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Unsteady Combustor Processes
Tim Lieuwen
Affiliation:
Professor
School of Aerospace Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Email: tim.lieuwen@ae.gatech.edu
Ph. 404-894-3041
2014 CEFRC Summer School on Combustion

Reference
Copyright © T. Lieuwen 2014 Unauthorized Reproduction Prohibited 2

Course Outline
A) Introduction and outlook A. (.75 hours)
B) Flame Aerodynamics and
Flashback B. (.75 hours)
C) Flame Stretch, Edge
Flames, and Flame C. (3 hours)
Stabilization Concepts
D) Disturbance Propagation
and Generation in Reacting D. (3 hours)
Flows
E) Flame Response to E. (1.5 hours)
Harmonic Excitation

Course Outline
A) Introduction and • Constraints and metrics
Outlook • Emissions
B) Flame Aerodynamics and • Autoignition
Flashback • Future outlook for needed
C) Flame Stretch, Edge research
Flames, and Flame
and Generation in Reacting
Flows
E) Flame Response to
Harmonic Excitation
Course Outline
A) Introduction and • Constraints and metrics
Outlook • Emissions
B) Flame Aerodynamics and • Autoignition
Flashback • Future outlook for needed
C) Flame Stretch, Edge research
Flames, and Flame
Flows
Harmonic Excitation
Role of Combustor within Larger
Energy System
0.7
0.6
Microturbine
• Example: Ideal Brayton Cycle
Thermal Efficiency
0.5
Heavy Aeroengine
0.4 frame Gas
– hth = 1- (Pr)-(g-1)/g 0.3 Turbine
• Pr = compressor pressure ratio 0.2
• g = Cp/Cv, ratio of specific heats

0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40
• Conclusions Pressure Ratio
– Combustor has little effect upon cycle efficiency (e.g. fuel –> kilowatts) or
specific power
– Combustor does however have important impacts on
• Realizability of certain cycles
– E.g., steam addition, water addition, EGR, etc.
• Engine operational limits and transient response
• Emissions from plant
Combustor Performance Metrics
• What are important combustor performance

parameters?
– Burns all the fuel
– Ignites
– Pattern Factor Fuel
– Operability
• Blow out
• Combustion instability
• Flash back Air
• Autoignition
– Low pollutant emissions
– Fuel flexibility
– Good turndown
– Transient response

Tradeoffs and Challenges
Cost/
Turndown
Complexity
Combustion
Blowoff
Instabilities
Emissions
NOX, CO, CO2
Alternative Fuel Compositions
• Source: L.
Witherspoon and
A. Pocengal,
Power Engineering
October 2008

Natural Gas Composition Variability
Source: C. Carson, Rolls Royce Canada

Operability issues have caused
significant problems in deployment of
low NOX technologies
• Power
– Example: Broken part
replacement largest non-fuel
related cost for F class gas
turbines
• Industrial
• Residential
– Example: issues in EU with
deployment of low NOX water
heaters, burners Goy et al., in Combustion instabilities in gas turbine engines: operational
experience, fundamental mechanisms, and modeling,
T. Lieuwen and V. Yang, Editors. 2005. p. 163-175.

Financial Times
Power in Latin America
23 July 99, Issue 49
Daggers Drawn over Nehuenco

“The Patience of Chile’s Colbun power company has finally run out over the continued non-
performance of the Siemens-built Nehuenco generating plant. Exasperated by repeated
break-downs at the new plant and under pressure from increasingly reluctant insurers – (and
with lawsuits looking likely) – the generator announced that it will not accept the $140m
combined-cycle plant - built and delivered by the Germany equipment manufacturer.
Siemens, together with Italy’s Ansaldo, took the turnkey contract for the 350 MW plant in 1996
and should have had it in service by May of last year. The startup was delayed till January.
Since then matters have worsened. There have been two major breakdowns and, says
Colbun, there have been no satisfactory explanations.
The trouble could not have come worse for Colbun. The manly hydroelectric generator, which
is controlled by a consortium made up of Belgium’s Tractebel, Spain’s Iberdrola and the local
Matte and Yaconi-Santa Cruz groups, has been crippled by severe drought in Chile, which has
slashed its output and thrown it back – without Nehuenco – onto a prohibitively expensive spot
market.”

Combustion Instabilities
• Single largest issue associated with
development of low NOX GT’s
• Designs make systems susceptible to
large amplitude acoustic pulsations

Turndown
100
Normalized Load (%)

80
60
40
20
0
27 27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5
Time (Days)
• Operational flexibility has been substantially crimped in

low NOX technologies
• Significant number of combined cycle plants were cycled
on and off daily in 2000’s
Blowoff
• Low NOX designs make
flame stabilization more
problematic On Tuesday February 26th, 2008, the FRCC Bulk Power
Industry System experienced a system disturbance initiated by a138
Advisory kV transmission system fault that remained on the system
for approximately 1.7 seconds. The fault and subsequent
June 26, delayed clearing led to the loss of approximately 2,300 MW
2008 of load concentrated in South Florida along with the loss of
approximately 4,300 MW of generation within the Region.
Background: Approximately 2,200 MW of under-frequency load shedding
subsequently operated and was scattered across the
peninsular part of Florida.
Indications are that six combustion turbine (CT) generators

within the Region that were operating in a lean-burn mode
(used for reducing emissions) tripped offline as result of a
phenomenon known as “turbine combustor lean blowout.” As
the CT generators accelerated in response to the frequency
excursion, the direct-coupled turbine compressors forced
more air into their associated combustion chambers at the
same time as the governor speed control function reduced
fuel input in response to the increase in speed. This resulted
in what is known as a CT “blowout,” or loss of flame, causing
the units to trip offline.

Autoignition
• Liquid fuels
• Higher hydrocarbons in natural gas
• Poor control of dewpoint
Images:
• B. Igoe, Siemens
• Petersen et. al. “Ignition of Methane Based Fuel Blends at Gas Turbine Pressures”, ASME 2005-68517

Autoignition
• In premixed systems, premature
ignition is a significant concern
– temperature above which a fuel-
air mixture can spontaneously
ignite is called the “autoignition
temperature”
– amount of time it takes to
spontaneously ignite is known as
“ignition delay time”
• Competes with need for good

premixing for NOx reduction

Operability: Autoignition
• Methane has
570  750 F
significantly higher
=1
autoignition Explodes
temperatures than Methane
higher
p (atm)
6
hydocarbons 4 Propane
– Important consideration
for LNG, particularly with
high pressure ratio 2
aeroderivatives Steady Reaction
0
300 400 T (C)
570 750 F
Concluding Remarks
• Many exciting challenges associated with

– Fuel flexibility
– Air quality emissions and CO2
– Operational flexibility
– Reliability
– Low cost

Course Outline
A) Introduction and Outlook • Boundary Layer
B) Flame Aerodynamics Flashback
and Flashback • Core Flow Flashback and
C) Flame Stretch, Edge Combustion Induced
Flames, and Flame Vortex Breakdown
Flows
Harmonic Excitation

Flashback and Flameholding
• Flashback:
– Upstream propagation of a premixed flame into a region not
designed for the flame to exist
– Occurs when the laminar and/or turbulent flame speed exceeds
the local flow velocity
• Reference flow speed and burning velocity?
• Flameholding:
– Flame stabilizes in an undesired region of the combustor after a
flashback/autoignition event
– Problem has hysteretic elements
• Wall temperature effects
• Boundary layer and swirl flow stability effects
22
Copyright © T. Lieuwen 2014 Unauthorized Reproduction Prohibited
Flashback and Flameholding
Mechanisms
• Flashback in the boundary layer
• Flame propagation into core flow
– We’ll focus on swirl flows
• Combustion instabilities
– Strong acoustic pulsations lead to nearly reverse
flow
• Note: p’/p~u’/c=Mu’/u Kröner et al. CST 2007
• i.e. u’/u=(1/M)p’/p
• Significance of above mechanisms
is a strong function of:
– Fuel composition
– Operating conditions
– Fluid mechanics
Show video Heeger et al. Exp. In Fluids 2010

23
Course Outline
B) Flame Aerodynamics flashback
and Flashback • Core Flow Flashback and
C) Flame Stretch, Edge Combustion Induced
Flames, and Flame Vortex Breakdown
Flows
Harmonic Excitation

Boundary Layer Flashback-Classical
Treatment
• Neglects effects of
– Heat release (changes approach flow) u x
ux
– Stretch (changes burning velocity) y y 0
• Flashback occurs if flame
speed exceeds flow velocity at
distance,  q , from the wall flame
ux ( y   q )  sdu ( y   q )
q
– Expanding velocity in a Taylor series,
establish flashback condition:
u x g u q
ux ( y   q )  q  u  1
y sd
gu
– Assuming, q  F , define flashback Karlovitz

number gu  F
Ka 
sdu
25
Boundary Layer Flashback
CH4-air
• Flashback Karlovitz 2000
gradient (sec-1)
number approach is 1000
well validated for open
g (1/s)
Critical velocity
flames, such as
u
Bunsen burners Increasing T u
– Performed detailed kinetics 100

calculations to determine flame 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5

speed and thickness for several
data sets CH4-air (solid) and C3H8-air (dashed)
1
– Shows how prior burning
velocity, flame thickness 0.75
gu  F0 sdu ,0
tendencies can be used to
understand tendencies 0.5
• Pressure
0.25
• Preheat temperature
• Stoichiometry 0
0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5
Data for figures obtained from: 
Grumer Ind. & Eng. Chem. 1954
Dugger Ind. & Eng. Chem 1955 Copyright © T. Lieuwen 2014 Unauthorized Reproduction Prohibited 26
Boundary Layer Flashback
• Turbulent Boundary
Layers ux  y   q 
gu , laminar u x
– Multi-zoned q
• Near wall laminar
gu , turbulent y y 0
sublayer, 
– Basic scaling developed for
laminar flows holds if:
 q  
– Most literature data shows
gu ,turbulent 3 gu ,laminar
– Significant space-time
variation during flashback
• Images suggest flame
interactions with boundary C. Eichler Exp. In Fluids 2012
layer instabilities
Show video
27
Coupled Effects of Flame Curvature
and Gas Expansion
• Flame bulging into reactants
– Approach flow decelerates
– Streamlines diverge
– Adverse pressure gradient u xu,0 u xb,0
• Implications: 2
– Boundary layers – adverse A
k
pressure gradients lead to
separation
– Swirl flows – adverse pressure
gradients can lead to vortex
breakdown Solid thick contours: positive pressure fluctuations
0.8
– Triple flames – flame can
propagate into region with 0.6
velocity that is higher than flame 0.4
speed Pressure
– Flame stability – flame 0.2
spontaneously develops 0
wrinkles -0.2
Velocity
-0.4
-0.6
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0
Copyright © T. Lieuwen 2014 Unauthorized Reproduction Prohibited kx 28
Heat Conduction Influences on
Boundary Layers
4
 D u
2
Reacting
y
1
Nonreacting
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
u u max
• Important implications for

– Scaling velocity gradients in shear layers
– Flame stretch rates
– Shear layer instability frequencies – acoustic sensitivities
29
Heat Release and Stretch Effects
• Heat release modifies
approach flow C. Eichler Turbo Expo 2011
Inner lip
• Stretch modifies
burning velocity
Unconfined Confined
30
Heat Release and Stretch Effects
150000
1.5
• Particularly important in 125000
explaining flameholding
gu 105 1/ s 
1000001 confined
phenomenon 75000
0.5
50000
• Once a flashback event has 25000 unconfined
occurred, difficult to expel 00
flame from combustor 0.25 0.5

0.75 1
• Leading point of advancing

flashback event subject to
positive curvature
• Effect of gas expansion due

to heat release on local flow
velocity
C. Eichler Turbo Expo 2011

Stretch Effects
• Leading point of advancing
flashback event subject to
positive curvature u x
ux
y
– For Ma  0, this can cause: y 0
sdu ( y   q )  sdu ,0 flame

u ,0
• s d
can
be a significant q
underestimate of flame
speed Positively curved flame
32
Heat Release Effects
Mad
• Gas
gu,confined gu,unconfined
10 -0.9 -0.7 -0.5 -0.4
expansion across 10

a curved flame alters
gu ,confined gu ,unconfined
1
2
the approach flow
– Resulting adverse
pressure gradient ahead
1 1
of flame decelerates flow 10
1 4 10
• In extreme cases, can    Tb Tu
cause boundary layer Flame Separated flow region

separation
2 mm
• Approach flow “sucks”
flame back into nozzle
Figures:
C. Eichler Turbo Expo 2011
Heeger et al. Exp. In Fluids 2010
Reactants Reactants
Course Outline
B) Flame Aerodynamics flashback
and Flashback • Core Flow Flashback
C) Flame Stretch, Edge and Combustion
Flames, and Flame Induced Vortex
Stabilization Concepts Breakdown
Flows
Harmonic Excitation

Flow Stability and Vortex Breakdown
• The degree of swirl in
the flow, S, has profound
influences on the flow
structure
• Most prominent feature
of high swirl number
flows is the occurrence
of “vortex breakdown”,
which is manifested as a
stagnation point followed
by reverse flow Stagnation
points
Billant et al., JFM, 1998

Sarpkaya, JFM, 1971
35
Prominent Features of Swirling Flows
with Vortex Breakdown: Precessing Vortex Core
• The flow does not
instantaneously rotate
about the geometric
centerline
• The location of zero
azimuthal velocity is
referred to as the
“precessing vortex core”
(PVC)
– The frequency of rotation of the
precessing vortex core scales with a
Strouhal number based on axial flow
velocity and diameter
– Leads to a helical pattern in
instantaneous axial flow velocity
– Important to differentiate the PVC from
the other helical shear flow structures
which may also be present
Source: Syred, Prog. Energy and Comb. Sci., 2006

Prominent Features of Swirling Flows:
Shear Layer Instability
• Shear layers exist in both span- and streamwise directions
– Can be axisymmetric or helical
Huang and Yang, Proc. Comb. Inst., 2005

37
Flow Stability and Vortex Breakdown
• Vortex breakdown can
be described as a
“fold catastrophe”
– Bifurcation of the possible
steady state solutions to the
Navier-Stokes equations
• In high Re flows, there
is an intermediate Vortex
swirl number range Breakdown
Swirl Number
where flow is bi-stable
and hysteretic Either
– i.e., either vortex breakdown or

No
no vortex breakdown flow state Breakdown
possible
Source: Lopez, Physics of Fluids, 1994
Vortex Core Size/Nozzle Radius
38
Flow Stability and Vortex Breakdown:
Example calculation
• Vortex breakdown can be predicted for given velocity profile
– “Q-vortex" velocity profile:
3 1 ux ,0 2 5 r
 1 exp( ( ) 2 )
2.5
0.8 ub,0 1  4 rc
2
0.6
ux ,0 ub,0 5 r
1.5 ru ,0 ub,0 (1  exp( ( )2 ))
0.4 ru ,0 Sv 4 rc
1 
0.5 0.2 ub ,0 (r / rc ) (1  exp(5 / 4))
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
r rc ua ,0  ub ,0

ua ,0  ub ,0
Axial and azimuthal velocity profiles used for
vortex breakdown calculation, using Sv=0.71
for uθ,0plot.
39
Flow Stability and Vortex Breakdown:
Example Calculation
Wake Jet
2.5
1.2
Breakdown
2
1.0
Breakdown
0.8 1.5
Sv Sv
0.6
1
0.4 No breakdown
0.5 No breakdown
0.2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5
rc /a χ
Following Z.
Rusak
40
Core Flow Flame Propagation
A B
Stable Flame
r
z
Uf CIVB
Swirl Generator Mixing Tube
Combustion Chamber
Image reproduced from T. Sattelmayer
• Vortex breakdown – flame interaction

– Can occur even if flame speed everywhere less than flow speed
– Gas expansion across a curved flame:
1. Adverse pressure gradient & radial divergence imposed on reactants
2. Low/negative velocity region generated upstream of flame
3. Flame advances further into reactants
4. Location of vortex breakdown region advances upstream
– Due to bi-stable nature of vortex breakdown boundaries
• CIVB itself not necessarily bi-stable
41
Course Outline
A) Introduction and • Introductory Concepts
Outlook • Flame Stretch
B) Flame Aerodynamics
and Flashback • Edge Flames
C) Flame Stretch, Edge • Flame Stabilization in
Flames, and Flame Shear Layers
Stabilization Concepts • Flame Stabilization by
D) Disturbance Propagation Stagnation Points
Flows
Harmonic Excitation
Flame Anchoring -42 Copyright © T. Lieuwen 2014 Unauthorized Reproduction Prohibited

Course Outline
Flows
Harmonic Excitation

Flame Stabilization and Blowoff

• Flame stabilization requires:
– A point where the local flame
speed and flow velocity
match: sud  u
• Typically found in regions with:
– Low flow velocity
» Aerodynamically decelerated
regions (VBB)
– High shear
» Locations of flow separation
(ISL & OSL) Figures:
Natarajan et al. Combustion and Flame 2007
Petersson et al. Applied Optics 2007

Premixed Flame Stabilization: Basic Effects

• Flame stabilization: Flow
u
c sd
b a
– Balance combustion wave propagation ux
with flow velocity q
• Burning velocity, edge speed,
autoignition front?
• Suggests that stable flames are rare
150
125 air Blow-off in
– However, flames have self-stabilizing 100 N2
u  cm s 
mechanisms 75
CO2
• Shear layer stabilized: Upstream flame 50
25
propagation increases wall quenching Flashback
0
• Aerodynamic stabilization – velocity 0.55 0.7 0.85 1 1.15 1.25

profiles Lewis & Von Elbe 1987

Flame Anchoring Locations

• Complex flows can provide multiple anchor locations
II: VBB/ISR
I: VBB
III: ISR
IV: OSR
Flame Stabilization and Blowoff

• Stabilization locations determine location/spatial
distribution of flame
– Flame Shape
– Flame Length
(a) (b) (c) (d)
• Combustor operability, durability, and emissions

directly tied to these fundamental characteristics
affecting:
– Heat loadings to combustor hardware
– Combustion instability boundaries
– Blowoff limits
Review of the Idealized Premixed Flame

• Simplest possible premixed flame configuration
– 1-dimensional, planar
– Adiabatic
• T0b = Tad Adiabatic Flame Temperature
• ρuuu = ρuSL0 = ρbub  Mass Burning Flux
• What are the controlling parameters?
– Thermal and mass diffusivities
– Reaction rates
– Temperature of reactants
– Pressure
– Exothermicity of fuel/oxidizer
• SL0  Fundamental property of fuel/oxidizer mixture

What Happens if a Flame isn’t Flat?

What Happens if Flow Field isn’t 1-D?
• Common theme to 2 problems:

misaligned convective and diffusive fluxes
Course Outline
Flows
Harmonic Excitation

Overview of Flame Stretch

• Consider a stationary flame; focus on
a C.V. intersection of a streamtube, and
the flame.
• Steady state energy balance
• (no viscous effects, no body forces)
 u hT    q
Enthalpy Convection Enthalpy Diffusion
• Constitutive relation of enthalpy flux

(Fickian diffusion, no radiative heat
transfer, no Soret or DuFour effects)
N
q  kT T    hiD i Yi
i 1
Heat Flux Mass Flux

Overview of Flame Stretch

• Flame stretch effects: is there a net enthalpy
loss/gain or change in composition inside the
C.V. because of diffusion fluxes through its
lateral surface? Negative
stretch
• Two mechanisms:
– Lewis Number effects Le = /D
Diffusion of mass and of heat are
unbalanced.
– Differential diffusion effects DFuel /Dox Positive

Lighter species diffuse faster than heavier stretch
species: equivalence ratio or diluent/reactant
ratio inside the C.V. can change.

Lewis number effects

• If Le = 1 then  =D : no net enthalpy loss through
the lateral surface
Energy Eq.:  u hT     D hT 
Negative
• If Le > 1 then  >D : Heat flux > Mass flux stretch
o Positive stretch: net enthalpy flux out of the
C.V.
o Negative stretch: net enthalpy flux into the C.V.
• If Le < 1 then  <D : Heat flux < Mass flux

o Positive stretch: net enthalpy flux into the C.V.
Positive
o Negative stretch: net enthalpy flux out of the stretch
C.V.

Differential diffusion effects

Consider the temperature at the tip of a Bunsen Flame Ttip :
• CH4/Air: CH4 is lighter than O2, thus diffuses faster (DFuel>DOx) and its
concentration inside the C.V. decreases.
o If overall equivalence ratio is lean, then locally in the C.V.  is made leaner: Ttip
is lower then Tad calculated at the overall  .
o If overall equivalence ratio is rich, then locally in the C.V.  pulled toward
stoichiometric: Ttip is then higher then Tad calculated at the overall  .
• C3H8/Air: C3H8 is heavier than O2, thus diffuses more slowly (DFuel<DOx) and its
concentration inside the C.V. increases.
o The dependence of Ttip on the overall  is opposite to that of CH4/Air.

Bunsen Tip Flame

Temperature Data
From C.K. Law,

“Combustion Physics”

Example: Tips of Bunsen Flames

Propane(C3H8) Methane(CH4)
d=10mm
= 1.38 0.53 1.52 0.58
Ref: Mizomoto, Asaka, Ikai and Law, Proc. Combust. Inst. 20, 1933 (1984) Slide courtesy of J. Seitzman

Stretched Flames: Non-unity Lewis Numbers
Φ=0.27 Φ=0.27 Φ=0.37

Tu=298K
P=1atm
Lei>1 Lei≈1 Lei<<1

Bell et al. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute (2007)

Mathematical expressions of stretch κ
1 dA

A dt Williams (1975)
• Flame stretch rate is defined as the normalized

differential change with respect to time of an
infinitesimal flame surface area element
• Flame stretch rate quantifies the degree of stretch
imposed on a differential flame surface element
– Lagrangian quantity
– Units of flame stretch are [1/s] – i.e. an inverse time scale


1 dA
• Expression for κ in terms of flow velocity, u, and flame 
sheet velocity, vF : A dt
u t1 u t2
   (vF  n )(  n )   t  u t  (vF  n )(  n )
t1 t2
a b
• Hydrodynamic stretch κa: variation of tangential flow
velocity in the tangential direction (t1, t2) or, equivalently
(by continuity), variation of normal flow velocity in the
direction normal (n) to the flame. Hydrodynamic stretch
• Unsteady Curvature stretch κb: non-stationary flames

o Positive κ: divergent tangential velocities or expanding
flame  flame area increases Unsteady curvature stretch
o Negative κ: convergent tangential velocity or
contracting flame  flame area decreases


• Stationary flames
vF  0     t  u t  n    n  u 
since u t  n   u  n 
Hydrodynamic stretch can be interpreted as a variation
of the angle between flow velocity and flame normal
or, equivalently, as a variation in tangential flow
magnitude along the flame surface.
• Alternative flame stretch expression
  nn : u    u  s u (  n )   n  S  n    u  s u (  n )
S  curv
S
1
2
  u  u T  Flow Strain , s u  n   vF  u 
o κs: stretch due to flow non uniformities

o κcurv: stretch of a curved flame in a uniform
approach flow
κ can be non zero also when the flow strain is zero
Unsteady Effects – Motion of Curved Flames

• Curvature is present but flow
velocities align with flame surface
normal
• Stationary spherical flame would be
stretchless
u t1 u t2
   (vF  n )(  n )   t  u t  (vF  n )(  n )
t1 t2
a b
Combustion Physics by C.K. Law (Cambridge University Press, 2006)

Weak stretch effects

• Asymptotic analysis shows that in the linear limit of weak stretch the effect of
various type of stretch (κ, κa, κb, κS, κcurv) on flame characteristics (su, δF,…) is
the same.
• For the flame speed measured in a reference frame attached to the unburned
gases, su, we can write:
s u
s  s   s  0 
u u
 0   s
u
u ,0
  Mu 

 Mu Markstein length
• Definition of Markstein length is not unique but depends on the isosurface used
to define it; e.g. for the flame speed measured in a reference frame attached to
the burned gasses sb we have:
sb sb,0   Mb   Mu   Mb
• Dimensionless quantities
– Markstein number Ma
 Mu  F0  su
– Karlovitz number Ka Ma  0 u
Ka  u ,0   1  Mau Ka
F s su ,0

Weak stretch effects

• The Markstein number contains all the stretch effects
described previously
Ma= Ma(Le, DFuel/DOx,  ,…)
• For lean mixtures of fuels lighter than air (e.g. H2, CH4) and
rich mixtures of fuels heavier than air (e.g. C3H8), Ma < 0
– Conversely, for lean mixtures of heavier than air fuels and rich
mixtures of lighter than air fuels, Ma > 0
• Ma values are sensitive to the position at which flow and

flame speeds are measured
– For a specific mixture, measured Ma numbers in the literature
can vary widely among different investigators.

Application – Stoichiometry Effects

2
1.75
1.5  = 1.8
1.25
su su ,0
1  = 1.4 C3H8/Air
p = 1 atm, T u = 300 K
0.75
 = 0.8
0.5  = 1.3
0.25
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Ka
Tseng et al., Comb. Flame, 95(2), 1993

Application – Fuel Effects

n-alkanes/air
p =1atm, T u=300K n-C8H18/air
8
6
C3H8
4 C2H4
C2H6
Ma
2
CH4
0
-2
0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5

Ref: Tseng et al., Comb. Flame, 95(2), 1993 Ref: Halter et al. Comb and Flame, 157 (2010)

Application – Pressure Effects

110 110 5 atm
100 100
1 atm
90 90
sdu  cm/s 
10 atm 15 atm
sdu  cm/s 
80
80
5 atm 1 atm 10 atm
70 70
60 15 atm
60
50
50
0 2 4 6 8 10
0 25000 50000 75000
 (1/s) Ka   F  s
0 u ,0
H2/CO 30/70 (by vol.) in air, T u = 300 K

Counterflow twin flame
 adjusted at different p to maintain su,0 = 34 cm/s = const

Strong Stretch Effects
PREMIXED FLAME CONCEPTS

FLAME STRETCH AND FLAME EXTINCTION

Displacement Speed sd and Consumption Speed sc

• Displacement speed sd: speed at which the flame is moving
along its normal relative to the flow
• The value of sd depends on the reference surface:
– Low κ : the approach flow varies weakly upstream of the flame and the iso-surface
choice is not to problematic
– High κ : velocity gradients occurs on a scale comparable to the flame thickness; sd
definition becomes ambiguous
• Displacement speed can also become negative when diffusive fluxes are strong
enough to contrast the bulk convection in the opposite direction

Displacement Speed sd and Consumption Speed sc

• Consumption speed sc: spatial integral of chemical rates
– Can be obtained integrating along a streamline the heat production
rate and normalizing by the total change in sensible enthalpy across
the flame
– Alternatively, the integrated quantity can be a reactant species
consumption rate normalized by the total change in reactant species
mass density
Example: 1D steady flame sensible enthalpy balance (no viscous
and body forces)

d (  u x hsens )
 
 dq x d  N 0 

 dx dx   qdx    dx  dx    h f ,iYi u x , D ,i   dx   sc   sc   qdx

u u b b
h sens ,  hsens , 
i 1  
 u u u hsens ,   b u b hsens , 0

  u scu  hsens ,  hsens , 
 u u u   bu b

Similarly from species eq. sc   w dx  Y

i i ,  Yi , 

Displacement Speed sd and Consumption

Speed sc
sc0=sd0 but their values differ at non-zero κ values
120
100
80 sdu
su(cm/s)
H2/CO 30/70 (by vol.) in air
 = 0.75, T u = 300 K, p = 5 atm 60 scu  H 2 
40 scu
(enthalpy )
20
0
0 10000 20000 30000
 (1/s)

Extinction stretch rate κext

κext: maximum stretch that a flame can sustain
before extinguishing
110 5 atm
100
90
H2/CO 30/70 (by vol.) in air sdu  cm/s 
 = 0.75, T u = 300K 80
1 atm 10 atm
70
60 15 atm
50
0 2 4 6 8 10
Ka   F0  s u ,0

Example: Pressure Effects

• Most of the available data are for steady symmetric opposed
flow flames :
o κext depends on flame chemical time τchem=δF/su,0
(eg. p effects at fixed su,0)
H2/CO 30/70 (by vol.) in air

T u = 300 K
 adjusted at different p to
maintain su,0 = 34 cm/s = const

Example: Fuel and Stoichiometry Effects
Ref: Jackson et al., Comb. Fl., 1994, 25(1)

Example: Preheat Effects

• At high dilution/preheating levels, the flame does not
"extinguish“
– increases in reactant temperature are equivalent to a
reduction in dimensionless activation energy
– Example: calculation of CH4/air flame stagnating against hot
products, whose temperature is indicated on the plot
25 20
20 15
sscucu(cm/s)
ssdud (cm/s)
[cm/s]
[cm/s]
1350 K
15 1350 K 10
10 u
5 1450 K
1450 K 1400 K
5 0
1400 K
0 -5
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Strain
StrainRate
rate [1/s]
(1/s) Strain rate
Strain Rate(1/s)
[1/s]

Caveats on Stretch Sensitivity of Highly Stretched flames

Stretch sensitivities and κext
values are not intrinsic to
mixture but also depend on
manner in which stretch is
applied
– Example: it depends also on flame
geometry and configuration:
o Velocity profile across the flame
thickness (eg. κext for opposed flow
flames depends on jets distance)
o Type of stretch (κ, κa, κb, κS, κcurv)
o Length and time scale of
flame/stretch interaction
H2/air,  = 0.37, Tu = 298 K, p = 1 atm

Course Outline
Flows
Harmonic Excitation

Overview
• Real flames have edges
• structure is different than “continuous” flames previously considered:
– Non-premixed flames do not propagate, but their edges do;
– Premixed flame edge velocity is different from the laminar burning rate
(e.g., can be negative)
• Applications
– Stabilization of non-premixed (a) and premixed flames (b)
– Propagation of an ignition front (c)
– Flame propagation after local extinction (d)
• Edge flame can be advancing, retreating or stationary
– Attention has to be paid to the observer reference frame.

Edge flame examples

• Piloted Bunsen flame
– A retreating flame edge that is stationary in lab coordinate
High 
Low 
vflow
vF
Rajaram et al., Comb.

Sci.Tech ,(175) 2003

Edge flame examples

• Premixed bluff body stabilized flame near blow-off
Chaudhury et al., Comb. Flame (158), 2011
vflow vF

Edge flame examples

• Cabra burner
Dunn et. al, Comb. Flame ,(151) 2007
Vitiated coflow
1500K, 0.8m/s
200
Central jet velocity, u (m/s)

Downstream extinction observed
150
100
50 Continuous flame
0
Natural 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
gas/Air Equivalence Ratio,

Edge Flame Concepts

Illustrative Model Problem

Buckmaster’s Edge flame model problem

• Generalize the one dimensional non- Ta
YOx ,a
Tb
YFuel ,b
premixed chambered flame (z→+∞). z
Flame Non-
x edge premixed
flame
Oxidizer Fuel
T  2T   2T T  vF
cp  kT 2   kT 2   c pu x  Q wFuel
t z  x x  YFuel
uz  0
 Ea R uT L
B YOx e
Transversefluxes MWFuel

Buckmaster’s Edge flame model problem

• Generalize the one dimensional non- Ta
YOx ,a
Tb
YFuel ,b
premixed chambered flame (z→+∞). z
Flame Non-
x edge premixed
flame
Oxidizer Fuel
vF
T T  T2
T  2
uz  0
cp  kT 2   kT 2   c pu x  Q wFuel
t z  x x  YFuel
L
B YOx e Ea R uT
T Tb  MWFuel
approximate as kT
L2
-Approximate transverse flux terms by

convective loss-like term
-L characterizes the scale of gradients normal
to the flame, such as due to strain.
Edge flame model problem

Ta Tb
• Dimensionless equation (Le=1) YOx ,a YFuel ,b
z
E z T YFuel ,bQ  flow  c p L kT2
Flame Non-
E a , z , T , Q , Da   x edge
RuTb L Tb c pTb  chem 1B
premixed
flame
Oxidizer Fuel
dT d 2T
vF  2  F (T , Da) vF
dz dz uz  0
L
(1  T  Q)2  E vF  c p L
where F (T , Da)  1  T  YFuel ,b Da exp    and vF 
Q  T kT

Solution Limit for Edge-less Flame

• Steady state solution with no z-
direction variation: F (T , Da)  0
– the problem becomes the same as DaI  534 DaII  12,070
the steady well stirred reactor; 4.0 4
E  14, Q  3
– recover the same S-curve behavior. 3.5
DaII
3.0 3
T
2.5
(1  T  Q)2  E 2.0
F (T , Da)  1  T  YFuel ,b Da exp     0
2
Q  T 1.5
DaI
• We will focus on DaI<Da<DaII 1.0 2
10
1
10
2
103
10
3 4
10
104
5
10
105
range, where propagating flame Da
edges can occur
• Three possible behaviors:
• propagates (vF>0)
• retreats (vF<0)
• stays stationary (vF=0)


4.0 4
• Edge flame 3.0

3.5
3
DaII
velocity
T
2.5
2.0 2
1.5
DaI
Thigh  2
 dT  1.0 2 1
   dz  dz
2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10
vF  F (T , Da)dT 10 103
Da
104 105
Tlow
E  14, Q  3
1.5 1.5
Da=1000
F T , Da  1.0 1
0.5 0.5
Da=700
0.0 0
Da=580
-0.5
-0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.4

T

• Edge flame velocity E  14, Q  3
2 1.5 1.5
Thigh 
 dT 
vF   F (T , Da)dT   dz  dz 1.0 1
vF  0
Da=1000
F T , Da 
Tlow
0.5 0.5
Da=700
DaV
• vF sign depends on the numerator: vF>0 0.0 0
for Da>DaV and vF<0 for Da<DaV Da=580

-0.5
-0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.4

T
• Physical meaning:
– Bi-stable steady state region further
divided into 2 regions if an edge exists 4.0 4
– for Da>DaV the flame edge acts as an 3.5
ignition source; if the flame locally DaII

3.0 3
develops an hole this will close;
T
2.5
– for Da<DaV the unburned gasses 2.0 2
quench the flame; if the flame develops 1.5

DaI
an hole this will spread until the whole 1.0 2 1
10
2 3
10
4
10
5
10
flame is extinguished. 10 103 104 105

Da

Edge Flame Concepts

Edge Structure and Velocity

Edge flames structure

• Non-premixed flames:
 Advancing (ignition front, vF>0) have often a triple flame structure;
 Retreating (extinction front, vF<0) generally consist of a single edge.
Da  25 Da  25Da  0.70
Da  Da
25  0.70Da Da  0.70
0.14 Da  0.14 Da  0.14
Computed Reaction rate
vF >0 vF ~ 0 vF < 0 contours
Daou et al., Proc. Comb. Inst.,(29) 2002
• Premixed flames: generally have a single edge but can have significant
hook-like structures
Reactants Reactants Reactants Reactants
Image counterflow Computed Reaction rate
1.24 cm burner contours
1.24 cm
Liu et al., Comb. Sci. Verdarajan et al., Comb.
5.4 cm Tech.,(144) 1999
5.4 cm Flame,(114) 1998
Inert Inert Inert Inert
• Also stretch and heat losses influence the flame edge structure
Low High False color images
Cha et al., Comb. Flame,(146)
Stretch Stretch 2006

Flame edge velocity

Gas Expansion Effects
• Velocity of edge flames vF depends on density ratio 
(=b/u) across the flame, Damkohler number Da, heat
losses, Le, DFuel/DOx and Zst.
• Dependence on : for a convex flame the deceleration Du
of the approach flow in front of the flame monotonically
increases with  (to be discussed later)
• Reutsch et al.’s nonpremixed flame scaling for Da→∞
vF Da   su  

Flame edge velocity

Heat Loss Effects
• Heat losses may be important process in edge
flames stabilized near metal surfaces
• Heat losses can cause vF<0 at high Da
• Example: Non-Premixed counterflow flame
Cha, Ronney, Comb. Fl.,

2006, 146 (1-2)
Conditions at the flame edge

• Consider a premixed flame subject to κ
a spatially varying stretch rate κ at κext
κ
edge
t=0.
– Hole will form at points where:
• κ > κext Spatial coordinate
– Edges will retreat to points where: time
• κ= κ(vF=0)= κedge

Conditions at the flame edge κ

κext
κ
edge
• From edge flame model problem

 edge e2 Ru Tad

 ext (1  T0 / Tad ) Ea Spatial coordinate
time
– For T0/Tad=0.2 and Ea/R uTad=10-20

– 0.5< κedge/ κext<1
• Conclusion: once flame hole opens, it

grows larger than would be expected
based on continuous flame concepts

Conditions at the flame edge

• Experiments show additional
physics:
– Tangential flows of hot gases CH 4 Air ,   0.58  equilibrium products
(e.g., in a lab stationary,
(T u  450 K p  1atm)
retreating edge flame) can
increase vF and cause κedge> κext 12
– When a hole forms in a premixed 10

flames, reactants and products
dilution
8
can mix:
• Mass burning rate increases
s u ,0 sno
6
u
because of presence of radicals
and increased initial 4
temperature. Peak heat release 2
rate changes little across
different dilution levels; 0
• The flame looses its S-curve 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
character. Product mixing fraction (by mass)

Course Outline
Flows
Harmonic Excitation

Stretch Effects on Shear Layer Flames

• Flame will extinguish
when flame stretch rate
exceeds κext
– As expected, higher
flow velocities result
in flame extinction
occurring at higher
values of κext

Shear Layer Stabilized Flames

• In high speed flows, although locally low velocities
exist within the shear layer, flame extinction
typically leads to liftoff/blowoff
– Limited by the amount of flame stretch which they
can withstand before extinction
– e.g, 50 m/s jet with 1 mm shear layer thickness
shear~duz/dx ~ 50103 s-1
• Much greater than typical extinction strain rates, ext
• How is flame stretch related to flow strain in a shear
layer?

Sources of Flame Stretch

1. Flame curvature
2. Unsteadiness in flame and
flow
Q. Zhang et al. J. Eng. for Gas Turbines & Power 2010
3. Hydrodynamic strain:
nz n z
ui nx flame
 s , strain   ij  ni n j   x
x j
– For reference, fluid strain rate
given by tensor:
1  ui u j 
Sij    

2  x j xi  flow

Flame Stretch Due to Fluid Strain

• General expression can be reduced by
assuming 2-D flow and incompressibility
(upstream of flame):
nz n z
u  u u
u  u u
nx flame
 s  (nx  nz )
2
 nx nz 
2 z
 
x z
z  z x   x
Normal Strain Shear Strain

Contribution Contribution
flow


Shear Strain
Contribution
Shearing flow Decelerating flow
velocity profile velocity profile
nz n z
nx flame
 x
(a)  uxu uzu  (b)
 s , shear  nx nz   
 z x 
• Flame strain occurs due to

variations in tangential velocity
flow
• Leads to positive stretch

Normal Strain Contribution
Decelerating flow
velocity profile
nz n z
nx flame
 x
uzu
  nx  nz 
(b)
 s ,normal 2 2
z
• Jet flows typically decelerate
producing normal strain
flow
• Leads to negative stretch

For high speed flows: n
nz n z
nx flame
u zu sdu nz
  x
 1
nx
 nx  1 O( ) & nz    O  
2 3
Also assume:
u xu u zu flow

z x
Expressions for shear and normal stretch can be simplified as follows:
 uxu uzu  uzu
 s , shear  nx nz     s ,normal   nx  nz 
2 2
 z x  z
uzu uzu
 s , shear   s ,normal 
x z
Stretch from Shear Strain

uzu
•  s , shear  nz n z
x nx flame
 x
sdu
 u sdu uzu
• If then  s ,shear  u
uz uz x flow
Shearing flow
  s ,shear ~ s  shu
d velocity profile
 Stretch rate due to shear ~indep. of u ?

increasing u  shear  but  
but u can influence shear layer: sh u-1/2
Stretch from Normal Strain

nz n z
u
u u
u nx flame
 s ,normal ~ ~ z z

z
x
Lchar
• Obtain traditional flow

flow
time scaling approach
Decelerating flow
velocity profile

Total Stretch from Strain

• Total stretch due to strain Shearing flow
velocity profile
u zu u zu
s  
z x
 Opposite signs if decelerating flow
which term dominates -  small ? Decelerating flow
velocity profile
u xu u zu u xu u zu
even if  vs.  ??
z x z x

Flame Stretch Distribution in Swirl Flame

• Dimensionless value
of 1= 4,125 [1/s]
1
• Shows
Normalized Strain Rate (1/s)

0.8
dominance of 0.6 n-n
x rux x
22
* u/ r
n-n 
22
z z
deceleration 0.4 z z *uv/
0.2 n-n
x n 
*n *uu/z
r zz x
term in first 0 n-n
x n 
*n *uv/x
r zz z
r
10 mm ss
-0.2
• Shear term -0.4

-0.6
dominates -0.8
0 5 10 15 20
farther Axial Location (mm)
Zhang, Q., Shanbogue, S., Shreekrishna,O’Connor, J., Lieuwen, T., “Strain Characteristics Near the Flame
downstream Attachment Point in a Swirling Flow”, Combustion Science and Technology, Vol. 83, 2011, 665-685.

Piloting or Flow Recirculation Effects

• Flame stabilization can be enhanced through:
– Pilot flames
– Recirculation zones
• Transport hot products to the attachment point of a flame

Dilution/Liftoff Effects
• At high dilution/preheating levels, the flame does not
"extinguish"
– Increases in reactant temperature are equivalent to a reduction in
dimensionless activation energy
– Example: calculation of CH4/air flame stagnating against hot
products with indicated temperature
25 20
20 15
sscucu(cm/s)
ssdud (cm/s)
[cm/s]
[cm/s]
1350 K
15 1350 K 10
10 5 1450 K
u
1450 K 1400 K
5 0
1400 K
0 -5
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Strain
StrainRate
rate [1/s]
(1/s) Strain rate
Strain Rate(1/s)
[1/s]

Blowoff of Bluff Body Stabilized Flames

• Stages of blowoff
– Stage 1: Flame is continuous but
marked by local extinction events
– Stage 2: Changes in wake dynamics as
Nair J. Prop. Power 2007
large scale structures become visible
– Stage 3: Blowoff of flame
• Da Approach:
– Scaling captures onset of flame
extinction events
– Ability to capture blowoff dependent
on link between extinction events and
blowoff physics Images courtesy of D. R. Noble

Course Outline
Flows
Harmonic Excitation

Flame Anchoring Locations and Flame

Shapes in Swirling Flows
(c) IRZ & Outer Nozzle (d) Centerbody & Outer Nozzle
Flame Anchoring Locations and Flame

Shapes in Annular Nozzle Geometries
• Flame stabilizes in front of stagnation
point of vortex breakdown bubble
– Stagnation point apparently precesses,
probably also moves up and down
– i.e., flame anchoring position highly
unsteady, in contrast to stabilization at
edges/corners
• Under what circumstances can such
flames exist?
– Not always observed; flames may
blowoff directly without reverting to a
“free floating” configuration From Kumar and Lieuwen
– Flow must have interior stagnation point

Vortex Breakdown in Annular Geometries

• Nature of centerbody wake/ VBB changes with geometry, swirl
#, and Reynolds #
Recirculation zone with Recirculation zone with bubble- Merged recirculation zones
vortex tube like breakdown above
Sheen et al., Phys. Fluids, 1996
Swirl number/ Centerbody Diameter


• Nature of centerbody wake/ VBB changes with geometry, swirl #,
heat release parameter, and Reynolds #


• Nature of centerbody wake/ VBB changes with geometry, swirl #,
and Reynolds #

Flame Stabilization Influenced by

Downstream Boundary Conditions
• Fluid rotation introduces
inertial wave propagation
mechanism
– “sub-” and
“supercritical” flow
distinction
• Exit boundary condition

has significant influence
on vortex breakdown
bubble topology
Emara et. al 2009
Course Outline
A) Introduction and Outlook • Introduction

B) Flame Aerodynamics and • Decomposition of
Flashback Disturbances into
Fundamental Disturbance
C) Flame Stretch, Edge Modes
Flames, and Flame
Stabilization Concepts • Disturbance Energy
D) Disturbance Propagation • Nonlinear Behavior
Flows • Acoustic Wave Propagation
Primer
Harmonic Excitation • Unsteady Heat Release
Effects and Thermoacoustic
Instability
118 Copyright © T. Lieuwen 2014 Unauthorized Reproduction Prohibited

Course Outline

Flames, and Flame
Primer
Instability

Motivation – Combustion Instabilities
• Large amplitude
acoustic oscillations Heat
driven by heat release Acoustics
release
oscillations
• Oscillations occur at
specific frequencies,
associated with
resonant modes of
combustor
Video courtesy of S. Menon

Resonant Modes – You can try this at home
• Helmholtz Mode
• 190 Hz
• Longitudinal Modes
• 1,225 Hz
• 1,775 Hz
• Transverse Modes
• 3,719 Hz
• 10,661 Hz
Slide courtesy of R. Mihata, Alta Solutions

Key Problem: Flame Sensitive to Acoustic Waves
Video from Ecole Centrale – 75 Hz, Courtesy of S. Candel

Key Problem: Combustor System Sensitive to Acoustic Waves
Rubens Tube

Thermo-acoustics
• Rijke Tube (heated

gauze in tube)
• Self-excited oscillations Purdue’s Thermoacoustic Refrigerator
in cryogenic tubes
• Thermo-acoustic
refrigerators/heat pumps

Liquid Rockets
• F-1 Engine
– Used on Saturn V
– Largest thrust engine
developed by U.S
Injector face destroyed by combustion instability, Source: D.
– Problem overcome Talley
with over 2000 (out of

3200) full scale tests
From Liquid Propellant Rocket

Combustion Instability, Ed. Harrje and
Reardon, NASA Publication SP-194

Ramjets and Afterburners
Mig-29 with RD-33 Engines
• Systems prone to
damage because of light
construction
– Damage to flame holders,
“Moskit” Ramjet Powered Missile
spray bars
• Ramjets: un-starting of
inlet shock
Images courtesy of E. Lubarsky

Solid Rockets
• Examples:
– SERGEANT Theater ballistic
missile – tangential instabilities
generated roll torques so strong
that outside of motor case was
scored due to rotation in restraints
– Minuteman missile –USAF
experienced 5 flight failures in
1968 during test due to loss of
flight control because of severe
vibrations
– Space shuttle booster- 1-3 psi From Blomshield, AIAA Paper #2001-3875
oscillations (1 psi = 33,000 pounds

of thrust)
• Adverse effects –thrust oscillations, mean pressure changes, changes
in burning rates
Course Outline

Flames, and Flame
Primer
Instability

Small Amplitude Propagation in Uniform, Inviscid Flows
• Assume infinitesimal perturbations superposed upon a spatially

homogenous background flow.
• We will also introduce two additional assumptions:

(1) The gas is non-reacting and calorically perfect, implying that the
specific heats are constants.
(2) Neglect viscous and thermal transport.
Decomposition Approach
– Decompose variables into the sum of a base and fluctuating
component; e.g.,
p( x, t )  p0  p1 ( x, t )
 ( x, t )  0  1 ( x, t ) (2.9)
u ( x, t )  u0  u1 ( x, t )

Summary of Disturbance Equations
• D0 1
Vorticity: 0 (2.18)
Dt
• D02 p1
Acoustic:
2
 c0  p1  0
2 2 (2.20)
Dt
• Entropy:
D0 s1
0 (2.27)
Dt

Canonical Decomposition
• Further decompose perturbations by their origin
1  1  1s  1

s1  s1  s1s  s1 (2.28)
p1  p1  p1s  p1
• Examples:
– 1s vorticity fluctuations induced by entropy fluctuations.
– p1 pressure fluctuations induced by vorticty fluctuations.
• Dynamical equations are linear and can be decomposed into

subsystems

Oscillations from Vorticity
• Oscillations associated with vorticity mode:

D0 1 (2.29)
0
Dt
p1  s1  T1  1  0 (2.30)
D0u1
0 (2.31)
Dt
– Vorticity, and induced velocity, fluctuations are convected by the mean

flow.
– Vorticity fluctuations induce no fluctuations in pressure, entropy,
temperature, density, or dilatation.

Oscillations from Acoustics
• Oscillations associated with acoustic mode:

D02 p1
2
 c0  p1  0
2 2 (2.32)
Dt
1  s1  0 (2.33)
p1 0 c p
1  2  2 T1 (2.34)
c0 c0
Du
0 1  p1 (2.35)
Dt
• The density, temperature, and pressure fluctuations are locally and

algebraically related through their isentropic relations

Oscillations from Entropy
• Oscillations associated with entropy mode:
D0s1s
 p1s  1s  u1s  0 (2.37)
Dt
0 0
1s   s1s   T1s (2.38)
cp T0
• Entropy oscillations do not excite vorticity, velocity, pressure, or

dilatational disturbances
• They do excite density and temperature perturbations

Comments on the Decomposition
• In a homogeneous, uniform flow, these three disturbance modes

propagate independently in the linear approximation.
• three modes are decoupled within the approximations of this

analysis - vortical, entropy, and acoustically induced fluctuations are
completely independent of each other.
• For example, velocity fluctuations induced by vorticity and acoustic

disturbances, u1 and u1 are independent of each other and each
propagates as if the other were not there.
• Moreover, there are no sources or sinks of any of these disturbance

modes. Once created, they propagate with constant amplitude.

Comments on Length Scales
• Acoustic disturbances propagate at the speed of sound.
• Vorticity and entropy disturbances convect at bulk flow velocity, u0 .
• Acoustic properties vary over an acoustic length scale, given by

  c0 f
• Entropy and vorticity modes vary over a convective length scale,

given by c  u0. f
• Entropy and vortical mode “wavelength” is shorter than the acoustic
wavelength by a factor equal to the mean flow Mach number.
c   u0 c0  M

Comments on Acoustic Disturbances
• Acoustic disturbances, being true waves, reflect off boundaries, are

refracted at property changes, and diffract around obstacles.
Acoustic Flame
wave
Image of instantaneous pressure field and flame front of a sound wave incident upon a
turbulent flame from the left at three successive times. Courtesy of D. Thévenin.

Comments on Acoustic Disturbances
• PIV data shows example of

– refraction in a combustor environment
– Simultaneous presence of acoustic and vortical disturbances
Refracted
acoustic
wave
Reactants
Illustration of acoustic
refraction effects. Data
courtesy of J. O'Connor
Transverse plane wave

Example: Effects of Simultaneous Acoustic and
Vortical Disturbances
• Consider superposition of two disturbances with different phase

speeds:
 x  x 
u1  x, t   u1,  u1, = A cos  wt    A cos  wt  

 c0   ux ,0 
• For simplicity, assume A  A  A
 c u   c u 
u1  x, t   2A cos  0 0 x  cos  wt  0 0 x
 2c0u0   2c0u0 
• Velocity field oscillates harmonically at each point as cos(wt)

 c u 
• Amplitude of these oscillations varies spatially as cos  0 0 x due to
 2c0u0 
interference

Some Data Illustrating This Effect
• Fit parameter: A A  0.6
0.1 1
Measurements u1, only
Fit-u1,+u1,Ω 0
0.08
-1
u
un/
|un|/U0
0.06 Measurements
-2
u u1, Ω only
0.04 -3
u1, Ω only
0.02 u1, only -4
Fit-u1,+u1,Ω
-5
0 0 0.5 1 1.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 x/
x/ c
c

Modal Coupling Processes
• We just showed that the small amplitude canonical disturbance

modes propagate independently within the fluid domain in a
homogeneous, inviscid flow.
• These modes couple with each other from:

– Boundaries
• e.g., acoustic wave impinging obliquely on wall excites vorticity and entropy
– Regions of flow inhomogeneity

• e.g., acoustic wave propagating through shear flow generates vorticity
• Accelerating an entropy disturbance generates an acoustic wave
– Nonlinearities
• e.g., large amplitude vortical disturbances generate acoustic waves (jet
noise)

Course Outline

Flames, and Flame
Primer
Instability

Energy Density and Energy Flux Associated with
Disturbance Fields
• Although the time average of the disturbance fields may be zero,

they nonetheless contain non-zero time averaged energy and lead
to energy flux whose time average is also non-zero.
– Ex:
1
Ekin    u1  u1 
2
• Consider the energy equation.
E
I   (2.50)
t
d

dt V
EdV   I  ndA   dV
A V
(2.51)

Acoustic Energy Equation
• Consider the acoustic energy equation, assuming:

– Entropy and vorticity fluctuations are zero
– Zero mean velocity, homogenous flow.
– Combustion process is isomolar
 1 1 p12   g  1
 0  u1  u1       p1u1   (2.52)
2 
p1q1
t  2 2 0c0  g p0
1 1 p12
E  0  u1  u1   (2.53)
2 2 0c02
I   p1u1 (2.54)
 
 g  1
pq (2.55)
g p0 1 1

Time Average of Products
• Time average of product of two fluctuating quantities depends on

their relative phasing
1
• Example sin wt  sin wt     cos
2
  0o
t
sin wt  sin wt  
t
  90o 
t
 180o
Comments on Acoustic Energy
• The energy density, E , is a linear superposition of the kinetic

energy associated with unsteady motions, and potential energy
associated with the isentropic compression of an elastic gas.
• The flux term, p1u1 , reflects the familiar “pumping work” done by
pressure forces on a system.
• The source term,   , shows that unsteady heat release can add or
remove energy from the acoustic field, depending upon its phasing
with the acoustic pressure.

Rayleigh’s Criterion
• Rayleigh’s Criterion states that unsteady heat addition locally adds

energy to the acoustic field when the phases between the pressure
and heat release oscillations is within ninety degrees of each other.
• Conversely, when these oscillations are out of phase, the heat

addition oscillations damp the acoustic field.
• Figure illustrates that the highest pressure amplitudes are observed

at conditions where the pressure and heat release are in phase.
180
135
phase difference (pc'-OH*')

90
45
Data courtesy of K. Kim and D. Santavicca.  pq 0
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12
-45
-90
-135
-180
p / p
pc'/pc,mean

Course Outline

Flames, and Flame
Primer
Instability

Linear and Nonlinear Stability of Disturbances
• The disturbances which have been analyzed arise because of

underlying instabilities, either in the local flow profile or to the
coupled flame-combustor acoustic systems (such as thermoacoustic
instabilities).
• Consider a more general study of stability concepts by considering

the time evolution of a disturbance
d A (t )
 FA  FD (2.63)
dt
FA and FD denote processes responsible for amplification and
damping of the disturbance, respectively.

Linear Stable/Unstable Systems
• In a linearly stable/unstable system, infinitesimally small

disturbances decay/grow, respectively.
• To illustrate these points, we can expand the functions FA and FD

around their A=0 values in a Taylor’s series:
FA   AA  FA, NL (2.64)
Amplification/Damping
εA
1
FA
FD   DA  FD, NL (2.65) FD
εD
1
FA
A  A 0
(2.66)
A A
ALC

Comments on Linear Behavior
• The amplification and damping curves intersect at the origin,

indicating that a zero amplitude oscillation is a potential equilibrium
point.
• However, this equilibrium point is unstable, since  A   D and any

small disturbance makes FA larger than FD resulting in further growth
of the disturbance.
• If  A   D the A=0 point is an example of an “attractor” in that

disturbances are drawn toward it
• Linearized solution:
A1(t )  A(t  0)exp(( A   D )t )

(2.67)

Comments on Nonlinear Behavior
• This linearized solution may be a reasonable approximation to the

system dynamics if the system is linearly stable (unless the initial
excitation, A(t=0) is large).
• However, it is only valid for small time intervals when the system is
unstable, as disturbance amplitudes cannot increase indefinitely.
• In this situation, the amplitude dependence of system

amplification/damping is needed to describe the system dynamics.
• The steady state amplitude is stable at ALC=0 because amplitude

perturbations to the left (right) causes FA to become larger (smaller)
than FD, thus causing the amplitude to increase (decrease).

Example of Stable Orbits: Limit Cycles
p
• In many other problems, A (t ) is used
to describe the amplitude of a t
fluctuating disturbance; for example,
• Limit cycle is example of orbit that

encircles an unstable fixed point
– A stable limit cycle will be pulled back into
this attracting, periodic orbit even when it is p(t )
slightly perturbed.
p(t )  p0  A(t )cos(wt )

(2.69)

Variation in System Behavior with Change in
Parameter
• Consider a situation where some combustor parameter is

systematically varied in such a way that εA increases while εD remains
constant. Amplification/Damping
A
Supercritical Bifurcations
• The A=D condition separates two regions of fundamentally different

dynamics and is referred to as a supercritical bifurcation point.
– Note smooth monotonic variation of limit cycle amplitude with parameter
0.02
Stable Pressure0.015
Amplitude, A
Unstable amplitude
p 0.01
p
0.005
0
0
0 18 21 24 27 30
εA- εD Nozzle velocity, m/s

Nonlinearly Unstable Systems
• Small amplitude disturbances decay

in a nonlinearly unstable system, but
disturbances with amplitudes
exceeding a critical value, Ac, will
grow.
• This type of instability is sometimes

referred to as subcritical.
• Other examples:
– hydrodynamic stability of shear flows
without inflection points
– Certain kinds of thermoacoustic
instabilities in combustors.
• historically referred to as “triggering”
in rocket instabilities

Subcritical Instability
• Figure provides example of amplitude

dependence of FA and FD that
produces subcritical instability.
• In this case, the system has three
equilibrium points where the FA
amplification and dissipation curves
intersect. 1
εD
• All disturbances with amplitudes
A<AT return to the stable solution FD εA
A=0 and disturbances with 1
amplitudes A>AT grow until their AT ALC

A
amplitude attains the value A=ALC.
• Consequently, two stable solutions

exist at this operating condition. The
one observed at any point in time will
depend upon the history of the
system.
Variation in System Behavior with Change in
Parameter

Subcritical Bifurcation Diagram
• If a system parameter is monotonically increased to change the sign

of  A D from a negative to a positive value, the system’s
amplitude jumps discontinuously from A=0 to A= ALC at
 A D  0 .
• Note hysteresis as well
0.015
Pressure 0.01
amplitude
p
p 0.005
0
13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5
Nozzle velocity, m/s

Course Outline
• Introduction
• Flashback and Flameholding
• Flame Stabilization and Blowoff
• Combustion Instabilities
– Motivation
– Disturbance propagation, amplification, and stability
– Acoustic Wave Propagation Primer
– Unsteady Heat Release Effects and Thermoacoustic Instability
• Flame Dynamics

Course Outline

Flames, and Flame
Flows • Acoustic Wave
Propagation Primer
Instability

Overview 1 of 2
• Acoustic Disturbances:
– Propagate energy and information through the medium without requiring
bulk advection of the actual flow particles.
– Details of the time averaged flow has relatively minor influences on the
acoustic wave field (except in higher Mach number flows).
– Acoustic field largely controlled by the boundaries and sound speed
field.
• Vortical disturbances
– Propagate with the local flow field.
– Highly sensitive to the flow details.
– No analogue in the acoustic problem to the hydrodynamic stability
problem.

Overview 2 of 2
• Some distinctives of the acoustics problem:

– Sound waves reflect off of boundaries and refract around bends or other
obstacles.
• Vortical and entropy disturbances advect out of the domain where they are
excited.
– An acoustic disturbance in any region of the system will make itself felt
in every other region of the flow.
– Wave reflections cause the system to have natural acoustic modes;
oscillations at a multiplicity of discrete frequencies.

Traveling and Standing Waves
• The acoustic wave equation for a homogeneous medium with no

unsteady heat release is a linearized equation describing the
propagation of small amplitude disturbances.
• We will first assume a one-dimensional domain and neglect mean

flow, and therefore consider the wave equation:
 2 p1  2
p1 (5.1)
 c0
2
0
t 2
x 2

Harmonic Oscillations
• We will use complex notation for harmonic disturbances. In this

case, we write the unsteady pressure and velocity as
p1  Real  pˆ1 ( x, y, z ) exp  iwt   (5.13)

u1  Real uˆ1 ( x, y, z ) exp  iwt   (5.14)
• As such, the one-dimensional acoustic field is given by:

p1  Real  A exp  ikx  B exp  ikx   exp  iwt   (5.15)
ux ,1 
1
0c0

Real  A exp  ikx  B exp  ikx   exp  iwt   (5.16)

Time Response of Harmonically Oscillating
Traveling Waves
• The disturbance field consists of space-time harmonic disturbances

propagating with unchanged shape at the sound speed.
• An alternative way to visualize these results is to write the pressure

in terms of amplitude and phase as:
pˆ1  x   pˆ1  x  exp  i  x   (5.17)
t
Temporal variation of harmonically
p1
varying pressure for rightward
moving wave
x

Amplitude and Phase of Traveling Wave
Disturbances
• The magnitude of the disturbance

stays constant but the phase
B leftward moving
decreases/increases linearly with axial A rightward moving
distance. p̂1
d
• The slope of these lines are  w / c0.
dx
x
• Harmonic disturbances propagating
with a constant phase speed have a
linearly varying axial phase w / c0
θ
dependence, whose slope is inversely 1
proportional to the disturbance phase x
speed. w / c0
1
Spatial amplitude/phase
variation of harmonically varying
acoustic disturbances.
Standing Waves
• Consider next the superposition of a left and rightward traveling

wave of equal amplitudes, A=B, assuming without loss of generality
that A and B are real.
p1 ( x, t )  2A cos  kx  cos wt  (5.18)
1
ux ,1  2A sin  kx  sin wt  (5.19)
0c0
• Such a disturbance field is referred to as a “standing wave”.
• Observations:
– amplitude of the oscillations is not spatially constant, as it was for a single
traveling wave.
– phase does not vary linearly with x, but has a constant phase, except across the
nodes where it jumps 180 degrees.
– pressure and velocity have a 90 degree phase difference, as opposed to being
in-phase for a single plane wave.
Behavior of Standing Waves
(a) 0.8
1 3
p1 2,4
0.6
2,8
ρ0c0ux,1 0.4
0.2
0
1,5
3,7
-0.2 kx/2π
-0.4
6,8
-0.6
4,6
-0.8
5 7
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
(b) p̂1
2A
0 c0 uˆ x ,1
kx/2π
(c)  270o
o
(degrees) 180
90o
0o
kx/2π
Spatial dependence of pressure (solid) and velocity (dashed) in a
standing wave.

One Dimensional Natural Modes
• Consider a duct of length L with rigid boundaries at both ends,

ux,1  x  0, t   ux,1  x  L, t   0 . Applying the boundary condition at x=0
implies that A=B, leading to:
Real  2iA sin  kx  exp  iwt  

1
ux ,1  (5.62)
0c0
n
k (5.63)
L
w kc0 nc0
fn    (5.64)
2 2 2 L
• These natural frequencies are integer multiples of each other, i.e.,
f2=2f1, f3=3f1, etc.
 n x 
p1 ( x, t )  2A cos   cos wt  (5.65)
 L 
2A  n x  (5.66)
ux ,1 ( x, t )  sin   sin wt 
0c0  L 
Course Outline

C) Flame Stretch, Edge Flames, Modes
and Flame Stabilization Concepts
• Disturbance Energy
and Generation in Reacting • Nonlinear Behavior
Flows
• Acoustic Wave Propagation
E) Flame Response to Harmonic Primer
Excitation
• Unsteady Heat Release
Instability

Unsteady Heat Release Effects
• Oscillations in heat release generate acoustic waves.

– For unconfined flames, this is manifested as broadband noise emitted
by turbulent flames.
– For confined flames, these oscillations generally manifest themselves
as discrete tones at the natural acoustic modes of the system.
• The fundamental mechanism for sound generation is the unsteady

gas expansion as the mixture reacts.
• To illustrate, consider the wave equation with unsteady heat release

 2 p1 2 2 q1 n
 c  p  (g  1)  g p0 
(57)
t 2 0 1
t  n 1
• The two acoustic source terms describe sound wave production

associated with unsteady gas expansion, due to either heat release
(first term) or non isomolar combustion (second term).
Unsteady Heat Release Effects – Confined
Flames
• Unsteady heat release from an acoustically compact flame induces

a jump in unsteady acoustic velocity, but no change in pressure:
1 g 1
ux ,1b  ux ,1a  Q1 (61)
A g p0
p1b  p1a (62)
• Unsteady heat release causes both amplification/damping and shifts

in phase of sound waves traversing the flame zone.
– The relative significance of these two effects depends upon the
relative phase of the unsteady pressure and heat release.
• The first effect is typically the most important and can cause systems with
unsteady heat release to exhibit self-excited oscillations.
• The second effect causes shifts in natural frequencies of the system.

Combustor Stability Model Problem
• Assume rigid and pressure release boundary conditions at x=0 and

x=L, respectively, and that the flame is acoustically compact and
located at x=LF . Heat release
LF
zone
ux,1=0 I II p1=0
a b
L
• Unsteady pressure and velocity in the two regions are given by:
Region I: 
pI  x, t   AI eikI  x  LF  BI e ikI  x  LF  e iwt  (63)
u x ,1I  x, t  
1
0 I c0 I

AI eikI  x  LF  BI eikI  x  LF  eiwt 
Region II: 
pII  x, t   AII e
ikII  x  LF 
BII e
 ik II  x  LF 
e  iwt
(64)
uII  x, t  
1
0, II c0, II

AII eikII  x  LF  BII eikII  x  LF  e iwt 
Matching Conditions
• Applying the boundary/matching conditions leads to the following

algebraic equations:
(Left BC) AI eik L -BI eik L  0

I F I F
 L LF 
(Right BC) AII eik II
BII eikII  LLF   0
(Pressure Matching) AI BI  AII BII
uII  LF  , t   uI  LF  , t    g  1
Q1
(Velocity Matching)
6) 0, I c0, I 2

Unsteady Heat Release Model
• Model for unsteady heat release is the

most challenging aspect of combustion
instability prediction
• We will used a “velocity coupled” flame

response model
• Assumes that the unsteady heat release
is proportional to the unsteady flow
velocity, multiplied by the gain factor, n,
and delayed in time by the time delay, τ.
0, I c0, I 2
Q1  A nu1  x  LF , t   
g 1
• This time delay could originate from, for
example, the convection time
associated with a vortex that is excited
by the sound waves.

Heat Release Modeling Simplifications
• Solving the four boundary/matching conditions leads to:
 0, II c0, II 
 cos  I F   II 
k L cos k L  LF  
 c
 0, I 0, I 0
   I F  II
  1  n eiw sin  k L  sin k  L  L  
F 
• In order to obtain analytic solutions, we will next assume that the

flame is located at the midpoint of the duct, i.e., L=2LF and that the
temperature jump across the flame is negligible.
cos kL  neiw sin 2  kL 2  (72)

Approximate Solution for Small Gain Values
• We can expand the solution around the n  0 solution by looking at

a Taylor series in wavenumber k in the limit n << 1.
 n exp  iwn 0  2 

k  kn 0  1   O n  
 2kn 0 L sin kn 0 L 
(2n  1)
kn  0 L 
2

Complex Wavenumbers
• Wavenumber and frequency have an imaginary component,.

Considering the time component and expanding ω:
exp(iwt )  exp(iwr t ) exp(wit ) (75)
• Real component is the frequency of combustor response.

 n cos(wn 0 ) 
wr  wn 0 1  ( 1)n
 (2n  1) 
• Imaginary component corresponds to exponential growth or decay in

time and space. Thus, ωi>0 corresponds to a linearly unstable
situation, referred to as combustion instability.
nc0 sin(wn 0 ) (77)
wi  ( 1) n
2L

Rayleigh’s Criterion
• Rayleigh's criterion: Energy is added to the acoustic field when the

product of the time averaged unsteady pressure and heat release is
greater than zero.
n   2n  1  
p1  x  L 2, t  Q1 (t )  sin   cos wn 0t  sin wn 0 (t   ) 
2  2 
n   2n  1  
p1 ( x  L / 2, t )Q1 (t )  sin   sin wn 0 
4  2 
p1 ( x  L / 2, t )Q1 (t )  0   1 sin wn 0   0

n 1

Stability of Combustor Modes
• Unstable 1/4 wave mode (n=1)

 3/4 wave
U S U S U S U S U
m  1/ 2  m mode
T 1/4
n
• Unstable 3/4 wave mode (n=2) Frequency
ωn=0 (2n  1)
m  m  1/ 2
 
3 T 1/4 3
1/4 wave
mode S U S
• Sign of p1Q1 alternates with time
0 1/2 1 3/2
delay 
T 1/4
– Important implications on why instability prediction
is so difficult- no monotonic dependence upon
underlying parameters
• Largest frequency shifts occur at the values where oscillations are not
amplified and that the center of instability bands coincides with points
of no frequency shift.
Thermo-acoustic Instability Trends
0.6
• Two parameters, the heat release
0.5
time delay, τ, and acoustic period,
T, control instability conditions. p
0.4
0.3
( psi )
• Data clearly illustrate the non- 0.2
monotonic variation of instability 0.1
amplitude with  T . 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
τ /T
Data illustrating variation of instability amplitude with normalized
time delay. Image courtesy of D. Santavicca
LFL
Air Air
Flame stabilized
LSO
Fuel Fuel downstream
LFI Shorter Longer Flame stabilized

flame flame at centerbody
Understanding Time Delays
• Data from variable length combustor

Equivalence ratio
0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75
50 1 Decreasing
3 2 Period, T
45
Combustor length, in
3 4
40 2
1
35
Measured instability
amplitude (in psi) of 30
combustor as a function of Decreasing time delay, τ
fuel/air ratio and combustor
length. Data courtesy of D. 25
Santavicca.
1850 1925 2000 2075
Adiabatic flame temperature, K
More Instability Trends 1 of 2
6
• Note non-monotonic variation

5
4
of instability amplitude with p
3
axial injector location, due to 2
the more fundamental variation 1
of fuel convection time delay, τ. 0

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Fuel injector location, LFI
• Biggest change in frequency is 180
observed near the stability 150
Frequency, Hz
120
boundary.
90
60
30
0
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Fuel injector location, LFI
Measured dependence of instability

amplitude and frequency upon axial
location of fuel injector. Data obtained from
Lovett and Uznanski.

More Instability Trends 2 of 2
u =18m/s
0.08 p̂
0.06 0 500 1000

Frequency (Hz)
p̂ 0.04 430 Hz u =25m/s
630 Hz
0.02
0 0 500 1000
15 20 25 30 35 40 Frequency (Hz)
Premixer Velocity (m/s) u =36m/s
Measured dependence of the excited instability mode

amplitude upon the mean velocity in the combustor inlet.
Obtained from measurements by the author.
0 500 1000
Frequency (Hz)

Limit Cycles and Nonlinear Behavior
• As amplitudes grow nonlinear effects grow in significance and the

system is attracted to a new orbit in phase space, typically a limit
cycle.
• This limit cycle oscillation can consist of relatively simple oscillations

at some nearly constant amplitude, but in real combustors the
amplitude more commonly "breathes" up and down in a somewhat
random or quasi-periodic fashion.
0.015
0.01
0.005
p
0.0
p
-0.005
-0.01
-0.015
0 2500 5000
186
Normalized time, f0t
Combustion Process and Gas Dynamic
Nonlinearities
• Gas dynamic nonlinearities introduced by nonlinearities present in
Navier-Stokes equations
• Combustion process nonlinearities are introduced by the nonlinear

dependence of the heat release oscillations upon the acoustic
disturbance amplitude.
1 150
0.8 120
Phase, degrees
Q 0.6 90
Q
0.4 60
0.2 30
Dependence of unsteady heat
release magnitude and phase upon 0 0
velocity disturbance amplitude.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Graph generated from data
obtained by Bellows et al. ux ux
Boundary Induced Nonlinearities
• The nonlinearities in processes that occur at or near the combustor

boundaries also affect the combustor dynamics as they are
introduced into the analysis of the problem through nonlinear
boundary conditions.
• Such nonlinearities are caused by, e.g., flow separation at sharp

edges or rapid expansions, which cause stagnation pressure losses
and a corresponding transfer of acoustic energy into vorticity.
• These nonlinearities become significant when u u  1 .

• Also, wave reflection and transmission processes through choked
and unchoked nozzles become amplitude dependent at large
amplitudes.

Course Outline
A) Introduction and Outlook • Governing Equations
• Premixed Flame Dynamics
B) Flame Aerodynamics and – General characteristics of
Flashback excited flames
C) Flame Stretch, Edge – Wrinkle convection and
flame relaxation processes
Flames, and Flame – Excitation of wrinkles
Stabilization Concepts – Interference processes
D) Disturbance Propagation – Destruction of wrinkles
• Non Premixed Flame
and Generation in Reacting Dynamics
Flows • Global heat release
E) Flame Response to response and Flame
Harmonic Excitation Transfer Functions
189
Flame Response to Harmonic

Disturbances
500
• Combustion instabilities
400
manifest themselves as
Fourier Transform
narrowband oscillations at 300
natural acoustic modes of 200

combustion chamber
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Frequency (Hz)
190
Basic Problem
• Wave Equation:
    g  1 qt
ptt  c pxx
2
• Key issue – combustion

response
 How to relate q’ to variables p’,
u’, and etc., in order to solve
Flow
problem Instabilities
 Focus of this talk is on

sensitivity of heat release to
flow disturbances
191
Response of Global Heat Release to

Flow Perturbations
0.5
0.4
Why does this saturate?

Q’/Qo
CH* / CH*o
0.3
Why at this amplitude?
0.2
0.1 What factors affect

slope of this curve (gain
0.2relationship) ? 0.6
0
0 0.4 0.8
u’/u
u / uo
o
Q (t )  
flame
mF hR dA
192
Course Outline
193
Analytical Tools/Governing Equations

• Work within fast chemistry, flamelet approximation
and use G- and Z- equations to describe flame
dynamics
194
Analytical Tools – Z Equation

• Key assumptions – Imposed flow field
– Le=1 assumption – Equal diffusivities
– flame sheet at Z=Zst surface
DYF
    ( D F YF )  wF
Dt wF 
wPr
1   
D YPr (  1)  wPr
    ( D Pr YPr (  1) ) 
Dt (  1)
Add these species equations:
D YF  YPr (  1) 
    ( D YF  YPr (  1) )  0
Dt
195
Analytical Tools – Z Equation

• Recall the definition of mixture fraction:
1
Z  YF  YPr
(  1)
• Yields:
DZ Z
    ( DZ )  0  u  Z     DZ 
Dt t
196
School of Aerospace Engineering .
Premixed Flame Sheets: G-Equation

Flame fixed (Lagrangian) coordinate system:
D n
G  x , t  at the flame front  0 n Product
Dt G>0
n
Reactant
Coordinate fixed (Eulerian) coordinate system: G<0
n
vF  u  sd n
G Flame surface
 vF G  0
t
G=0
n  G / | G |
G  G  G
  u  sd  G  0  u G  sd | G |
t  | G |  t
197
G-equation for single valued flame

front
Two-dimensional flame front
Position is single valued function,  , of the

coordinate y
Reactants
Define and substitute G( x, y, t )  x   ( y, t ) n
ξ (y,t)
y 1 Products
g
2
    
 ux  u y   sd 1   
t y  y 
x
198
Governing Equations
• Left side: Z
– Same convection operator  u Z     DZ 
– Wrinkles created on surface by t
fluctuations normal to iso- G or
G
Z surfaces  u G  sd | G |
t
• Right side:
– Non-premixed flame – diffusion
operator, linear
– Premixed flame – flame
propagation, nonlinear
– Right side of both equations
becomes negligible in Pe
= uL/ D >>1 or u/sd>>1 limits
199
Governing Equations
• G-equation only physically Reactants
meaningful at the flame ξ (y,t)
n
y
surface, G=0 1 Products
g
– Can make the substitution,
G  x, y, z, t   x    y, z, t  x
• Z-equation physically
meaningful everywhere
– Cannot make analogous
substitution
200
Governing Equations
• Reflects fundamental
difference in problem
physics
• Premixed flame
sheet only
influenced by flow
velocity at flame
• Non-premixed
flame sheet
influenced by flow
disturbances
everywhere
201
Course Outline
202
Excited Bluff Body Flames

(Mie Scattering)
Increased
Amplitude of Forcing
203
204
50
50
180°
135°
100
100
150
150
200 200
50
250 250
Excited Swirl Flame
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250

50
100
100 225°
90°
150
150

200
200
50
250 250
(OH PLIF)
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250

50
100
100
270°
150
150
45°
200
200
50
250 250
50 100 150 200 250
50 100 150 200 50250
100
100
150
315°
150
200
200
0°
250 250
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250
Excited Bluff Body Flames

(Line of sight luminosity)
18 m/s 38 m/s 127 m/s 170 m/s

294K 644K 644K 866K
205
Overlay of Instantaneous Flame Edges
18 m/s 38 m/s 127 m/s 170 m/s

294K 644K 644K 866K
206
Quantifying Flame Edge Response

Time
Series
Power
Spectrum
L’(x, f0)
207
Spatial Behavior of Flame Response

• Strong response at forcing
frequency
‒ Non-monotonic spatial
dependence
Convective wavelength:
λc= U0/f0
- distance a disturbance propagates at mean

flow speed in one excitation period 208
Flame Wrinkling Characteristics

1. Low amplitude flame fluctuation near
attachment point, with subsequent growth
downstream
2. Peak in amplitude of fluctuation, L’=L’peak
3. Decay in amplitude of flame response

farther downstream
4. Approximately linear phase-frequency

dependence
209
Typical Results – Other Flames

50 m/s, 644K 1.8m/s, 150hz
• Magnitude can oscillate with downstream distance
210
Analysis of Flame Dynamics
1. Wrinkle convection and flame

relaxation processes
2. Excitation of wrinkles
3. Interference processes
4. Destruction of wrinkles
211
Level Set Equation for Flame Position
L  L  L 
2

G-equation :   f
u  v f   SL 1  
t  x   x 
212
Course Outline
213
Wrinkle Convection
Model problem: Step change in axial velocity over the entire domain
from ua to ub, both of which exceed sd:
ua t0
u
ub t0
214
Wrinkle Convection
Flame
 sd 
  sin 1  
cshock t  ua 
t1 t2 t3
 sd 
  sin 1  
 ub 
• Flame relaxation process consists of a “wave” that propagates along

the flame in the flow direction.
215
Harmonically Oscillating Bluff Body
u0 uc,f
ut ut
sL
Petersen and Emmons, The Physics of Fluids Vo. 4, No. 4, 1961.
216
Phase Characteristics of Flame Wrinkle

Convection speed of
Flame wrinkle, uc,f
Mean flow velocity, u0
Disturbance Velocity, uc,v
D. Shin et al., Journal of Power and Propulsion, 2011.
217
Harmonically Oscillating Bluff Body

• Linearized, constant burning
velocity formulation:
– Excite flame wrinkle with
spatially constant amplitude
– Phase: linearly varies
• Wrinkle convection is u0
controlling process responsible
for low pass filter character of
global flame response
218
Course Outline
219
Excitation of Wrinkles on Anchored Flames

L  x, t  1 x un x  x 1 x
x

ut 
0 x
( x, t 
ut
) dx   un ( x  0, t  t  )
ut ut
• Linearized solution of G Equation,

assume anchored flame
u n’
• Wrinkle convection can be seen L’
from delay term

u0 u
t
sL
220
Excitation of Flame Wrinkles – Spatially

Uniform Disturbance Field
L  x, t  1 x un x  x 1 x
x

ut 
0 x

(x ,t 
ut

ut

) dx   un ( x  0, t  t  )
ut
• Wave generated at attachment point

(x=0), convects downstream
• If excitation velocity is spatially  sL  t  
  t   cos 
1

uniform, flame response exclusively
 u  t  
controlled by flame anchoring
“boundary condition”
– Kinetic /diffusive/heat loss effects, though
not explicitly shown here, are very
important!
221
Near Field Behavior- Predictions
• Can derive analytical formula un

ut
for nearfield slope for arbritrary
velocity field: 
 L'
'
1 un

x cos2  ut
222
Comparisons With Data

1 un  L

cos  ut
2
x
5 m/s, 300K
PIV Data MIE scattering Data

S. Shanbhogue et al., Proc of the Comb Inst, 2009.
223
Near Field Behavior

Increasing
amplitude, u’ • Flame starts with small
amplitude fluctuations
because of attachment
L’(x=0, t) = 0
Normalized by u’
• Nearfield dynamics are

essentially linear in
amplitude
S. Shanbhogue et al., Proc of the Comb Inst, 2009.
224
Course Outline
225
Excitation of Flame Wrinkles – Spatially

Varying Disturbance Field
L  x, t  1 x un x  x 1 x
x

ut 
0 x

(x ,t 
ut

ut

) dx   un ( x  0, t  t  )
ut
• Flame wrinkles generated at all points
where disturbance velocity is non-
uniform, du’/dx ≠0
– Flame disturbance at location x is
convolution of disturbances at
upstream locations and previous
times
• Convecting vortex is continuously

disturbing flame
– Vortex convecting at speed of uc,v
– Flame wrinkle that is excited
Bechert , D. ,Pfizenmaier, E., JFM., 1975.
convects at speed of ut
226
Model Problem: Attached Flame Excited by a

Harmonically Oscillating, Convecting Disturbance
• Model problem: flame excited by convecting velocity field,
un
  n cos(2 f (t  x / uc ,v ))
u t ,0
• Linearized solution:
1 
  i   n sin  i 2 f  y /  uc ,v tan    t  i 2 f  y /  u t ,0 sin    t  


 Real  
 e e 
u t ,0 f 
 2 u t ,0 cos  / uc ,v  1   


227
Solution Characteristics
int
• Note interference pattern on
flame wrinkling
• Interference length scale:

1
int   t sin   
| u t uc ,v  1|
y /   t sin  
228
Interference Patterns
0.08 0.1
1  f 0    t cos 
cos) 
0.06 0.08
|1 1 (ff 00)|/(  tcos
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.02
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
 
x   tt cos) 
x/( cos x   t cos 
D. Shin et al., AIAA Aerospace Science Meeting, 2011. V. Acharya et al., ASME Turbo Expo, 2011.
229
Comparison with Data

cos2 
x peak / c 
• Result emphasizes u0
2 cos2   1
“wave-like”, non-local uc ,v
nature of flame response
• Can get multiple

maxima/minima if
excitation field persists
far enough downstream
D. Shin et al., Journal of Power and Prop, 2011.

230
Aside: Randomly Oscillating,

Convecting Disturbances
• Space/time coherence of
4
disturbances key to Random
interference patterns 3 excitation
/  ref
1/2
2
12
Single frequency
• Example: convecting excitation
1
random disturbances to
simulate turbulent flow 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
disturbances t L11 or t  u t ,0 f 
231
Course Outline
232
Flame Wrinkle Destruction Processes:

Kinematic Restoration
• Flame propagation normal to Video : Courtesy Durox,
Ducruix & Candel
itself smoothes out flame
wrinkles
L  L  L 
2
• Typical manifestation: vortex 
 u f  vf   S 1   
t  x  x 
L
rollup of flame 
• Process is amplitude dependent
and strongly nonlinear
– Large amplitude and/or short
length scale corrugations smooth
out faster
Sung & Law, Progress in Energy and Comb Sci, 2000
233
Kinematic Restoration Effects:

Oscillating Flame Holder Problem
Flame front
u0
  sin w0t 
D. Shin & T. Lieuwen, Comb and Flame, 2012.
234
Kinematic Restoration Effects

• Leads to nonlinear farfield flame
dynamics
• Decay rate is amplitude dependent
x/c
Numerical Calculation Experimental Result
235
Multi- Zone Behavior of Kinematic

Restoration
Products
|  w0  |
2
sL ,0 t
sL,0  t
Tangential direction, t
Reactants
• Near flame holder Sung et al., Combustion and Flame, 1996
– Higher amplitudes and shorter wavelengths decay faster
• Farther downstream
– Flame position independent of wrinkling magnitude
– Flame position only a function of wrinkling wavelength
– is determined by the leading points D. Shin & T. Lieuwen, Comb and Flame, 2012.
236

Kinematic Restoration
D. Shin & T. Lieuwen, JFM , 2013.

237

Flame Stretch in Thermodiffusively Stable Flames
Wang, Law, and Lieuwen., Comb and Flame, 2009.

Preetham and Lieuwen, JPP, 2010.
238
Flame Stretch Effects
|   t , w0  |
 exp   sL,0 t 

 : Normalized Markstein length
Linear in amplitude
wrinkle destruction process
239
Course Outline
240
Flame Geometry
Oxidizer
  x, t 
u0 + u1
WI Zst y
WII Fuel x
u0 + u1
Oxidizer
u0 + u1
• Conditions
– Over ventilated flame
– Fuel & oxidizer forced by spatially uniform flow
oscillations
– Will show illustrative solution in Pe>>1 (i.e.,
WIIu0>>D ) limit K. Balasubramanian, R. Sujith, Comb sci and tech, 2008.
M. Tyagi, S. Chakravarthy, R. Sujith, Comb Theory and Modelling,
2007.
N. Magina et al., Proc of the Comb Inst, 2012.
241
Solution characteristics of Z field

  i  An 2 (2 n )sin  An    y   x    x 
Z1     cos  An  exp 
 nA 2
 1  exp  2 i StW   exp  iwt 
n 1 
 2 StW Pe   WII   PeWII  
  WII 
Z  x,  , t   Zst
242
Solution characteristics of Z field

  i  An 2 (2 n )sin  An    y   x    x 
Z1     cos  An  exp 
 nA 2
 1  exp  2 i StW   exp  iwt 
n 1 
 2 StW Pe   WII   PeWII  
  WII 
1,n
Zst
Zst
243
Solution: Space-Time Dynamics of Zst Surface

1,n
0
i ux ,0 
  x  
1,n  x, t   sin 0 ( x ) 1  exp  i 2 f   exp  i 2 f  t 
2 f 
  ux ,0  

Low pass filter Flame wrinkling only Flame wrinkles

characteristic occurs through velocity propagate with
fluctuations normal to axial flow
flame (cause interference)
244
Illustrative Result of Flame Front Dynamics

Convective wavelength  ux ,0 / f 
 3.3
Flame length L 
f
Oxidizer
Fuel
Lf
245

 3.3
f
Oxidizer
x / LF
Fuel
Lf
x / LF
246

 0.5
f
Oxidizer
Fuel
Lf
247

 0.5
f
Oxidizer
x / LF
Fuel
Lf
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

x / LF 248
School of Aerospace Engineering Comparison - similarities
• Non-premixed
i ux ,0 
  x  
1,n  x, t   sin  ( x ) 1  exp  i 2 f   exp  i 2 ft 
2 f  ux,0  

 
• Premixed
i ux ,0 
  x 
1,n  x, t   sin   1  exp  i 2 f   exp  i 2 ft 
2 f 


 u t ,0 cos 

>Magnitude
Similarities between space/time
dynamics of premixed and non- > Flame Angle
premixed flames responding to bulk
> Wave Form
flow perturbations
249
School of Aerospace Engineering Comparison - difference
• Non-premixed
i ux ,0 
  x  
1,n  x, t   sin  ( x ) 1  exp  i 2 f   exp  i 2 ft 
2 f  ux,0  

 
• Premixed Convective wave speeds
i ux ,0 
  x 
1,n  x, t   sin   1  exp  i 2 f   exp  i 2 ft 
2 f 


 u t ,0 cos 

1,n
u t ,0
sL
ux,0 
ux,0 1,n
Non-premixed Premixed
250
Course Outline
251
Spatially Integrated Heat Release

• Unsteady heat release
Q (t )  
flame
mF hR dA
– Flame surface area (Weighted Area)

– Mass burning rate (MBR)
– We’ll assume constant composition
• Flame describing function:
Q1 / Q0
F   F WA  F MBR
ux ,1 / ux ,0
252
Premixed Flames
• Spatially integrated heat release:
Q(t )  
flame
 u scu hR dA
• Linearized for constant flame speed, heat of

reaction, and density:
Q1  t  dA
u
sc ,1 dA0 1u dA0 hR ,1 dA0
Q0
 
flame
  uProportional
     area
 flame
to 
A0 flame sc ,0 A0 flame 0 A0 flame hR 0 A0
2
A(t )   
 sin   W  y  1    dy
Ao flame  y 
253
Premixed Flames
• W(y) is a geometry dependent weighting factor:
Two-dimensional Axisymmetric Cone Axisymmetric Wedge
x
LF

y
Wf
W ( y)  1 Wf 2 W f  y  W f 2  2 y W f 2 
 LF tan 
where: W f
254
Premixed Flame TF Gain– Bulk

Flow Excitation
• St<<1: F =1
• St>>1: F ~1/St
255
Why the 1/St Rolloff?

i ux ,0 
  x  
• Flame position ~1/St  1, n ( x, t )  sin  1  exp  i 2 St f  exp  i 2 ft 
2 f  

  L 
f ,0  
Low pass filter

characteristic!
  
2
• Flame area/unit axial distance: dA  1    dx
 x 
• Linearized:
 0  1
  
2  x 
x x  exp  i 2 ft 
dA   sin  exp  i 2 St f
 1  0   
dx  x    
2
 L f ,0 
1  0 
 x 
256
Why the 1/St Rolloff?

• Consider spatial integral of traveling wave
disturbance:
  x  u   LF   
LF
x 0 cos w  t  u  dx   sin w  t     sin wt 

w   u  
Traveling Wave 1/St due to interference effects

associated with tangential convection of
wrinkles
• 1/St comes from the integration!
257
Premixed Flame Response - Phase
• Phase rolls off linearly with St (for low St values)

– Time delayed behavior
• 180o phase jumps at nodal locations in the gain
258
Premixed Flame Response - Phase

Flame area-velocity relationship for A1 (t ) u (t   )
n 1
convectively compact flame (low St values): A0 u0
Lf
 C
u0
2(1  kC1 )
Axi-symmetric Wedge: C 
3cos 2 
2  kc  1 kC 
u0
Axi-symmetric Cone: C utx ,0
3kc cos 2 
C
 kc  1
Two-dimensional:
2kc cos 2 
259
Nonpremixed Flames-Bulk Flow

Excitation
• Returning to spatially integrated heat release:
Q (t )  
flame
mF hR dA
• Linearize the MBR and area terms:
Q(t )
hR
 
flame
mF ,0 dA0  
flame
mF ,0 dA1  
flame
mF ,1 dA0
Steady State Area Fluctuation MBR Fluctuation

Contribution Contribution Contribution 260
Non-Premixed Flames: Role of Area

Fluctuations  m  , premixed F 0
  m  F 0 dA1  mF 0

F WA  flame
  m 
flame
F 0 dA0
x
weighting
Very strong function of x!
y
u/uref = 1
For the higher velocity, u/uref = 1.5
• Area increases => Premixed
• Weighted area decreases => Non-premixed x
261
School of Aerospace Engineering Weighted Area cont’d
At low frequencies
o Non-premixed
Area
• Weighted Area
u’
o Premixed
• Area (as weighting is
Weighted Area constant)
At low frequencies, area and weighted area are out of phase
262
Mass Burning Rate
  m 
F 1 dA0
F MBR  flame
  m 
flame
F 0
dA0
1 Z1
– Non-premixed:  mF 1 ~
cos  y
• Fluctuations in spatial gradients of the mixture

fraction
sL
– Premixed:  mF 1 ~

• Stretch sensitivity of the burning velocity

263
Flame Transfer Functions - Contributions
Non-premixed Premixed
(weak flame stretch)
Mass Burning
Rate
Heat Release
Magnitude
Magnitude
Area
Heat Release
Weighted Area Mass Burning

Rate
StLf StLf
Significant differences in dominant processes controlling heat
release oscillations
• Non-premixed : Mass burning rate
• Premixed : Area Magina et al., Proc of the Comb Inst, 2012.
264
Comparisons of Gain and Phase of FTF
Gain Phase
1 / StL f F Non premixed
F Non  premixed
1 / StL f
Magnitude
Phase (deg)
F Premixed
( weak flame stretch )
F Premixed
( weak flame stretch )
St L f St L f
St << 1 : ~1
St >> 1 : Non-premixed flames ~1/St
St ~ O(1) : Non-premixed flame ~ 1/St1/2 > Premixed ~ 1/St
- At St~0(1), non-premixed flames are more sensitive to flow
perturbations 265
Premixed Flame TF’s: More Complex

Disturbance Fields
Disturbance convecting axially at velocity of Uc & kc=Uo/Uc
vF , n1  x, y, t 
Axisymmetric wedge flame:   n cos(2 f (t  x / uc )) x   y ,t 
u t ,0 x   y ,t 
F  Gain0 F St2  1, kc 
o fcn ( St2, kc) 
0 o-360
Unity at low St2 FV , kc 
10 FV , kc  0.5
F
F|F|
FV , kc  o Gain increases greater than unity

-720
o "Nodes" of zero heat release response
St2  1, kc  0.5
FV , kc  0.5
-1
10 -1 -1080
10 10
0
10
1 0 5 10 15
St
St2 2 St2
266
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Copyright © T. Lieuwen 2014 (b)
Closing Remarks
• Flame response exhibits “wavelike”, non-local
behavior due to wrinkle convection, leading to:
• maxima/minima in gain curves, interference phenomenon, etc.
• 1/f behavior in transfer functions
• Premixed flame wrinkles controlled by different

processes in different regions
• Role of area, weighted area, mass burning rate are quite

different for premixed and non-premixed flames
267

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Unsteady Combustor Processes

2014 CEFRC Summer School on Combustion

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• Pr = compressor pressure ratio 0.2

• g = Cp/Cv, ratio of specific heats

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• Many exciting challenges associated with

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Show video Heeger et al. Exp. In Fluids 2010

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– Assuming, q  F , define flashback Karlovitz

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– Performed detailed kinetics 100

• Important implications for

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• Effect of gas expansion due

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sdu ( y   q )  sdu ,0 flame

cause boundary layer Flame Separated flow region

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Billant et al., JFM, 1998

Source: Syred, Prog. Energy and Comb. Sci., 2006

Huang and Yang, Proc. Comb. Inst., 2005

swirl number range Breakdown

– i.e., either vortex breakdown or

Swirl Generator Mixing Tube

• Vortex breakdown – flame interaction

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Review of the Idealized Premixed Flame

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