Geometry of Form or Shape (Metrology)

1.21.
The measurement of geometrical values in modern
engineering has become a factor of vital
importance in the process of production due to higher
and higher requirements for the accuracy of
machined surfaces. Any machine is assembly of parts
arranged in a definite relationship of each
other. The surfaces of the various parts joining each
other are called mating parts and their
dimensions are called mating dimensions. The nature
of the association required between the
mating parts is determined by the conditions of
operation of the machine and is called fit (i.e. more
or less freedom in their relative movement of tightness
in a fixed association). In the modern
industry, mass production techniques are employed
which aim at achieving strictly interchangeable
assembly. Interchangeability concerns not only the size
and form of parts, their position and surface
finish, but the properties of the material of which they
are made as well. In this topic we shall be
concerned with dimensional interchangeability only. (A
strictly interchangeable part is one which
can be assembled without selection, adjustment, or
supplementary operations and which will
function after assembly as stipulated by the
manufacturing specifications, whereas an incompletely
interchangeable part may require selection or
adjustment, but will not require additional fitting or
machining operation.)
In any machine, the following elements are to be
inspected accurately for its functioning:
(1) Dimensional accuracy.
(2) Accuracy of geometrical form (which is usually a
combination of flat, cylindrical, taper,
spherical, and other surfaces) or surface
macrogeometry.
(3) Accuracy of location of surfaces with reference to
each other.
(4) Surface waviness.
(5) Surface roughness or surface microgeometry.
According to the form, the errors could be classified as
:
(a) For cylindrical form
In a transverse section.
(1) Oval form (out-of-roundness):
(2) Lobed form.
The degree of ovality (out-of-roundness) is judged
by the difference between the major and minor axes in
a
single cross-section. The lobed form is one in which the
cross-section contour is composed of arcs drawn from
different centres. The amount of lobedness is
determined
as the difference between the diameter of the circle D
into
which the lobed cross-section is inscribed and the dis-
tance / between the parallel planes tangent to the part.
In a ligitudinal section :
(1) Barrel form ; (2) Bow (concave) form ;
(3) Curvature of the axis ; (4) Taper.

The barrel or bow forms are judged by the difference in

diameters at the middle and end
cross-sections. The curvature of the axis in determined
by the deflection of the axis. The taper is
evaluated by the difference in diameters over a given
length.
(b) For flat surface
(1) Lack of straightness ; (2) Lack of flatness.
Lack of straightness in a flat surface is the distance
between two parallel lines located in a
plane P square with the tested surface e.g., in Fig. 1.23
(a) plane P intersects the surface in the
required direction and two lines are drawn to enclose
the section profile of the testes surface. The
lack of straightness in Fig. 1.23 (a) is represented by A.

(a) Lack of Straightness (fc) Lack of Flatness

Fig. 1.23
Lack of flatness is expressed as the distance between
the parallel planes Pi and P2 which
enclose the tested surface between them. [Refer Fig.
1.23 (6)]
According to the relative location of surfaces, the errors
could be classified a£ follows :
(1) Measurement; (2) Radial run out;
(3) Axial run out; (4) Non-parallelism of axes ;
(5) Incorrect location of intersecting axes ; (6) Surfaces
not parallel with each other ;
(7) Surfaces not square with each other.
Misalignment is the parallel deviation A of axes relative
to one another. It is also the amount
of cocking between two axes determined as the
distance A between the centres of the holes on the
tested length I. (Refer Fig. 1.24).

Fig. 1.24. Misalignment.

Fig. 1.25. Radial runout.
Radial runout is the maximum difference between the
actual physical centre of the body and
its axis of rotation. It may be as a result of either
misalignment of axis, ovality, lobed form or
curvature of axis.

Fig. 1.26. Axial runout or slip.

Fig. 1.27. Non-parallelism of axes.

Axial runout or slip is the maximum deviation A of an
end surface from a plane square with
axis of the part (Refer Fig. 1.26).
Non-parallelism of axes is the difference in the dis-
tance d\ and d2 between the axes measured in cross-
section
square with one axis and at the given distance I apart
from
each other. (Refer Fig. 1.27).
The amount by which surfaces are not square with
each other is the deviation from a right angle of the
angle
between the surfaces.
The amount by which surfaces are not parallel with
each other is the difference in distances between the
surfaces
measured at a given distance.

Incorrect location of intersecting axes

Fig. 1.28
Incorrect location of intersecting axes is determined by
the angular deviation $ from the
specified angle of intersection and the deviation A from
the point of intersection.