversely, under favorable siting conditions, the stated power density may be achieved with a lower ERP. For example: With ERP from a transponder of 36dBW and aircraft altitude of 20,000 feet the maximum distance to obtain DME information is approximately 110 NM. GAUSSIAN PULSE and THE FREQUENCY SPECTRUM. The DME system uses gaussian pulses instead of squared pulses, as normally is the case in primary Radar system. The reason for this is that the DME channels are very closed spaced, i.e, 1 MHz apart. This gives 252 MHz channels within the band 962 — 1213 MHz. If squared pulses are used then the frequency spectrum follows a sin */, from as shown in Figure 1-21a, The spectrum and hence the energy is spread far beyond the channel. Energy will pass in the adjacent channels and array gives serious information trouble. To decrease the spectrum width, it is necessary to reduce overharmonics in the pulse, i.e. the gaussian pulse was chosen, It may be shown mathematically that the gaussian pulse (with 29a) > mf FREQUENCY SPECTRUM RESULT (SINX/X) » I\ - I\ . GAUSSIAN PULSE FREQUENCY SPECTRUM RESULT (GAUSSIAN) SQUARE PULSE CORRESPONDING PULSE SHAPES IN TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAIN FIGURE 1-21 50% Ampl 50% Ampl A At= TIME ERROR VARIATION OF AMPLITUDE RESULTS IN TIME ERROR FIGURE 1-22 . 32respect to time) gives a gaussian frequency spectrum as shown in Figure 1-21. Hence most of the energy is within the 1MHz channel and the interference with co-channel equipment in the neighborhood is reduced. But this goes on the expense of distance accuracy because if the detection amplitude level varies (and it will) this results in a variation of the time and hence there will be introduced a At variation of say Ipsec. and this may cause an error of 150 meters. Also if the pulse amplitude varies (and it will) the normal 50 % amplitude detection point will vary and hence At and hence the error as Figure 1-22 shows. ICAO specifies two (2) DME spectrums: ¢ DME/N (Narrow) « DME/W (Wide) Generally, we can say that DME/N goes for medium power DME transponder (1 kWp or less) while i ME transponder-(S-kWp). The specifications for the DME/N spectrum are given in Figure 1-23. Specifications of DME/N Spectrum Figure 1-23The following procedures show how the ICAO power requirement can be interpreted to 4B readings on a spectrum analyzer connected to the DME transponder output. a) The f, + 0.8 MHz band: The ERP shall be 0.2 W from antenna. ERP (dB) = 10 log 0.2 = 10 log 1 - 10 log 5 ‘The ERP is from the antenna output, We must go back to the output of the transmitter and hence must subtract 9 dB antenna gain (which is normal): At the antenna plug we get; ~1dBW - 9 dB =~ 16 dBW ‘Also the antenna cable has normally 3 dB loss and the corresponding power in dB at the Transponder output will be ~—16dBW+3 dB=-13 dBW So, 0.2 W corresponds to — 13 dBW at the transponder output. The above calculations are shown in Figure 1-24. But the Transmitter power output is the reference For medium power DME transponders we have 1000 Wp output which directly gives 10 log 1000 = 30 dbWp ) ‘The total dB readings from the top of the gaussian curve (30 dBWp) to the 0.2 W (- 13 dBWp) will be 30 + 13 = 43 dBW. In other words, to maintain the ICAO DME/N specifications for 1 kWp Transmitter, 9 dB antenna, 3 dB cable the curve at f, + 0.8 MHz must be lower than 43 dB (4.3 divisions) on the spectrum analyzer. This is shown in Figure 1-25. ERP from 0.5 MHz band at fo= 0.8 MHz=-7 dBW ‘Antenna Gain = 9 dB [Cable loss = 3 4B ‘Tx POWER = -13 dBw ‘TRANSPONDER Example of Radiation from the 0.8 MHz band for DME/N Figure 1-24 ~fo+ 0.8 MHz DMEWN Specifications for the Spectrum at 0.8 MHz Figure 1-25 b) The f, +2 MHz band Exactly the same proceeding as in (a) but now the power in the 0.5 MHz band is only 0.2 mW (-27 dBW). We get: ~ 27 - 9 dB = — 36 dBW at the antenna plug. 3 dB cable loss gives ~ 36 dBW + 3 =— 33 dBW at Transponder output Transmitter output = 1000 W (30 dB) ) We shall get: 30 + 33 = 63 dBW at the f, + 2 MHz as shown in Figure 1-26. So these two points of the frequency spectrum show the slope of the spectrum, i.e. if the spectrum is good or bad, and if it corresponds to ICAO’ criteria. > 63 dB fo+2 MHz, DMEUN Specifications for the Spectrum at 2.0 MHz Figure 1-26 35With transponders of low power it is fairly easy to maintain the DME/N spectrum, but for high power, it is difficult and hence ICAO has a DME/W spectrum which has the same power requirements within the bands but measured at higher frequency (1.8 MHz and 3 MHz) as Figure 1-27 shows. Hence the spectrum curve becomes wider, i.e. is spread out. This is not wanted, but there is nothing else to do when the powers are high. i iL MiC| 3 MHz | Specifications for the DME/W Spectrum Figure 1-27 PULSE CHARACTERISTICS: ‘As already mentioned the DME pulses have a gaussian shape. Also, there always are two pulses in a pair as shown in Figure 1-28. The pulse rise and fall times and pulse codes are as follows: A: pulse rise time 2.5 psec + 0.5 psec B: pulse decay time 2.5 psec + 0.5 see C: pulse width 3.5 psec +0.5 psec D: pulse cade, 12 psec + 0.25 see for X channels (Interrogators and Reply) Sta 36 psec + 0.25 psec for Y channels (Interrogations) 30 yisec + 0.25 sec for Y channels (Reply) ~— oxo A pair of pulses gives greater «integrity to the system as can be observed with the difference in pulse spacing (pulse code) for X and Y channels which have the same interrogating frequency while the reply frequency is different. Specifications of the DME Pulse Shapes Figure 1-28 Pulse Repetition Frequency: Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) is the frequency which each pulse pair has (periods per seconds = pps). ) When the pilot activates the Interrogator the pulse repetition frequency is approximately 120 — 150 pps normally 135 pps. This time is names “Search Mode” After approximately 1 -2 seconds the Interrogator recognizes its own pulses and the PRF automatically reduces to “Track Mode” (24 — 30 pps or normally 27 pps). Search Mode is the time from which the Interrogator is tumed on until distance information is shown on the display. Track Mode is the time when the Interrogator is in operative use. ‘The PRF is variable because this is a simple way for each aircraft to recognize its own pulses from other aircrafts that also use the same Transponder. One transponder can serve up to 100 airerafts at the same time. Generally this means 100 x 27 pps = 2700 pps as the total PRF from the Transponder. Normally every Transponder has a constant duty cycle of 2700 pps even if no aircraft is interrogating. DUTY CYCLE: Duty cycle is the time the Transponder is activated, i.e. the time the Transmitter is activated to send reply pulses. Duty cycle is given in percent (%); i.e. if the Duty Cycle is 1%, and then it means that the Transmitter has been activated 1% of the time.) Pan J Since the DME transponder uses pulses of a given width (3.5 psec. at 50% amplitude level) and these have a PRF of 2700 we can write Duty Cycle =2 ede PRF Remembering we have a pulse pair that has a PRF of 2700 Duty Cycle = 2 + 3.5 x 10 #2700 = 0.019 = 1.9% So the Duty Cycle in an ICAO DME system is constant at 1.9%. The Transmitter is unloaded in the remaining 98.1% of the time. But in a pulse system we want to know the peak power (P,). This we can find by measuring the average power (Pyy) by a wattmeter and knowing the Duty cycle we can write the following important formula: Pp = Pay/Duty cycle ‘We can of course also write: Pyy = Py® Duty cycle Figure 1-29 shows how the average power is lowered with a decrease in Duty cycle (PRF) if the amplitude (peak power) is kept constant. A A Pave 4b. PB Pai > Pavz Average Power for a Train of Pulses Figure 1-29 RECEIVER DEAD TIME and REPLY EFFICIENCY: As mentioned before reflected pulses (echo pulses) may be accepted by the Transponder if they arrived after the direct pulses. If the transponder accept the pulses then they are transmitted as reply pulses and the aircraft may “lock” upon these and a false distance information can be given. To avoid this to happen each direct pulse which arrives in the Transponder Receiver block the Receiver at least 60 ysec., but maximum 150 sec., i.e. if an echo pulse arrives at 40 jisec., then it will be blocked if the Rx dead time is 60 sec. 38Remember: the longer the reflection path is, the more delayed are the echo pulses in time, 60 psec dead time is a compromise, because having too long blocking time; the Reply efficiency will be reduced. If the Receiver is blocked a certain time, then of course the rest time is the time the Receiver is open for interrogating pulses. If the blocking time is 100% of the time, then there will be sent out no reply pulses, i.e. the reply efficiency is 0%. The constant Duty cycle = 2700 pps. For each pulse in the pair, the receiver is blocked automatically at least 60 y1sec. The total blocking time is 2700 # 60 x 10 = 0.162 sec. This means that the total blocking time is 16.2% and the rest must be the activation time or Reply Efficiency (RE) of the Transponder, i.e. RE = I ~ total blocking time RE = | -0.162 = 0.838 = 83.8% This is the theoretical maximum RE with 60 jisec dead time. With 150 psec. dead time the RE is reduced to RE=1~ (2700 # 150 x 10%) = 0.6 = 60% In practice RE is somewhat lower, about 70% for 60 yisec. dead time and 50% for 180psec. dead time. 150 isec. is the maximum dead time because the Interrogator must have at least 50% reply with respect to the interrogation pulses to operate correctly. Figure 1-30 shows RE as a function of Receiver Dead Time. Re 1008 80% Re= f(T) 60% 40% 20% Ts 60S = UBS WSUS aU BS Reply Efficiency as a function of Receiver Dead Time Figure 1-30 39IDENTIFICATION SIGNAL: Each Transponder must transmit an identification signal that normally takes 1 -2 seconds every 30 seconds. The identification signal is transmitted with 1350 Hz on the VHF wave. Since the DME always is collocated with either VOR or ILS-LLZ then ICAO recommends that the collocated equipment (VOR or ILS) transmits its own identification code on 1020 Hz three (3) times in every 30 seconds and the fourth time the DME shall transmit its code on 1350 Hz. Figure 1-31 shows the intervals. Since the identification frequency is 1350 Hz we must add the so called equalizing pulses also on 1350 Hz 100 psec. apart as Figure 1-32 shows. Hence we will get 1350 pulse pairs + 1350 pulse pairs = 2700 pulse pairs but with frequency 1350 Hz. Since the identification code has priority over interrogating pulses, then they will block the Transponder Receiver each time an identification letter comes. Hence we must maintain the Duty cycle (2700 pps) even when the identification pulses are transmitted. The identification code is programmed as letters in Morse code, and normaily indicates 2 or 3 letters. For example Ninoy Aquino Intemational Airport has identification M I A both for the VOR and DME, but the frequency is different. Figure 1-33 indicates how the Transmitter and identification units are constructed in block diagrams. In the Keyer, the Morse code is programmed, and the dots and dashes chop the oscillator that runs on 1350 Hz. In the main Delay a priority switch stops the interrogating pulses and let through the identification pulses. 30s 158 25s 15s Ss ‘TOTAL PERIODS = 30 seconds Synchronized Identification Periods for Collocated VOR/DME Figure 1-31 - 401350 Hz = 740 ps IDENTIFICATION EQUALIZING IDENTIFICATION EQUALIZING PULSES PULSES: PULSES PULSES TOTAL IDENTIFICATION SIGNAL FROM TRANSPONDER, FIGURE 1-32 INTERROGATING and eeeteseeneer are esereaea SQUITTER PULSES v Main Oscil- Keyer Delay [7] lator [7 REPLY IDENTIFICATION PULSES PULSES < Tx te IDENTIFICATION SIGNAL IN THE TRANSPONDER FIGURE 1-33 41BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR A GENERAL TRANSPONDER: Here we shall work through all the blocks in short explanation how a general Transponder do operate with respect to Figure 1-34. Figure 1-35 also shows the time related pulses corresponding to Fig. 1-34. Antenna The antenna normally consists of 6 — 8 vertically stacked dipoles, which give omnidirectional patter in the horizontal plane and an 8 dBi directional pattern in the vertical plane. The main lobe is directed approximately 3° above the ground. (Refer to Attachment) The antenna is frequency independent (broad-banded) in the region of 960 - 1215 MHz and hence do accept both interrogating and reply pulses (which are shifted by + 63 MHz), Circulator: The circulator prevents that the transmitting pulses (high pulses) are coupled to the receiver input and hence damaging it. It also prevents interrogating pulses to be coupled to the transmitter. In other words, the circulator directs the interrogating pulses to the antenna. Mixer: This unit mixes the interrogating pulses with frequency f, with a part of the continuos wave (CW) RF signal from the transmitter which is + 63 MHz apart the interrogating frequency. Hence the difference frequency always is 63 MHz and the interrogating pulses are mixed down to an Intermediate Frequency (IF). IF Amplifier: The IF amplifier amplifies the small interrogating pulses and do only consist of a few transistorized stages. Ferris Discriminator: This a very sensitive detector which only permits pulses in-channel to pass while interrogating pulses more than + 1 MHz (+ one channel) are attenuated more than 60 dB. If correct frequency the RF pulses also are detected to LF pulses called video pulses, i.e. the gaussian RF envelope is detected. .eT TANS UYACNOdSNVUL AN TVYANAD V YOd WVYOVIG YOOT [ awe | WX so 2H OSEL 9 | waaoo } dow H VNNAILNVY YOLVNIWRIOSIC sprit °4 sasind ONLLVOOUNAALNI avOTHAAO, a» a anA INTERROGATING PULSES, Fo E INTERMIDIATE FREQUENCY PULSES (63 MHz) C VIDEO PULSES AFTER DETECTION IN THE FERRIS DISCRIMINATOR, I TWO SPIKES FROM EACH PULSE IN A PAIR AFTER THE 50% AMPLITUDE DETECTOR E ONE SPIKE WITH REFERENCE TO THE SECOND PULSE IN THE PAIR AFTER DETECTION IN THE. DECODER Fr RECEIVER DEAD TIME PULSE ADJUSTABLE BETWEEN 60 ps TO 150 ps G MAIN DELAY. THE SINGLE SPIKE IS DELAYED APPROXIMATELY 30 ps . H THE SINGLE SPIKE TRIGGERS THE CODER TO PRODUCE TWO SQUARED PULSES WITH THE CORRECT PULSE WIDTH AND PULSE SPACING (X OR Y CHANNELS) THE PRF IS CONSTANT EQUAL. TO 2700 PULSE PAIRS/SECOND J. THE SQUARED PULSES ARE FILTERED IN THE GAUSSIAN SHAPER TO THE CORRECT RISE AND FALL TIMES AS SPECIFIED BY ICAO |. REPLY PULSES FROM THE POWER AMPLIFIER HAS THE CORRECT FREQUENCY OF Fo + 63 MHz WITH RESPECT TO A I. THE TOTAL SYSTEM DELAY IS APPROXIMATELY EQUAL TO 20 ps. THE MAIN DELAY IS NORMALLY APPROXIMATELY 30 ys. THE TOTAL OVERALL DELAY MEASURED FROM THE TRANSPONDER INPUT, i.e. FROM POINT A TO K MUST BE 50 ps. TIME RELATED PULSES IN A GENERAL TRANSPONDER ) FIGURE 1-35 44) Video Amplifier: This is only a LF amplifier consisting of a few transistorized stages 50% Amplitude Detector: Here the 50% amplitude level of the two gaussian pulses are detected and the result is two spikes which gives the distance between the two pulses. Decoder: ure. ‘The Decoder iGSsite that the interrogating pulses (spikes) are within the tolerance of 12 +1 psec. for X channels (36 + 1 psec. for Y channels). If so, the decoder gives out a single spike with reference to the second spike received from the 50% amplitude detector. If not, there will be no spike from the Decoder, and hence no reply pulse will be triggered in the Transponder for that pulse. “OR” Gate: ) ‘The OR gate has two inputs: the single spike from each correct interrogating pulse and spikes from the Squitter pulse produced in the Noise Generator (Squitter generator). The pulses from the Squitter generator are inversely proportional to the number of pulses from the Decoder. The sum of these two paths is constant and equal to approximately 2700 pulses (spikes). In other words, if 20 aircrafts are interrogating in Track Mode then there will be 20 x 27 = 540 spikes from the Decoder and the remaining spikes will come from the Noise generator, i.e. 2700 — 540 = 2160 spikes in order to maintain that the output from the “OR?” gate always must be approximately 2700 spikes. Main Delay: There are two inputs to this circuit. First the 2700 spikes from the OR gate are delayed approximately 30 sec. since the system delay (delay in the digital circuits, etc.) is approximately 20 psec, the overall Main Delay is equal to 50 sec. But each time, every 30 seconds the dots and dashes from the identification signal for 1 -2 seconds have priority and stop the interrogating pulses. The Keyer that is programmed in Morse code is dropping the 1350 Hz free running ) oscillator to give pulsed identification code.Coder: From the Main Delay circuit there are coming the following spikes: + Interrogation spikes Squitter (or Noise) spikes Identification spikes The Coder will for each input of one spike produce 2 squared pulses at the output, i.e. 2700 spikes at the input will give 2700 squared spikes, 12 psec apart at the output (X channels). Gaussian Pulse Shaper: ‘The Gaussian pulse shaper is nothing else than a low pass filter, which is forming the squared pulses from the Coder to Gaussian shaped pulses by neglecting higher harmonics. Out of the Gaussian pulse former there will be a pair of correctly Gaussian shaped pulses with the ICAO pulse width, rise and fall time and pulse spacing. Modulator: This is nothing else than a LF amplifier and matching device to the RF amplifier. RF Amplifier: For 100 Wp power output this is normally transistorized. For 1kWp power output this normally has 4 triodes. For 5 -6 kWp power outputs this unit is normally a Klystron device Mostly the RF amplifier is a class C device and have cathode modulation, i.e. the CW signal from the oscillator comes to the grid and the modulating signal (Gaussian LF pulses) from the Modulator is connected to the cathode. The anode on a IkWpRF amplifier normally has about + 3000 Vde. The output from the RF amplifier is a pair of Gaussian pulse shaped RF pulses with correct frequency and shape. The oscillator consists normally of a Crystal of approximately '/25 or ('/12) of the output frequency and hence several stages of frequency doublers and triplers must be introduced to obtain the correct frequency (approximately 1 GHz) to the grid. 46Receiver Dead Time: . For each pulse (spike) from the output of the OR gate the Receiver Dead Time is activated to send out a blocking pulse of minimum 60 psec. This pulse blocks both the Decoder and the Noise generator, to prevent any echo pulses coming shortly after the direct interrogating pulses The Receiver Dead Time can normally be programmed in steps of 60 — 80 — 100 -120 - 150 pisec. Noise Generator: In order to maintain a constant duty cycle (constant PRF) out of the OR gate whatever the number of interrogating aircraft is a Noise generator or Squitter generator must be introduced in the general block diagram. If the number of spikes out of the OR gate increases, then these pulses also are fed back to the Noise generator which automatically lowers the numbers of pulses from its output with the same amount in the order to maintain a constant PRF out of the OR gate. Overload AGC: In case that more than 100 aircrafts at the same time interrogate the same transponder then there will be more than 2700 spikes from the Decoder and this may cause damage to the RF amplifier which can be overheated. Also there may be too many blocking of the Receiver to obtain the minimum of 50% replies to each interrogator and hence the loss of DME information to some aircrafts may occur. In this case, when 100 or more aircrafts are using the transponder the Overload AGC circuit is activated and reduce the sensitivity of the IF amplifier from approximately — 120 dBw down to - 80 dBw. Hence only those aircrafts which are at the closest distance maintain DME information and those aircrafts far away (and less critical) are losing information. Note: This process of interrogating pulses, squitter pulses and reply pulses are existing all the time, at the same time, ie. it all takes place continuously as long as there are interrogating aircrafts. For each interrogating pulse there will be triggered a reply pulse as long as this pulse has not been blocked by another pulse. Every aircraft interrogates with random pulses, i.e. with respect to other aircrafis the pulses are jittering about. But every aircraft can recognize its own pulses just because of this random process. The 47transponder always transmits 2700 pulse pairs and normally most of this pulses originate from the noise generator and represent no distance information to the aircraft. It only ‘serves to give older aircrafis a simple AGC solution and a more smooth and stabile activation of the RF amplifier. Monitor: Each navigational equipment needs a Monitor, a device that checks all the system parameters and so to it that they are within the limit of safety. If not, the Monitor shall give waming or alarm to the Control Tower. ‘The DME Monitor is generally an airborne interrogator; it is a Transmitter/Receiver with alarm circuits instead of the Range gate. Figure 1-36 indicates the principles. The Monitor transmits Gaussian pulses on the correct frequency to a probe or small antenna in the DME antenna. The pulses (or energy) are coupled to the main antenna and to the Transponder. ‘The Monitor interrogating pulses pass through the Transponder and back ta the Monitor Receiver where they are amplified and passes to the different Alarm circuits which checks the following parameters: + Transmitter power (alarm if the power falls to half of normal power, i.e. 34B) + Reply Efficiency (alarm if the reply efficiency falls lower than 60%) Main Delay (alarm if the overall Main Delay varies more than 50 + Ipsec. Main Delay alarm is the only requirement by ICAO since this parameter can cause error in the distance. For example, 10 usec. error in Main Delay cause 10 x 150 ™ysec, = 1500 meter error). @ Pulse spacing (alarm if the two pulses in a pair differ more than 12 + Ipsec for X channels and 36+ Ipsec. for Y channels). + Constant Duty Cycle (alarm if the duty cycle varies more than 2700 + 90 pps). + Identification (alarm if the identification is lost) Normally the Monitor interrogates with approximately 100 pps on a level that is 6 dB higher than the minimum Receiver sensitivity. A DME beacon consists then of one Transponder and one Monitor In practice the beacon is dual, two (2) Transponders and two (2) monitors. The two (2) Monitors are often working in parallel (both interrogates the Transponder at the same time). This means that approximately 200 interrogating pulse pairs are using the Transponder. The advantage of this parallel method is that both Monitors must identify the same fault before any action is taken for switching automatically to the other Transponder. Normally, the Monitors give a fault signal to a Control Unit in the DME beacon which takes action to shut down of the faulty operating Transponder and 48RADOME TRANSPONDER Tx MONITOR PROBE Tx Rx ALARM CKT GENERAL DME BEACON FIGURE 1-36 49switching on power to the stand-by Transponder. At the same time a Remote Control Unit will give lamp indications to the Tower or other place, which have control of the DME. INTERROGATOR: ‘The DME Receiver (Interrogator) is quite complex and only a brief introduction is given here. Figure 1-37 gives the general block diagram of the Interrogator. The heart of the Interrogator is the Range gate circuit where the distance is measured. As Figure 1-37 indicates the remaining blocks are a normal Receiver/Transmitter. When the Interrogator is switched ON the Range gate transmits pulse spikes to the Modulator and Power amplifier which transmits gaussian pulse pairs with a variable PRF of 120 — 150 pps (Search mode). The reply pulses are received and mixed down to IF and amplified and decoded before they are computed in the Range gate circuits. When the Range gate recognizes its own reply pulses the PRF is automatically reduced to 24 — 30 pps (Track mode} and distance information is presented on the indicator. ‘The Range gate block diagram is given in Figure 1-38. ‘The whole process is started by a 404 Hz oscillator, which gives the time reference T= "fp = Vao4 = 2470 psec. The time 2470 psec. are linked by the fact that 200 NM is the maximum operational range for the DME system and since 1 radar mile = 12.36 psec. we get 200 x 12.36 = 2470 psec. as the maximum time scale range. ‘As Figure 1-39 shows a reference pulse is produced for each positive zero crossing of the 404 Hz sine wave. This activates generally speaking a servomotor, which starts a range gate pulse to move. At the same time the reference pulse activates a PRF dividing circuit Which controls the opening and shutdown of the range gate (approximately 135 Hz in Search mode and 27 Hz in Track mode). ‘The reference pulse also activates the Coder to produce a gaussian pair of pulse to the Transmitter. ‘The reply pulses from the Transponder passes the Receiver and is decoded to one spike and the position of the reply pulse on the 2470 usec. (0-200 NM) time scale is measured by the searching range gate pulse. Since each aircraft has its own specified variable PRF and the range gate pulse open and close with exactly the same PRF then statistically the reply pulse (which originally comes from the specified aircraft) must be counted by the range gate when it is open. The range gate must normally count at least four (4) successive reply pulses before it stops in Search Mode and automatically the PRF to Track Mode and hence establish the distance information to the indicator. 50LET aNd YOLVOOWNALNI TVYANAD V YOd NVAOVIG AOOTE YOLVOIGNI OL ZHLOSEL SLVO PONV oov AWL-X 001 wOLOATAS Oats NOLLVOMLLNAGT wadooaa k lev am AOaTasmd dWV XIMOd dow8€-1 AMADA SLINOUID AONVA FHL JO WVYOVIC YOOTE ATS YOLVOIGNI waAIgoR | waaooaa . va pue HOLVINGON wadoo SLINOUID UL SLINDUIO CIAIC Sud WOLVYANO asad ay YOLVTUISO ZH bor SLINOUWID ADNVU404 Hz OSCILLATOR: REFERENCE PULSE INTERROGATING PUL;SE 4 RANGE GATE PULSE REPLY PULSE om RANGESCALE 499 yyy TIME RELATED PULSES IN THE INTERROGATOR: FIGURE 1-39We may think of this time scale range of 0 - 2470 sec. which corresponds to 0 — 200 ‘NM as Figure 1-40 shows. If the aircraft has a slant range distance to the Transponder of X NM then the reply pulses will be placed on this time/range scale at X in Figure 1-40. Figure 1-41 is similar to Figure 1-40 but it has a range gate starts its movement on a fiction resistance glider coupled to the indicator that indicates 0 NM. ‘The Range gate pulse which normally is 20 usec. wide slowly moves over the scale and open and close with approximately 135 pps. As the resistance in the glider becomes less (for instance) as the range gate moves to the right, an increase in voltage control the indicator needle which are calibrated to give corresponding distance information. In Figure 1-41b the Range gate passes over the reply pulses and strobes these pulses, i.e. the gate count 4 successive reply pulses which have exactly the same PRF (on aircraft) as the Range gate. Remember that all 2700 pulses consists of squitter pulses, reply pulses to other aircrafts, etc. and is present at the same time and the range gate must recognize only its own reply pulses and this is done by letting the range gate have the same PRF as the interrogating and reply pulses. If the range gate count 4 or more successive reply pulses, it stops and the PRF is reduced to Track Mode (27 pps). Now the distance information are indicated for the pilot and if the position is as shown in Figure 141b, the reply pulse position is in the middle of the time scale and the indicator measure 100 NM. a practice most of the Interrogators show only a maximum of 99.9 NM) ‘As the aircraft moves towards the Transponder, the reply pulses moves with the same speed (ie. slowly until it takes approximately ‘4 hour to pass the whole time scale 0 - 200 NM). The Range gate pulses that try to follow the reply pulses will also move with the same slow speed to the left. This means increased resistance, reduced voltage and proportionally shorter distance as indicated on the display. It is also interesting to note that echo pulses will always be present to the right of the reply pulses on the time scale. If the range gate is passing the reply pulses without lock, then the range gate may lock on the echo pulses and hence give a false distance information Since the Receiver Dead Time in the Transponder normally is 60usec. the minimum distance error will be approximately 6 NM. 54ONM DISTANCE “X” 900 NM_ (RANGE SCALE) Ons A 2470s (TIME SCALE) | REPLY PULSES N EXAMPLE OF REPLY PULSE POSITION IN THE RANGE/TIME SCALE FIGURE 1-40 ) INDICATOR —o= © Tae RANE }—» GATE GATE NM 200NM 0NM 200 NM REPLY PULSE b) REPLY PULSE, a) SIMPLE PRINCIPLE OF DISTANCE MEASUREMENT FIGURE 1-41SITE SELECTION 10. uN The highest ground in the vicinity with the level terrain, cleared of all objects for a radius of at least 3000 feet (915 meters), and with no obstruction extending above the horizontal plane of the antenna within the service range of the station. The terrain should be level within a radius of 200 feet (61 meters). In a radius between 200 feet and 1000 feet (61 meters and 305 meters), a downward slope is acceptable if: a) The rate of descent is not more than 4 feet in 100 feet (1.22 meters in 30.5 meters). b) Contour lines are generally circular around the site. Beyond the radius of 1000 feet (305 meters), terrain should be below the horizontal plane of the antenna. There should be no structures within 750 feet (229 meters) of the antenna. Meuallic structures should not subtend vertical angles greater than 1.2 degrees as measured from the antenna. Wooden structures with negligible metal content should not subtend vertical angles greater than 2.5 degrees as measured from the antenna. Structures having considerable length (such as aircraft hanger or administration buildings) should be situated lengthwise on a radial from the antenna. Single trees less than 35 feet (11m) high may be tolerated beyond 750 feet. No group of trees or groves may be within 1000 feet. No overhead power or control lines are permissible within 750 feet of the antenna. 56Attachment DME ANTENNA DME transponder utilizes an antenna with a broadband array, covering the full 962 to 1213 MHz frequency range. The antenna consists of eight to nine biconical radiating elements stacked inside a weather proof, fiberglass radome. Biconical Antenna One simple configuration that can be used to achieve broadband characteristics is the biconical antenna formed by placing two cones of infinite extent together, as shown in Figure A-la. The application of a voltage Vi at the input terminals will produce outgoing sherical waves as shown in Figure A-1b, which in tum produce at any point a current I along the surface of the cone and voltage V between the cones (see Figure A2). “Transmission (era ine (2) Blea grometry (0) Sphaial waves Figure A-1 (@) Biconical antenna geometry; (b) radiated spherical waves Figure A-2 Electric and magnetic fields, and associated voltages and currents 57The electric field lines of free space wave for this kind of antenna is shown in Figure A-3. Figure A-4 shows the Omnidirectional antenna pattern and Figure A-5 shows the measured horizontal radiation pattern for a Wilcox antenna. aay Figure A-3 Electric field lines of free-space wave for biconical antenna Figure A-4 Omnidirectional antenna pattern 58AS Figure ‘Antenna Horizontal radiation pattern (measured) JME antenna is shown in Figure A-6. An example of which is the 596B antenna that is shown in Figure A-7. Typical vertical antenna radiation for D! Figure A-6 Typical vertical antenna diagram for DME antenna 599~bi-conical cones feed equal power but in different phase to create proper radiating pattern ‘Monitor Pprobe Line 60 Bi-Conical cone > Radiating. Equal power divider input (1) =P output2 =P 3 ‘output 3 = P/3 ‘output 3=P/3 Continuity between center pins 1, 2, 3, and 4. No continuity from center pins to case or ground Power Center divider ‘Transmission Pick Up Monitor Ground Outer ee ‘Connector nese Figure A-7 596B DME antenna diagram