CEBU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

N. Bacalso Avenue, Cebu City

Human Capital Flight: Assessing the Impact of Studying Abroad

Among Post-graduate Students

Researchers

Batoctoy, Loulyn

Juarez, Jonalyn

Repunte, Georgette

Senillo, Kenneth Brian

Vergara, Phyllis Lucile

March, 2019
 CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

INTRODUCTION

Rationale of the Study

Philippines remain developing up to the present. Globalization continues to

impact this nation and Filipinos has been embracing modernization as part of life.

Yet, still these are not enough proofs of a quality living because this country

remains far left behind by other countries and people opt to leave for better

opportunities.

Erasmus of Rotterdam once said, “The main hope of a nation lies in the

education of its youth” (Kobia, 2017). Meaning, youths specifically the students

are the key to raise one’s country from drowning in poverty. Philippines have

quality education from primary to tertiary level. The K-12 program has been

implemented and continues to be a reality in the present. The government also

provides physical and financial aid so that youths of today’s generation will

acquire essential literacy and improve country’s economy. Despite of these

educational improvements, still the number of Filipino students migrating to other

countries continues to increase.

According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

(2016), in 2000 the global number of students enrolled in tertiary education outside
their country of citizenship was two million; by 2012 that had increased to four and

a half million, representing an average annual growth of almost 7 percent. Among

all groups of migrants including labor migrants, family migrants, and refugees,

international students are the fastest-growing group. This growing number of

student migrants leaving their own country benefits the destined countries

however, results to a big loss to the country being left.

Filipinos are flexible in real life learning application. Summing up the total

literacy rate of all Filipinos, there are higher chances of making this country better

and richer. Plenty of outstanding Filipino students are produced in the country but

the current education system and current status of such nation cannot suffice the

necessities of students in terms of technological advancements and future

opportunities.

This concerning global issue exists due to the following reasons. First is

globalization of international education. This happens when people from other

countries advocate and convince other students to study in their country with a

promised higher quality of education that does not exist in the Philippines.

Secondly, several governments view international students as valuable future

skilled migrants and devise measures encouraging them to remain after completion

of their studies. Students will be given with bigger opportunities which then pull

the student migrant to stay. And lastly, students and their families recognize the
labor-market value of obtaining foreign qualifications. High standard experience

often helps in job application and high job position. These reasons made up the

mind of Filipino students to choose migration as option towards quality life and

education. This is indeed true because Philippines are seen as a third-world country

where Filipinos get their undergraduate degrees and then flock to other countries to

pursue higher education or work (Watson, 2018).

As a result, developing countries continue to suffer because of the increasing

loss of professionals or literate students. The receiving country benefits while the

other loses. In addition, students need to adjust on the environment setting and

style of learning in other country which takes time and delays the learning period

of a student. Moreover, the literacy rate would decrease knowing that many chose

to leave and losing higher number of professionals means a downfall to our

country’s economy. If this continues to happen, then there would be no hope for

such country to develop.

Since this modern issue remains inevitable, learners in today’s generation

must see the need to stay and finish studies in own country since it would be a big

help for student’s security, increase total literacy rate, improve country’s economy

and strengthen developments. The researchers came up with this study because

they saw the need to keep these young professionals who are considered to be

future hopes of the nation.

 Thus, the main purpose of this study is to give awareness to all Filipinos on

the impacts of student migration to the lives of learners and the state of nation as

well as to convince these young professionals to stay and serve the country since it

is through united cooperation that will enrich such nation.

 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This study is anchored to Stouffer’s Theory of Mobility wherein he

formulated his intervening opportunity model in 1940, and claimed that there is no

necessary relationship between mobility and distance (Stouffer, 1940:846). Instead,

the observed decline in the volume of migration is due to an increase in the number

of intervening opportunities with increasing distance. Stouffer’s model suggests

that the number of migrants from an origin to a destination is directly proportional

to the number of opportunities at that destination, and inversely proportional to the

number of intervening opportunities between the origin and the destination.

Mathematically, this theory is expressed in

The revised model proposes that during a given time interval, the number of

migrants from city 1 to city 2 is the direct function of the number of opportunities

in city 2, and an inverse function of the number of opportunities intervening

between city 1 and city 2, and the number of other migrants for the opportunities in

city 2. Thus, the revised formulation would read as under (Galle and Taeuber,

1966).
 According to this theory, the measure of ‘disadvantages’ or ‘push’ factors in

city 1 is defined as the total out-migrants from the city. Likewise, the measure of

number of opportunities in city 2 is defined as the total in-migrants in city 2,

whereas the measure of intervening opportunities between city 1 and city 2 is

defined as the total number of in-migrants in a circle centred mid-way between city

1 and city 2, and having a diameter equal to the distance between the two cities.

And, finally, the measure of competing migrants is defined as the total number of

out-migrants from a circle centred on city 2 with the distance between the two

cities as its radius.

Another theory that supports the study is the Lee’s Theory formulated in

1996. This theory focuses on the factors underlying migration. The factors include

place of origin, place of destination, intervening factors and personal factors.

According to Lee, each place possesses a set of positive and negative

factors. While positive factors are the circumstances that act to hold people within

it, or attract people from other areas, negative factors tend to repel them (Lee,

1975:191). In addition to these, there are factors, which remain neutral, and to

which people are essentially indifferent. While some of these factors affect most of

the people in the area, others tend to have differential effects. Migration in any area

is the net result of the interplay between these factors.

 Lee suggests that individuals involved in migration have near perfect

assessment of factors in the place of origin due to their long association. However,

the same is not necessarily true for that of the area of destination. There is always

some element of ignorance and uncertainty with regard to reception of migrants in

the new area (Lee, 1975:192).

Another important point is that the perceived difference between the areas of

origin and destination is related to the stage of the lifecycle of an individual. A

long associ¬ation of an individual with a place may result in an over-evaluation of

positive factors and under-evaluation of negative factors in the area of origin. At

the same time, the perceived difficulties may lead to an inaccurate evaluation of

positive and negative factors in the area of destination.

The final decision to move does not depend merely upon the balance of

positive and negative factors at the places of origin and destination. The balance in

favour of the move must be enough to overcome the natural inertia and intervening

obstacles. Distance separating the places of origin and destination has been more

frequently referred to in this context by authors, but according to Lee, distance

while omnipresent, is by no means the most important factor (Lee, 1975:193).

Furthermore, the effect of these intervening obstacles varies from individual to

individual.
 Apart from the factors associated with places of origin and destination, and

the intervening obstacles, there are many personal factors, which promote or retard

migration in any area. Some of these are more or less constant throughout the life

span of an individual, while others tend to vary in effect with the stages in life

cycle. It may be noted that the real situation prevailing at the places of origin and

destination are not as important in affecting migration as individual’s perception of

these factors. The process of perception depends, to a large extent, on the personal

factors like awareness, intelligence, contacts and the cultural milieu of the

individual.

The decision to migrate is the net result of the interplay among all these

factors. Lee pointed out that the decision to migrate is, however, never completely

rational. Also important to note here is the fact that not all persons who migrate do

so on their own decision. Children and wives move with the family where their

decisions are not necessarily involved. After outlining the factors at origin and

destination, and the intervening obstacles and personal factors, Lee moves on to

formulate a set of hypotheses concerning the volume of migration, streams and

counter-streams, and the characteristics of migrants.

This study is further supported by Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration which

posits that there is an inverse relation between distance and volume of migration.

Majority of migrants moves to short distance only. Migrants going long distance
generally go by preference to the large centres of commerce and industry. Second,

migration proceeds step by step. The inhabitants of countryside flock into the

nearby rapidly growing town. The gap created by this out-migration in the

countryside is filled up by in-migration from still remoter countryside. The

inhabitants of the town then move to the nearby urban centre up in the hierarchy.

Third, Every migration current produces a counter-current. Fourth, The native of

the rural areas are more mobile than their counterpart in the urban areas, and the

major direction of migration is from agricultural areas to the centres of industry

and commerce.

Furthermore, he emphasized that migration tends to decline with increasing

distance is almost i universal fact. Evidences also indicate that there are generally

currents and counter-currents in the migration process (Woods, 1979:191). It has

also been established that development and modernization promote internal

migration. Several studies have proved that migration is highly age-selective.

However, doubts have been raised concerning some of the other

generalizations. That migration occurs in different steps is rather difficult to be

established. Similarly, though rural population in the less developed parts of the

world is more mobile than its counterpart in the urban areas, migration in the

economically developed countries is more likely to be urban to rural than in the

opposite direction.
 According to Gorgoshidze, K. (2010), with the respect to the implications

for country’s development processes, entailing that the lowering quality of higher

education and active loss of human capital negatively affect ‘development’.

In the study of Dreher, A., & Poutvaara, P. (2011), the data implied that the

stock of foreign students is an important predictor of subsequent migration. The

estimated relationship shows that an increase in the number of students by 10%

increases immigration to the United States by a maximum of 0.94%. This suggests

that student flows result in a significant brain gain for the United States.

According to Marginson et al., . (2005), the existing social protection

regime falls significantly short of recognizing students' rights. Problems are located

in relation to language acquisition, social integration, finances, work and personal

safety. The article argues that, as well as law and policy, a student security regime

should incorporate better university practices and more integrated civil society

networks and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and intergovernmental

organization (IGO) coverage..

Mihi-Ramirez, A., & Kumpikaite, V. (2014) noted that the analysis of data

have showed that 1) internationalization is an important current characteristic and

goal of most of students 2) the main migration motivations identified are economic

reasons 3) Other factors affecting migration decision depend on country analyzed.

 Bessey, D. (2012) showed that the past decades have witnessed an

impressive growth of international student mobility. This article presents first

empirical evidence on international student migration to Germany, one of the most

important destination countries for international students worldwide. While

previous research in the field has mainly used data on international trade in

educational services, use a novel approach that analyzes student mobility as a form

of migration, using data on international student migrants. An augmented gravity

equation is the basis for the theoretical and empirical framework. I also provide

extensive sensitivity checks of the empirical results and estimates using both the

usual log-linearized and a multiplicative specification of the gravity equation,

following recent work by Santos Silva and Tenreyro (Rev Econ Stat 88(4):

641–658, 2006) provided evidence for the importance of distance—a familiar

result from the empirical migration literature. Unlike for international migration on

the whole, the importance of disposable income in the home country does not seem

to be too big for students, and student migrant flows from politically unfree

countries are significantly lower.

Morgan, J. N. (1983) noted that policies toward nonresident students by

public institutions of higher education are an increasingly important issue. This

paper looks at the determinants of student migration and the interrelationship of

student migration and tuition rates. Students are found to be attracted to schools in
states that are attractive to migrants in general, specifically schools in states with

favorable economic and environmental conditions, and high tuition rates are found

to be a significant deterrent to nonresident students. Tuition rates for nonresident

students are found to be largely determined by tradition, although states are found

to have a tendency to increase nonresident tuition if they are strong net importers

of students.

Alm, J., & Winters, J. V. (2009) indicated that student intrastate migration is

strongly discouraged by greater distance, but with effects that differ across types of

higher education institutions.

According to, Liu‐Farrer, G. (2009), it is noted that the international students

have different credentials, interests, and motivations for migrating abroad, and

consequently provide the host society both unskilled and skilled labor power.

Moreover, Chinese students’ labor market practices as skilled labor migrants show

their important roles in the economic globalization. Aside from scientific and

engineering skills, Chinese students use their linguistic and cultural competencies

to act as intermediaries between their host and home economies.

Kandel, W., & Kao, G. (2001) implied that high levels of U.S. migration are

associated with lower aspirations to attend a university at all academic levels.

However, a positive relationship between U.S. migration and grades. We conclude

that while U.S. migration provides financial benefits that allow children to

continue schooling and perform well, it may also reduce the motivation to attain

above-average years of schooling.

Jensen, B. et al, (2018) discovered that more immediate plans are associated

with lower performance for students considering migration and that this

relationship varies by family socioeconomic status. And parent migration exposure

negatively affects achievement for some groups. Findings are interpreted in terms

of structural inequalities in Mexico and conclude with recommendations to enrich

academic learning opportunities for children and youth within migrant families and

communities.

In the study of Hawthorne, L. (2014), data showed that the quantitative

evidence available concerning former Indian students’ study choices, engagement

in two‐step migration, and employment outcomes relative to other international

students and offshore Indian migrants to date. The likely impacts of the latest

skilled migration policy trends are then explored, in a context where India remains

Australia's second ranked export education market.

According to Agadjanian, V. et al. (2008), the multivariate analyses of

recent survey data show that even after controlling for socioeconomic

characteristics and social embeddedness Europeans are significantly more inclined

to migrate than Asians. Whereas no gender differences in migration intentions

among either group are detected, marriage, childbearing, and social capital exhibit

distinct ethnic-specific effects. Although economic considerations are prevailing

stimuli for migration in both groups, the results point to the formation of two

dominant ethnic-specific migration preference types – for temporary migration

among Asians and permanent migration among Europeans.

 CHAPTER III
RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Considering the vitality of the problem, this study sought to capture the

impact of student migration. The result of this study will also establish an

understanding of the documented benefits of study abroad programs.

Specifically, the study will try to examine and answer the following questions:

1. What are the common push factors that lead to student participation in

studying abroad?

2. What are the common pull factors that make another country attractive to

students?

3. In what ways have study abroad programs been shown to veritably

benefit students?

4. What are the effects of studying abroad in terms of social and personal

development, academic value and career value?

5. What action plan can be anticipated?

Definition of Terms

Push factors - are those that operate within a country and initiate a student’s

decision to undertake study abroad. These include economic, social, and

political forces within the source country.

Pull factors - are those that make another country attractive to students

(Mazzarol and Soutar,2002).

 CHAPTER IV
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

This study is conducted primarily for the purpose of identifying the impacts

of student migration to newly licensed engineers from Cebu Institute of

Technology-University taking up post-graduate education abroad.

Every attempt of this study should be made towards accuracy, precision and

an attention to detail in the anticipation of achieving significant and usable results.

Despite this, certain factors may remain that limit the overall comprehensive and

precise nature of the research. These factors deserve due attention. Several of the

decidedly more significant factors that may be proven to impact research processes

or resulting data are as follows:

Delivery method – As it was all but impossible to put the participants of this study

in a position of obligatory participation, a small risk for potential bias may be

present in the resulting dataset. The likelihood of licensed engineers taking up

post-graduate abroad sharing specific personality traits and characteristics unique

to those who choose to engage in such a study voluntarily is expected to be

miniscule.
Research Parameters – This study is limited to engineering department. A

specific department in Cebu Institute of Technology-University, making it

improbable that any data sample will provide a completely comprehensive and

precise portrayal of the nation’s attitudes as a whole. This is potentially attributable

to the likelihood of institutional and regional differences.

Time – Arguably the most significant of the limitations, time constraints

noticeably restrict the depth and scope of this study especially in scheduling an

appointment with the participants which may be busy due to their hectic schedule,

prohibiting the research process from being taken to the extent desired. Due to the

eternal nature of revisions, refinements and improvements, it can be presumed that

an increased allowance of time may have resulted in slight enrichments to various

sections of the conducted research.

 CHAPTER V
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

In this study, the descriptive – correlational method of research will be used.

The flow is shown in Figure 1.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

 Descriptive-
Correlational
Method
Profile of the
Respondents  Gathering of data
Push factors Proposed Action
 Tabulation of data Plan
Pull factors
 Analysis of data
Benefits and Effects
 Interpretation of data
 Figure 1.
Research Flow of the Study

Research Respondents

The respondents of the study will be the whole population of post graduate

students of Cebu Institute of Technology University who plans to study abroad.

Research Environment

This study will be conducted at Cebu Institute of Technology University.

Cebu Institute of Technology – University is a private non-sectarian

academic institution, providing basic and higher education with a foundation in

general and technological education in the Philippines.

Research Instrument

One questionnaire will be administered to the respondents. But before the

questionnaire will be administered, it will be pilot-tested to ensure its validity.

Based on a review of the literature (Hung et al., 2000, 2005; Lee and Tan,

1984; Mazzarol and Soutar, 2002; Zhao and Guo, 2002) the questionnaire involved

lists of common information gathering sources and the push–pull features or

factors previously reported to influence student thinking in regard to choosing a

study abroad destination. Part I will be the profile of the respondents which
includes their personal information. Part II will be the Pull factors of studying

abroad. Part III will be the Push factors of studying abroad and Part IV will be the

benefits and effects of studying abroad.

Research Procedures

Preliminary Preparation. The following preliminary preparations will

done to make sure that the gathered data are valid: First, the researchers will

present the questionnaires to the research adviser for critiquing. Secondly, the

researchers will prepare a transmittal letter signed by the Vice President for

Academic Affairs of Cebu Institute of Technology University asking the school

principal for the approval to pilot test the questionnaire to University of San

Carlos.

Data-Gathering Procedures. After the questionnaire is pilot-tested and

upon approval of the questionnaire, the researchers will distribute the

questionnaires to all respondents using population samples. The administration of

questionnaires will be given on June 20, 2019. Finally, the data will be collected,

tabulated, analyzed and statistically interpreted.

Statistical Treatment

The following statistical tools will be used in the treatment of data:

 Proportion. This formula will used in the presentation of the respondents'

profile.

Weighted Mean. This will be used in the analysis of the indicators of the

questionnaire.

Chi-Square. This formula was used in testing the relationships of data.

Ethical Considerations in Collecting Data

The researchers will consider the following ethical issues while collecting data:

 Confidentiality

The participants will be assured that the information provided in the

questionnaires is only for the purpose of research. This will be attained by

not being allowed to indicate their names in the questionnaires. This will

ensure that nobody could link the data to specific subjects.

 Informed consent

The researchers sought consent of all the respondents before administering

the questionnaires. Therefore the participation in the research will be

voluntarily done.
Research Questionnaires

By answering the following questions, you are agreeing to allow the author use the
resulting data. All participants will be kept anonymous. Please answer all
questions as accurately as possible.

I. Please provide the following contact information, which will be used

only if we have a question about your responses.

Name: ________________________________

Institution/Organization: _____________________________________

City and Stat::_____________________________________

Email: _____________________________________

i. Personal information (Tick the appropriate position)

a). Sex
Male Female

b). Level of education

Form Certificate Diploma Degree
six

(c) Please indicate your institution or organization type.

 Doctorate []
Master’s []
Baccalaureate []
Associate’s []
Professional/Specialized [ ]
Independent Program Provider [ ]
Under what college degree program? _______________________

(d). Age (Write the exact number on the box)

20 Less More than
Years than 30 30 years
years

II. Please rate the following Pull Factors that affects the decision of
studying abroad.
Note: (1) Variables were measured on a four-point scale from 1 = very
important to
4 = least important; (2) Data is presented from the highest importance
to the lowest importance based on parent responses; (3) M = mean,
SD = standard deviation.

1. Knowledge and awareness of the institution, 1 2 3 4

its reputation, and general knowledge
of the destination country.
2. Positive attitude toward supporting 1 2 3 4
International education in the destination
country.
3. Recommendations and the influence of relatives, 1 2 3 4
parents and friends.
4. Tuition fees, living expenses, travel cost 1 2 3 4
and social cost.
 5. Environment considerations including 1 2 3 4
climate, lifestyle,crime, safety and
racial discrimination.
6. Geographical proximity 1 2 3 4
7. Social or educational links to family
or friends living in the destination country, 1 2 3 4
or family or friends studying there.
8. Immigration prospects after graduation. 1 2 3 4
9. Perceived higher standards of education 1 2 3 4
and employment prospects.
10. Availability of scholarships for study. 1 2 3 4
11. Employment prospects on graduation 1 2 3 4
12.Onsite accommodation; 1 2 3 4
13. range of programs available; 1 2 3 4
14. English-speaking environment; 1 2 3 4
15. language and academic support services; 1 2 3 4
16. general facilities – buildings and grounds; 1 2 3 4
17. international education experiences 1 2 3 4
during courses;
18. relatives or friends studying in the area; 1 2 3 4
19. social and emotional support services. 1 2 3 4

III. Please rate the following PUSH Factors that affects the decision of
studying abroad.
Note: (1) Variables were measured on a four-point scale from 1 = very
important to
4= least important; (2) Data is presented from the highest
importance to the lowest importance based on parent responses; (3)
M = mean, SD = standard deviation.
 1) Climate of host country 1 2 3 4
2) Level of crime and discrimination 1 2 3 4
3) Range of student clubs and societies 1 2 3 4
4) Lifestyle of host country 1 2 3 4
5) General facilities – buildings and Grounds 1 2 3 4
6) Part-time employment while studying 1 2 3 4
7) Language and academic support services 1 2 3 4
8) Onsite accommodation 1 2 3 4
9) Employment prospects on graduation 1 2 3 4
10) Range of programs available 1 2 3 4
11) Scholarships 1 2 3 4
12) Social and emotional support services. 1 2 3 4
13) An inadequate supply of university places 1 2 3 4
14) Immigration prospects 1 2 3 4
15) quality education 1 2 3 4
16) economic growth 1 2 3 4

IV. Please rate the following BENEFITS AND EFFECTS of studying

abroad.
Note: (1) Variables were measured on a four-point scale from 1 =
strongly disagree to
4= strongly agree; (2) M = mean, SD = standard deviation.

Career development

1. Has enhanced my overall employability 1 2 3 4

2. Allowed me to acquire a skills set that 1 2 3 4

influenced my career path.
3. Has contributed directly to my current or 1 2 3 4
 past employment
4. Ignited an interest in a career direction that 1 2 3 4
I pursued after the experience.
5. Provided me an internship experience that 1 2 3 4
shaped my career choices.

Personal and Social Development

1. Enabled me to learn something new about 1 2 3 4

myself.
2. Allowed me to value perspectives other than 1 2 3 4
my own
3. Influenced my perspective on how I view the 1 2 3 4
world.
4. Allowed me to better understand my own cultural 1 2 3 4
values and biases.
5. Served as a catalyst for increased maturity. 1 2 3 4
6. Influenced my interaction with people from 1 2 3 4
different cultural backgrounds.
7. Influenced me to seek out a greater diversity of 1 2 3 4
friends.
8. Has influenced my political and social awareness. 1 2 3 4
9. Enabled me to tolerate ambiguity.
10.Caused me to change or redefine my political and 1 2 3 4
social views.
11.Gave me a new or enhanced appreciation of the 1 2 3 4
arts.
12.Influenced the choices I make in my family life 1 2 3 4
13.Influenced my participation in community 1 2 3 4
organisations.

Academic Value
1. My study abroad experience has led to an 1 2 3 4
improvement of my academic performance
2. Studying abroad has enhanced my critical 1 2 3 4
thinking skills.
3. Study abroad has enhanced my independence 1 2 3 4
4. Study abroad has enhanced my self-reliance 1 2 3 4
5. My study abroad experience has improved 1 2 3 4
my problem-solving skills
6. Studying abroad has helped me develop 1 2 3 4
leadership skills
 TRANSMITTAL LETTER TO THE RESPONDENTS

Dear Respondents,

The undersigned is currently finishing their study entitled, Human Capital

Flight: Assessing the Impact of Studying Abroad among Post-graduate Students. In

this connection, we would like to request your cooperation by filling out the survey

form/instrument with all honesty.

Rest assured that your responses will be treated with utmost respect and

confidentiality.

Thank you.

Truly yours,

Batoctoy, Loulyn

Juarez, Jonalyn

Repunte, Georgette

Senillo, Kenneth Brian

Vergara, Phyllis Lucile

 Acknowledgment and Consent Form

I, _______________________________ herby state that:

I have read all of the information above pertaining to the study Human Capital
Flight: Assessing the Impact of Studying Abroad among Post-graduate Students. I
understand all of the information pertaining to this study and I have been given a
signed copy of this document. I accept the participation in this study.

Signature of Prospective Participant _____________

Date___________