Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Gender Equaility
Gender Equaility
Volume III
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Foreword
As we know, children are the chief agents of their learning, and teachers are a major
resource for this. As professionals, the teachers contribute in imparting quality
education and bringing about a qualitative change in the learning environment.
The role of teacher educators is equally crucial, as they can motivate the teachers
to adopt inclusive pedagogical process that keeps the learner perspective in mind
in planning curricular activities.
The National Policy of Education (1986) viewed education as an instrument
of social transformation that would eliminate curriculum biases and enable
professionals such as teachers, decision makers, administrators and planners to
‘play’ a positive interventionist role for gender equality. The Programme of Action
(POA), 1992, clearly emphasizes training all teachers and instructors as agents of
women’s empowerment, developing gender sensitization programmes for teacher
educators and administrators, developing gender-sensitive curriculum and removal
of sex bias from textbooks.
The National Curriculum Framework, 2005, propagates the need for the teachers’
role shifting from being a source of knowledge to being a facilitator of learning.
In the training required for this, adequate efforts should be made to bring about
attitudinal changes. The best way to bring about this is to stress the criticality of
being able to recognize one’s own biases and act upon them to maintain a ‘gender
bias free’ approach in one’s work. This is expected to make teachers aware of
the prevalent attitudinal problems and at the same time gear them up to make
conscious efforts to avoid/ minimise discriminatory practices that can impact the
growing up of boys and girls.
The Focus Group on Gender Issues in Education (2006) has also emphasized
on teacher training to be more self reflective, participatory and research oriented.
It states that resource material need to be developed to provide inputs to teacher
and teacher educators as to how the gender issues can be woven into the teaching
learning process.
The training of teacher educators has always been a priority of the Department
of Women’s Studies, NCERT. These training programmes have been instrumental
in generating awareness on gender issues in education. States and NGOs and other
organisations working in the area of gender issues can utilize this training material
to train their own educational personnel or use it as a resource material.
The approach followed in the material is based on the position paper on ‘Gender
Issues in Education’ wherein it is stated that gender should not be treated as a
add on approach but as a cross cutting edge in all disciplinary areas. The present
material is gender inclusive and will also enable the teachers to understand
key concepts related to gender and how they operate in reality through various
institutions. This material will provide an opportunity for self introspection and self
iv
reflection of their own socialization processes and will encourage them to question
and critique existing power relations and customary practices. It will enable them
to integrate their experiences with the content of different disciplines for weaving
issues related to boys and girls.
While the authors have made each module participatory and focus upon building
imagination and creativity in school settings, all modules are based upon an evolving
and developing approach. The readers can adopt and adapt according to their needs
and context. A range of sample activity has been incorporated. Additions to this
material are welcome and users can utilize their own context specific knowledge and
experience while transacting the modules. The training material is divided into three
volumes according to the focus of the various themes. These volumes are:
Volume 1: Perspectives on Gender and Society,
Volume 2: Gender and Schooling Processes,
Volume 3: Gender and Women’s Empowerment.
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the authors, editors and
coordinators towards the creation and finalization of the three volumes.
As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement
in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions on this
material, and its utilization.
Authors
Editors
Coordinators
Foreword iii
Introduction 1
Modules
2. From Parity to Equity in Girls’ Education: Lessons from South Asia 15-36
6. Protecting the Rights of Girls and Women: The Legal Framework 78-98
Volume III contributes richly to academic Module 2, From Parity to Equity in Girls’
discourse and knowledge dissemination Education: Lessons from South Asia, focuses
in the area of gender and women’s on the need for making a transition from
empowerment. It consists of six modules parity to equity in girls education. It takes
on diverse themes which take into account into cognizance the needs of girl children
the different policies, programmes, bills, as a basis of understanding them. Taking
incentives and constitutional provisions recourse to the Right to Education bill, the
aimed at protecting and empowering module argues for equality of opportunities
women. The modules also provide rich to be created for both girls and boys,
insights on how the process of women’s beginning with equal access to school and
empowerment is mediated and facilitated. then more process based adjustments.
The volume additionally helps in building It highlights that in order that girls are
awareness about the legal provisions and retained in schools, it is important that the
teachers create gender friendly learning
various self-help groups and agencies which
environments. Apart from exploring the
foster financial independence and generate
causative factors for girls’ exclusion from
self employment and entrepreneurship
the schooling process, the module highlights
skills among girls and women. The modules
the fact that quality education for girls not
emphasise the view that women can make
only contributes to achieving gender and
a vital contribution to the country’s growth social equality but also enables to overcome
and development. The image of women that multiple sources of exclusion. Examples
thus emerges is one of inherent capability, are drawn from different South Asian
strength and empowerment. The role of the countries to substantiate the main points
State in this regard has also been spelt out and arguments.
in a fair amount of detail. M o d u l e 3 , Education of Minority
Module 1, Women’s Movements in India: Communities: The Case of Muslim Girls,
Tracing the Journey, gives an insight into the dwells upon the causative factors for the
reform movements spearheaded by women exclusion of Muslim girls in the formal
during the pre- and post- independence educational institutions. At the same
period, aptly highlighting the landmark time, it also highlights the role of various
events and achievements of the movement. educational institutions which played a
It traces the roots of the women’s movements pivotal role in educating these girls. A
and participation from the historical past historical overview in this regard has been
to the present and brings to the forefront, provided. The author delineates various
recent women centric issues and debates. policies and programmes which aim to
2 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
make education accessible to the minority an insight into the nature of crimes and
communities, especially the Muslim girls. injustice faced by women, as well as the
Module 4, Economic Empowerment legal provisions which are available for
of Women: Potential and Possibilities, the redressal of such crimes and gender
emphasizes the importance of making girls injustice. Through this module the author
and women self-sufficient and financially also delineates the paradox of the legal
independent. Even if the girls drop out of framework, which is biased against women.
schools, that they should be equipped with Irrespective of the existence of multiple
certain skills which might enable them to gain laws, the legal system has been unable to
economic independence, is the central idea
obliterate certain socio-cultural practices
that is embodied. The module contributes
which foster gender discrimination. The
to the knowledge base and highlights the
module disseminates information about the
role of self-help groups which train women
various agencies and organizations which
in certain skills, in order that they are able
to generate self employment within the work towards promoting legal literacy to
contexts in which they are located. This girls and women.
module aims to generate awareness about Module 7, Being Self Reliant: Vocational
varied policies, programmes, availability of Education for Empowerment of Girls focuses
different kinds of raw materials as well as on vocational education for competency
the existence and roles of self-help groups development. Competency is a blend of
in fostering entrepreneurial skills and knowledge, skills and the right attitude
economic empowerment amongst women. to accomplish a particular task. Thus it
A number of case illustrations and data prepares an individual to perform in the
have been used to substantiate the key real work situations. For girls who wish
arguments. to start earning from early years in their
Module 5, Employment and Empowerment life, VE is a good option because it gives
of Women through Self-help Groups brings opportunity to equip oneself according
out the role of self-help groups in generating to the needs of the market making the
employment opportunities for poor and person more employable. There is also
marginalized women. These groups equip scope for continuous up gradation of skills/
women with entrepreneurial abilities and diversification in skill development or to
social skills and enable them to deal with
shift to academic stream.
their economic crisis and poverty with
Thus, Volume III is of great significance
dignity. The module not only focuses on
to policy makers, researchers, academicians
the advantages of the self-help groups, it
simultaneously cautions against the misuse and field workers working in the arena of
of funds. It disseminates information about Gender and Women’s Studies. Apart from
the roles, functions and mode of operation highlighting the lacunae between theory
of self-help groups. The citation of various and practice, it also highlights significant
case studies draws attention to the fact areas where interventions are required.
that economic empowerment leads to the Through the rich theoretical discourse,
development of self-confidence, self-esteem each of these modules not only highlight
and above all a positive sense of self and the strengths, capabilities and potentialities
identity among women. of women, but also advocate the need and
Module 6, Protecting the Rights of Girls urgency to tap their potential in the quest
and Women: The Legal Framework, gives to make them more empowered and visible.
Module 1
Women’s Movements in India:
Tracing the Journey
Structure of the Module
1.1 Overview
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Objectives
1.4 The Women’s Movement: Pre-Independence Phase
1.5 The Women’s Movement: Post-Independence Phase
1.6 Dawning of Reality
1.7 The Way Forward
1.8 References
Patel (2012) discusses the three phases 1.4 THE WOMEN’S MOVEMENT: PRE-
of Women’s Movements as: 19th Century INDEPENDENCE PHASE
Social Reform Movement, 20th Century In the early nineteenth century social
Freedom Movement and Women’s Rights reformers, like Ram Mohan Roy (1772-
Movement in the post 1975 period that have 1833), began to focus on issues concerning
brought to fore a wide range of women’s women. Ram Mohan Roy condemned
concerns (Patel, 2012, p.1). sati, kulin pratha, polygamy and spoke in
Sen (2000) elaborates how the women’s favour of women’s property rights. He held
movement in India began in the 1920s, the condition of Indian women as one of
building on the 19th century social reform the factors responsible for the degraded
movement. It progressed during the period state of Indian society. If Ram Mohan is
of high nationalism and the freedom remembered for his anti-sati movement,
struggle, both of which contributed in Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar is more often
shaping its contours (Sen, 2000, p.1). She remembered for his widow remarriage
further explains that among the many campaign. Following them, improving the
achievements of the movement, the most condition of women became the first tenet
significant were the right to vote and the of the Indian social reform movement.
constitutional guarantee of equal rights Women’s inferior status, enforced seclusion,
early marriage, condition of widows and
for women in independent India. However,
lack of education were facts documented
these guarantees did little to bring about
and questioned by reformers throughout
social and material change in the lives
the country.
of most Indian women. A new women’s
movement, articulated to mass and popular (a) Women’s Organizations Started by
politics, emerged in the 1970s (ibid.) Men
In independent India, women-oriented Socio-religious reformers were pioneers in
issues were supported by political parties as starting organizations for the upliftment of
a part of the movement both at the national the status of women. The first organization
and regional level. Issues focused on for women was begun by men who belonged
to the socio religious reform associations. In
environment, political participation, violence
Bengal, Keshub Chandra Sen, a prominent
against women, anti-arrack movement,
Brahmo Samaj leader, started a women’s
campaign against rape and dowry, etc.
journal, held prayer meetings for women
These movements were propelled by a
and developed educational programmes
genuine cause, and had an ideology. Thus, for women. Members of the Brahmo Samaj
there was an element of spontaneity and a formed associations for women of their own
groundswell directed the course of events. families and faith. Similar work towards
Women’s participation in these movements prohibition of child marriage, for widow
cut across caste and class lines. remarriage and for women’s education
had been done by the Prarthana Samaj in
1.3 OBJECTIVES
Maharashtra and Gujarat, under Narayan
• To illustrate the history of women’s Ganesh Chandavarkar, Madhav Govind
movement in india; Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar in Pune.
• to highlight major achievements and The male-inspired and male guided
emerging debates in the context of the organizations for women did valuable work
women’s movements in India; and in educating women, giving them their first
• to discuss contemporary issues of experience with public work. However, they
women’s movement in India. were unable to perceive them outside the
Women’s Movements in India: Tracing the Journey 5
domestic realm altogether. For them, home opportunity to meet other women, engage
remained and occupied a primary place in a in philanthropic work, take an interest
women’s life. Education for women was seen in public affairs and thus broaden their
as an important agency that would improve horizon. It also gave them the experience
their role as a homemaker and companion. of managing an organization.
The educated male intelligentsia never saw
role reversal as a proposition for improving Activity
the status of women. Prepare a time-line of major events in the
history of women’s movement, which took
(b) Women’s Organizations Started by
place in the 19th century. Display it in
Women your classroom.
By the end of the nineteenth century, a few
women emerged from within the families (c) Voting Rights for Women
of male social reformers who formed In the inter war years, between 1917 and
organizations of their own. The Parsis, the 1945, the two main issues that the women’s
Muslims and the Sikhs all formed their own movement took up were political rights for
women’s organizations. women and reform of personal laws. The
The National Conference was formed Indian National Congress at its session
at the third session of the Indian National
in Calcutta in 1917 which Annie Besant
Congress in 1887 to provide a forum for
presided, supported the demand of votes
the discussion of social issues. The Bharat
for women and so did the Muslim League.
Mahila Parishad was the women’s wing
of this and was inaugurated in 1905. It The foundation of the Women’s Indian
focused on child marriage, condition of Association (WIA) was laid in 1917 by Annie
widows, dowry and other ‘evil’ customs. Besant, Margaret Cousins and Dorothy
Jinarajadasa, all three Irish women
One of the first to form an organization
Theosophists, who had been suffragettes
was Swarnakumari Devi, daughter of
in their own country. WIA was in a sense
Debendranath Tagore, a Brahmo leader,
the first all Indian women’s association
and sister of the poet Rabindranath
with the clear objective of securing voting
Tagore. Swarnakumari formed the Ladies
rights for women.
Theosophical Society in Calcutta in 1882
which was discontinued in 1886 for lack Other prominent Indian women at that
of members. In 1886 she started the Sakhi time were Malathi Patwardhan, Ammu
Samiti for educating and imparting skills Swaminathan, Mrs Dadabhoy and
to widows and other poor women to make Mrs Ambujammal.
them economically self-reliant. She edited
a women’s journal, Bharati, thus earning Travancore-Cochin, a princely state, was
herself the distinction of being the first the first to give voting rights to women in
Indian women editor. 1920, followed by Madras and Bombay in
In 1882, Ramabai Saraswati formed the 1921. Other states followed. Franchise was
Arya Mahila Samaj in Pune and a few years of course extremely limited. Women could
later started the Sharada Sadan in Bombay vote only if they possessed qualifications of
in 1889.
wifehood, property and education.
Women in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras The Government of India Act of 1935
and other smaller cities formed associations increased the number of enfranchised
whose members were drawn from among women and removed some of the previous
a small group of urban educated families. qualifications. All women over 21 could now
These organizations brought women vote, provided they fulfilled the qualification
out of their homes, provided them an of property and education. Women had to
6 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
wait till after independence to get universal were several prominent women unionists.
adult franchise. Women workers were consciously organized
(d) Reform of Personal Laws and a special role was given to them in the
The All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) workers’ movement.
was established in 1927 at the initiative of Thus in the first phase of women’s
Margaret Cousins to take up the problem movement women had participated in the
of women’s education. It waged a vigorous freedom struggle, in the public arena and in
campaign for raising the age of marriage politics. The nationalist movement brought
which led to the passing of the Sarda Act in into its fold not only elite women but also
1929. AIWC took up the cause of reform of poor, non-literate rural and urban women.
personal law. As there was some opposition Women had succeeded in legitimizing their
to a common civil law, it demanded reform claim to a place in the governance of free
of Hindu laws to prohibit bigamy, provide India. However women’s participation in
the right to divorce and for women to inherit the freedom movement did not lead to a
property. The women’s movement carried separate autonomous women’s movement
on a sustained campaign for these reforms since it was part of the anti-colonial
that were finally obtained with the passing movement.
of the Hindu Code Bills in the 1950s. Nineteenth century social reformers
(e) Women in the National Movement were primarily concerned with issues that
affected urban, upper caste, middle class
Women’s struggle entered a new phase
women such as purdah, sati, education,
with the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi on the
age of marriage and widow remarriage.
Indian political scene. Gandhi launched the
They argued for upliftment of women in
first Non Co-operation Movement in 1921
and gave a special role to women. Peasant view of their role as the mothers of future
women played an important role in the rural generations. While women were urged to
satyagrahas of Borsad and Bardoli. Women come out and work for the nation, there
participated in the Salt Satyagraha, in the was no rejection of the traditional role of
Civil Disobedience Movement, in the Quit mother and wife.
India Movement and in all the Gandhian 1.5 THE WOMEN’S MOVEMENT: POST-
Satyagrahas. They held meetings, organized INDEPENDENCE PHASE
processions, picketed shops selling foreign
cloth and liquor and went to jail. The Post-Independence decade of the 1950s
Women won respect for their courage was a period of tremendous optimism.
and mass participation in the freedom It was believed that the Constitutional
struggle. At the Karachi session of the guarantee of equality would in some way
Indian National Congress in 1930s, the improve the lot of women. The women
resolution on Fundamental Rights gave activists also saw some hope in the form of
equal rights to women. following landmarks:
(f) Women in the Labour Movement (a) Constitutional Provisions
In 1917 Anasuya Sarabhai had led the The Indian Constitution declared equality
Ahmedabad textile workers’ strike and as a fundamental right and accepted
in 1920 under her leadership the Majoor the principle of equality between sexes
Mahajan, the Ahmedabad textile mill and absence of discrimination on the
workers union was established. By the ground of sex as a fundamental right. It
late 1920s, the presence of women in the guaranteed equal protection of the law and
workers’ movement was noticeable. There equal opportunity in public employment.
Women’s Movements in India: Tracing the Journey 7
Universal adult suffrage gave all women of implementation and consequently there
the right to vote. was a lull in the women’s movement.
In the post independence years, women
Activitiy joined struggles for the rural poor and
1. Make a list of all the provisions given industrial working class such as the
in the Constitution of India to ensure Tebhaga movement in Bengal, the Telangana
equality and safeguard and promote
movement in Andhra Pradesh or the Naxalite
women’s rights and interests.
movement and the tribal landless labourers’
(b) Hindu Code Bill movement against landlords in Shahada,
Maharashtra. Women played a prominent
The debate on the issue of reform of
role and led demonstrations, invented and
Hindu law which had begun from the
shouted militant slogans and mobilized the
1930s continued in the post independence
masses. As women’s militancy developed,
period. After considerable discussion and
gender based issues were raised. There was
opposition, due to persistent lobbying by
an anti alcohol agitation as men used to get
women’s organizations and the strong
drunk and beat their wives. Women went
support of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru
round villages breaking post in liquor dens
and the Law Minister, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar,
(Kumar, 1993).
Parliament passed during 1955-56 a series
of Acts known collectively as the Hindu Read the following excerpt from
Code Bill. These were (a) the Hindu Marriage The Women’s Movement in India:
Act, which abolished polygamy, fixed the Action and Reflection by Urvashi
Butalia:
marriage age of both boys and girls and
granted the right of divorce to Hindu Some years ago, Rojamma, a poor woman
women; (b) the Hindu Succession Act which from the southern state of Andhra Pradesh,
granted Hindu women the right to inherit attended a literacy class. Here, she read
and hold property on the same terms as a story which described a life very like
her own. It talked about a poor woman,
men. Property was to be equally divided
struggling to make ends meet, who was
between sons and daughters; (c) the Hindu regularly beaten by her husband. Whatever
Minority and Guardianship Act made the he earned, he spent on liquor, and then,
guardianship of a woman over her children drunk and violent, he attacked her because
at par with her husband’s and her right to she had no food to give him. Unable to
appoint a guardian of her children by Will; stand the continuing violence, the woman
(d) the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance went from house to house, to find every
Act provided for the adoption of a son or a other woman who had the same story to
daughter. tell. They got together, and decided they
would pitch their attack where it hurt most:
The Special Marriage Act passed in 1954
they would picket liquor shops and stop
authorized divorce by mutual consent for liquor being sold. Their husbands then
persons who had been married in a civil would have no liquor to drink, and the
ceremony. These were measures for which money they earned would be saved.
the women’s movement had struggled Inspired by the story, Rojamma collected
before independence. her friends together, and they began to
Thus by the mid fifties India had fairly picket liquor shops. The campaign spread
liberal laws concerning women. Most of like wildfire. In village after village, women
the demands of the women’s movement got together, they talked, they went on
had been met and the there seemed few strike, they beat up liquor shop owners,
issues left to organize around. Women’s they refused to allow their husbands to
organizations now saw the problem as one squander money on liquor. And, they
8 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
succeeded. The sale of liquor was banned The Nav Nirman movement, originally
in Andhra Pradesh, reluctantly, by the a students’ movement in Gujarat against
government for liquor brings in huge soaring prices, black marketing and
amounts of money. As a result, savings corruption launched in 1974 was soon
went up, violence levels dropped, and the joined by thousands of middle class women.
lives of poor women began to improve. Their method of protest ranged from mass
1.1 What do you know about the Anti- hunger strike, mock funerals to prabhat
Alcohol agitation in the Western parts pheris.
of India? The Chipko movement got its name from
_____________________________________ the Hindi word ‘chipko’ which means to
_____________________________________ cling. This clinging to trees was a particular
1.2 Collect information about the Anti- action people used to save trees, which
Alcohol agitation in India and a prepare were crucial to their lives, from being felled.
a collage based on all your findings.You The movement began in 1973 in the small
can use the following points to start hilly town of Gopeshwar in Chamoli district
your activities: when representatives from a sports factory
• Which year did it start? Who came to cut trees. By 1974 many women
organised these agitations and who had joined the movement and with their
participated? united strength prevented the contractor
• Details of the agitation from cutting trees. It was the women of
• Which were the States where these the ‘Chipko’ agitation who brought to
agitations took place? public attention the importance of trees
• What was the impact of these and the need to protect the environment.
agitations on liquor shops, men and Movements like Chipko Movement fall under
women? the category of Ecofeminism, which tries to
build the link between ecology and women.
In 1972, in Ahemdabad, Ela Bhatt took Birkeland (1993) explains ecofeminism as
the initiative of forming the Self Employed a value system, a social movement, and a
Women’s Association (SEWA). Its aim was practice that also offers a political analysis
to improve the condition of poor women that explores the links between male
who worked in the unorganized sector domination and environmental destruction.
by providing training, technical aids and It is an “awareness” that begins with the
collective bargaining. This was probably the realization that the exploitation of nature is
first attempt to form a women’s trade union. intimately linked to western man’s attitude
Based on Gandhian ideals, SEWA has been towards women and tribal cultures.
a remarkable success. Rao (2012) analyses that in India, the
The anti price rise agitation launched most visible advocate of ecofeminism is
in Bombay in 1973 by Mrinal Gore of the Vandana Shiva. Vandana Shiva (1988)
Socialist Party and Ahalya Rangnekar of critiques modern science and technology
the CPI-M, together with others, mobilized as a western, patriarchal and colonial
women of the city against inflation. The project, which is inherently violent and
movement grew rapidly becoming a mass perpetuates this violence against women
movement for consumer protection. So and nature. Under the garb of development,
many housewives got involved in the nature has been exploited mercilessly. The
movement that a new form of protest was feminine principle is no longer associated
invented by women coming out in the with activity, creativity and sanctity of
streets and beating thalis (metal plates) with life, but is considered passive and as a
rolling pins. “resource”. This has led to marginalization,
Women’s Movements in India: Tracing the Journey 9
devaluation, displacement and ultimately the country came together to form groups
the dispensability of women. Women’s which were either independent or a part of
special knowledge of nature and their political parties. Everywhere, in different
dependence on it for “staying alive”, have movements that were sweeping the country,
been systematically marginalized under women participated in large numbers. In
the onslaught of modern science. Shiva, each movement, their participation resulted
however, notes that Third World women in transforming the movements from within
are not simply victims of the development (Butalia, 1997).
process, but also possess the power for The publication of ‘Towards Equality,
change. She points to the experiences of the Report of the Committee on the
women in the Chipko movement of the Status of Women (CSW)’ in 1974 and the
1970s in the Garhwal Himalayas where United Nation’s declaration of 1975 as the
women struggled for the protection and International Year of Women beginning
regeneration of the forests (Rao, 2012, 129). with the First World Conference on Women
in Mexico, generated a new interest in
Activities
the debate on women’s issues. The data
1. What is Ecofeminism? How is it related
collected by CSW Report after exhaustive
to women?
countrywide investigation revealed that
2. Which diverse movements/campaigns
the de jure equality granted by the Indian
form part of ecofeminism in India?
Constitution had not been translated into
3. Gather information about the work of
reality and large masses of women had
the following activists:
remained unaffected by the rights granted
• Medha Patkar to them more than 25 years earlier. It
• Sunita Narain provided the intellectual foundation of a new
women’s movement that found expression
1.6 DAWNING OF REALITY both in activism and the academia.
Independence brought the dream of an The 1970s and 1980s witnessed the
egalitarian, just, democratic society in growth and proliferation of numerous
which both men and women would have women’s groups that took up issues such
voice and play an important role as agencies as dowry deaths, bride burning, rape, Sati,
of social change. But the reality that reproductive rights and focused on violence
gradually dawned was different. Though against women. They stressed the sexual
there was some improvement in the status oppression of women in a way previous
of women, they did not get much relief reform or feminist groups had never done.
from the patriarchal grips of the society. They attacked patriarchy and stressed the
Structures of patriarchy were also evolving humiliation, torture and violence suffered
and assuming new forms and intensity. by women within the family. They held that
The mid-1960s was a period of the first step towards women’s liberation
overwhelming social upheaval followed was to become aware of the patriarchal
by State repression. As Butalia (1997) also assumption that biological sex differences
points out, by the 1960s it was clear that imply a ‘natural’ separation of human
many promises of Independence were still activities by sex, the public sphere being the
unfulfilled. It was thus that the 1960s and male domain and the private sphere that of
1970s saw a spate of movements in which the female and this leads to a domination of
women took part: campaigns against rising male over female (Lerner, 1981, 169).
prices, movements for land rights, peasant Some of the earliest autonomous groups
movements. Women from different parts of were the Progressive Organization of Women
10 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
and the 1970s – such as the ‘Pill’ and the Over the years it has become clear that
IUD1 which, ironically, were seen as major changing laws means little unless there is
tools for female emancipation internationally a will to implement them. Only education
now became central to national population- and literacy can make women aware of their
control and reproductive-health policies” rights and exercise them effectively. It was
(Narayanan, 2011, p. 8). As a result women’s this realization that has led the women’s
bodies became dumping grounds for all movement to take up in a more concerted
sorts of unsafe and evasive birth control manner, programmes of legal literacy and
drugs and technologies. Autonomous education, gender sensitization of textbooks
women’s groups voiced their concerns and media.
regarding the State’s overemphasis on birth (f) Establishment of Women’s Studies as
control whilst using women as experimental Discipline
guinea pigs for the same. Women’s group
Women’s studies as an identifiable area
launched campaigns against pre-natal sex
determination techniques, female foeticide of teaching and research emerged in the
and abrasive birth control techniques like 1960s in the United States, although
quinacrine sterilisation, hormonal patches, the intellectual antecedents go back
etc. further, most noticeably in the works of
Simone de Beauvoir and Virginia Woolf.
Activities The contemporary women’s movement
A woman of Indian origin, Savita provided the impetus for the establishment
Halappanavar, lost her life in a hospital in and growth of women’s studies across
Ireland, to the rule of archaic abortion laws. disciplines. Women’s studies spread to
What is India’s stand on abortion rights? India slowly at first and then more rapidly
Does the Indian State extend any legal following the UN Mid Decade Conference in
rights to expectant or new mothers? What Copenhagen in 1980. The Indian Association
are those rights? of Women’s Studies established in 1981 is
an institution of women academics and
Find out laws enacted by the State to
activists involved in research and teaching.
protect the unborn child.
In the last three decades a large number
of books and journals by and on women
(e) Shah Bano Case
have appeared. There are publishing houses
There were several campaigns in the such as Stree, Zubaan, Kali for Women and
eighties relating to women’s rights. Among Katha that bring out books exclusively on
them was campaign in 1985, in support of feminist subjects. Efforts are being made
the Supreme Court judgement in the divorce to prepare reading and teaching material
case where Shah Bano, a Muslim woman, with a feminist perspective. A number of
had petitioned the Court for maintenance universities and colleges have women’s
from her husband under Section 125 of study centres.
the Criminal Procedure Act and the Court
granted her demand. The orthodox Muslims, (g) Reservation for Women in Panchayats
however, protested against interference with and Local Bodies
their personal law. In 1986, the government One of the most significant developments
introduced the Muslim Women’s (Protection in the last few decades has been 33%
of Rights in Divorce) Bill denying Muslim reservation for women in local village level
women redress under Section 125. Women’s elected bodies. This has brought about a
associations protested against this outside million women into the political arena. With
Parliament. all its drawbacks and limitations, when
1
IUD: Intra-Uterine Devices
12 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
women have power, they are able to use it The Indian women’s movement is often
to benefit society in general and women in accused of being urban based and middle
particular. class in character. While the urban feminists
(h) Sexual Harassment at Workplace Bill are more visible and articulate, rural women
have also mobilized themselves.
In 2012, a landmark bill was passed
While street level protests and
against sexual harassment at workplace.
demonstrations give women’s movement
According to this Bill called ‘Vishakha
visibility, this is clearly not enough. What
Guidelines against Sexual Harassment at
is needed is attention to basic survival
Workplace’ sexual harassment includes such needs such as food, safe drinking water,
unwelcome sexually determined behaviour sanitation and housing. Women need
(whether directly or by implication) as: education, health care, skill development
(a) Physical contact and advances; and employment; safety in the home and
(b) A demand or request for sexual at work. The last few years have seen an
favours; expansion in the movement with respect to
(c) Sexually coloured remarks; its incorporation of a wide range of issues.
(d) Showing pornography; Women’s organizations not only lead
(e) Any other unwelcome physical, verbal campaigns and march on the streets but
or non-verbal conduct of sexual nature also run shelters for battered wives and
This important piece of legislation which women who are victims of violence and
is the result of the sustained campaign provide counselling and legal aid. They
by the women’s movement allows enquiry conduct training workshops on various
and action against those guilty of sexual issues. They also help in forming self-help
harassment in government offices, public groups to make women economically self-
sector units, universities, colleges, etc. Most reliant.
of the organizations and institutions have
created a special cell for women to address Activities
such issues. Read the following passage:
(i) Protection of Women from Domestic Radhika Coomaraswamy 2 identifies
different kinds of violence against women,
Violence Act, 2005
in the United Nation’s special report, 1995,
The Domestic Act 2005 protects women on Violence Against Women:
from violence within the family. This act (a) Physical, sexual and psychological
is primarily meant to provide protection violence occurring in the family,
to the wife or female live-in partner from including battering, sexual abuse
violence at the hands of the husband or the of female children in the household,
male live-in partner. The law also extends dowry related violence, marital
protection to all the other women living rape, female genital mutilation and
other traditional practices harmful
in the household such as sisters, widows,
to women, non spousal violence and
mothers, etc. Despite criticisms of misuse, violence related to exploitation.
this act is seen as a major legal step towards
(b) Physical sexual and psychological
protection of women in India. violence occurring within the
All the major political parties, the general community, including
Congress, BJP, CPI (M) have their women’s rape, sexual abuse, sexual
wings. The new women’s groups declare harassment and intimidation at
themselves to be feminist. They are dispersed work, in educational institutions
with no central organization but they have and elsewhere, trafficking in women
built informal networks among themselves. and forced prostitution.
2
http://www.isst-india.org/PDF/Violence%20Against%20Women%20India.pdf
Women’s Movements in India: Tracing the Journey 13
(c) Physical, sexual and psychological Women came out and created a space
violence perpetrated or condoned by for themselves. They started organizations
the state, wherever it occurs. of their own, first at the local, then at the
This definition added ‘violence perpetrated national level. They were motivated by
or condoned by the State’, to the definition liberal feminist ideas and the belief that
by United Nations in 1993. (cited in education, granting of political rights, and
Saravanan, 2000) legislative reforms would improve women’s
1. Can you identify other forms of violence position. They fought for the country’s
that women are subjected to in India? freedom and believed that independence
2. Collect news from different newspapers from foreign rule would remove obstacles
on types of violence against women in for women marching forward. In the second
India? You can look for issues like: phase, the women’s movement was more
(a) Acid attack radical and challenged patriarchy.
(b) Female circumcision Yet, in terms of numbers, few women,
(c) Sati even now, are involved in the women’s
(d) Witch hunting movement and one should not exaggerate
(e) Slut shaming its impact. The large majority of Indian
(f) Cyber crime women still live below the poverty line
(g) Abuse through mobile networks leading miserable, wretched lives. While
(h) Stalking on social networking sites there have been scattered and sporadic
3. How would you classify these acts of examples of women’s outraged protests
violence: physical, sexual, emotional, against rape, dowry deaths or sati, women
etc? have not been able to mobilize themselves
4. Select any one act of violence against enough to exert political pressure and focus
women and elaborately discuss its attention on those problems which are
impact on the mind and body of a today affecting their role and status. Despite
woman. Discuss it with your friends. this long history of women’s struggle, Indian
women are lagging behind today in terms of
1.7 THE WAY FORWARD literacy, longevity and maternal mortality.
They remain vulnerable to social ills such
The success of the women’s movement lies
as female infanticide and foeticide, female
not in the appointment of number of women
in the corporate, public or unorganized work participation and sex ratio. Changing
sector, nor in the number of laws passed, societal attitudes and women’s own self
but on the fact that it has brought about a perceptions which are deeply rooted in our
new consciousness on the entire question psyche and social structure is not easy.
of women in Indian society. There would For every step forward that the movement
have been no women’s movement in India takes, there may be a possible backlash,
if Indian men in the nineteenth century a possible regression. History shows that
had not been concerned with modernizing though the struggle for women’s rights is
women’s roles. They focused on issues such long and hard, it is a struggle that must be
as sati, child marriage, condition of widows, waged and won. The spirit and momentum
education, etc., because they saw the world must go on. In a country of India’s size
through the prism of their own class and and its long history, change in male-female
caste. Their efforts led to bringing women relationship and the kinds of issues the
of their own families into the new world women’s movement is focusing on is not
created by colonial rule. easy. The women’s movement thus has a
14 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
long way to go in its struggle for bringing Chattopadhyaya, Kamaladevi (1993). Indian
about new values, a new morality and a new Women’s Battle for Freedom, Abhinav
egalitarian relationship. Publications, New Delhi.
Activities Cousins, Margaret (1950). We Two Together,
1. Identify the key issues of some of the Ganesh & Co., Madras.
contemporary women’s movement. Forbes, Geraldine (1998). Women in
_____________________________________ Modern India, Cambridge University Press,
_____________________________________ Cambridge.
2. Prepare a collage or a scrap book
Kaur, Manmohan (1968). Role of Women
using newspaper cuttings and reports
on issues that featured in women’s in the Freedom Movement, 1857-1947,
movement. Sterling, New Delhi.
_____________________________________ Kumar, Radha (1993). The History of Doing,
_____________________________________ Kali for Women, Delhi.
3. Collect films on women’s issues and Lerner, Gerda (1981). The Majority Finds
setup a resource centre.
its Past, Placing Women in History, Oxford
_____________________________________ University Press, London, New York,
_____________________________________
Toronto, etc.
Nanda, Reena (2002). Kamaladevi
1.8 REFERENCES Chattopahdhyaya, Oxford University Press,
Bagal, J.C. (1964). Sarala Devi Chaudhurani, Delhi.
Sahitya Sadhak Charitmala, No. 99, Bangiya Patel, V. (2012). ‘Women’s Struggles and
Sahitya Parishad, Calcutta. Women’s Movement in India’. Retrieved
Basu, Aparna (1976). ‘Role of Women in the from http://www.europe-solidaire.org/
Freedom Movement’, in B.R. Nanda, ed., spip.php?article27410
Indian Women from Purdah to Modernity, Rao, M. (2012). ‘Ecofeminism at the
Vikas, Delhi. Crossroads in India: A Review’. Retrieved
Basu, Aparna (1996). Mridula Sarabhai: from http://www.unive.it/media/allegato/
Rebel with a Cause, Oxford University Press, dep/n20-2012/Ricerche/Casi/11_Rao_
Delhi. Ecofeminism.pdf
Basu, Aparna and Ray, Bharati (2003). 2nd Reddy, Muthulakshmi (1956). Mrs. Margaret
edition, Women’s Struggle: A History of the Cousins and Her Work in India, WIA, Madras.
All Indian Women Conference, 1927-2002,
Manohar, Delhi. Sen, S. (2000). ‘Toward a Feminist Politics?
The Indian Women’s Movement in Historical
Basu, Aparna (2008). ‘Women’s Struggle
for the Vote’, in Indian Historical Review, Perspective’. Policy Research Report on
XXXV, No. 1. Gender and Development Working Paper
Series No. 9. Retrieved from http: //www.
Basu, Aparna. Indian Women’s Movement.
http://www.du.ac.in/fileadmin/DU/ worldbank.org/gender/prr.
academics/course_material/urge_15.pdf. Sravanana, S. (2000). ‘Violence against
Butalia, U. (1997). The Women’s Movement Women in India: A Literature Review’.
in India: Action and Reflection. Retrieved Retrieved from http://www.isst-india.org/
from http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/ PDF/Violence%20Against%20Women%20
india1-cn.htm India.pdf
Module 2
From Parity to Equity in Girls’ Education:
Lessons from South Asia
Structure of the Module
2.1 Overview
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Objectives
2.4 International Treaties and Declarations
2.5 Strategies Towards a Right Based Education
2.6 Teachers: The Critical Link
2.7 Concluding Thoughts
2.8 References
rights. At the same time, it is also essential Education of girls is embedded in these
that they make significant contributions visions of development priorities in MDG,
towards economic, social, cultural and EFA and CRC. As is apparent the different
political development. Society must respect goals and articles are cross-cutting and
the gender differences and value their complementary. Quality issues are therefore
contributions. Gender equity is the process not only limited to EFA Goal 6 and neither
of being fair to both boys/men and girls/ should discrimination only be considered
women. Equity is a means, while equality under CRC Article 2. Equality of access,
and equitable outcomes are the results. In opportunity and outcome, as laid down in
this module we will explore the transition the CRC, EFA and MDGs, are important
from parity to equity in the context of South aspects of quality education and interlinked
Asian countries. dimensions of a rights-based approach.
2.3 OBJECTIVES (a) Millennium Development Goals
(MDG)
• To understand the Right to Education
as emphasized in international treaties MDG 2 Achievement of Universal Primary
and declarations. Education – It ensures that all boys and girls
• To analyse how equality of opportunities complete a full course of primary education.
can be provided to both girls and boys MDG 3 Promoting gender equality and
in order to grant them equal chance and women empower ment – This aims to
access to school. eliminate gender disparities in primary and
• To understand how quality education secondary education by 2005, and at all
for girls contributes to achieving gender levels by 2015.
and social equality and overcoming the (b) Convention on the Rights of the Child
multiple sources of exclusion. (CRC) and Education
• To appreciate the importance of creating
gender friendly learning environments. Article 28 All children have a right to
education. The state is obliged to provide
2.4 INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND formal schooling, ‘progressively, and on
DECLARATIONS the basis of equal opportunity’. Primary
Girls’ access to schooling is influenced by education should be free and compulsory.
factors such as socio cultural context, safety Styles of school discipline should reflect the
concerns, the presence of female teachers in child’s human dignity.
schools and adoption of teaching learning Article 29 The purpose of education is to
approaches that address the specific needs develop children’s personality and talents,
of girls. We need to always remember that to prepare them for active adult life, to
education is a right and girls who are foster respect for basic human rights and
not in school are being denied that right. a respect for the child’s own culture and
This Right to Education is emphasized in those of others, and life in a free, peaceful
international treaties and declarations, in and tolerant society.
particular the Convention on the Rights of Article 2 All rights laid down in the CRC
the Child (CRC) 1989, the World Declaration shall be respected and ensured to all
on Education for All (EFA) 2000 and the children without discrimination of any
Millennium Development Goals (MDG) kind on grounds of race, gender, economics
2000. The text in the paragraphs that status, religion, citizenship, social class,
follow helps us to take a close look at some ethnicity, language, etc. and measures will
significant articles in the CRC and relevant be taken to protect children against all
MDG and EFA goals. forms of discrimination.
From Parity to Equity Girls’ Education: Lessons from South Asia 17
Article 12 Children have a right to express The fundamental question is how can
opinions and their views shall be sought and equality of opportunities/right to education
considered on all matters that affect their be provided to both girls and boys so that
lives, individually and collectively. they can be offered the same chance to
Article 3 In all actions concerning children, access school? Experiences from the region
the best interest of the child must be a point towards effectiveness of the following
primary consideration. measures:
• Making education free of cost.
Article 6 The right to life, survival and
• Providing appropriate incentives for
optimal development.
poor and marginalized families (stipend;
(c) Education for All (EFA) scholarship; school-feeding).
EFA Goal 2 Ensures that by 2015 all • Make schools (distance; infrastructure;
children, particularly girls, children in curriculum) accessible to all learners.
difficult circumstances and those belonging • Provide non-formal education (NFE) for
to ethnic minorities, have access to and older, out-of-school and hard-to-reach
complete, free and compulsory education children.
of good quality. • Support Early Childhood Care and
Development (ECCD) programmes for
EFA Goal 5 Aims to eliminate gender
disparities in primary and secondary the most disadvantaged.
education by 2005 and achieve gender • Involve parents and communities in
equality in education by 2015, with a focus school-community partnerships.
on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to • Ensure that teachers share the culture
and achievement in basic education of good and language of the learners.
quality. • Develop adequate water and sanitation
infrastructure.
EFA Goal 6 Improves all aspects of the • Pay attention to protection of learners
quality of education and ensures excellence in school and on the way to and from
of all so that recognized and measurable school.
learning outcomes are achieved by all, • Ensure that there are sufficient female
especially in literacy, numeracy and teachers to support and act as role
essential life skills. models for girls.
2.5 STRATEGIES TOWARDS A RIGHT Further, measures that have been
BASED EDUCATION effective for ensuring equality from the
South Asian countries are committed pedagogical perspective so that both
to education as a basic human right. girls and boys receive the same respectful
To work from a rights perspective has a treatment and attention, follow the same
far -reaching implication for education curricula, enjoy teaching methods and tools
development and reform. It necessarily free of stereotypes and gender bias include:
entails values, knowledge and skills that • Developing inclusive education policies
revolve around the basic principles of that acknowledge and address diversity
non-discrimination, participation and equally and respectfully.
equality. Education supporting the EFA • Training and supporting teachers to
and Millennium Development Goals, understand (and act on) issues of social
therefore, must facilitate a process that and gender discrimination.
enables all learners, including girls to take • Providing enough and well-trained (male
charge of their lives and make meaningful and female) teachers.
contribution to their communities. • Developing policies that protect children
18 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
from harassment, abuse and other with respect to education, being female
forms of violence, including gender- tends to be a disadvantage in South Asia,
based violence, bullying, physical and though this is slowly changing.
mental punishment. Despite international commitments,
• Ensuring that curriculum textbooks are the enrolment rate between girls and boys
academically and pedagogically of good in South Asia still shows discrepancy
quality, with positive images of boys and between promise and reality. Enrolment
girls and other aspects of diversity and has increased throughout the region, but
also challenging prevailing stereotypes. educational access for children from low
• Acknowledging curriculum and income and socially marginalized groups
assessment flexibility and adequately remains a challenge, contributing to the
respond to different learning needs and high proportion of out-of-school children,
learning styles. many being girl children with special needs,
• Sustaining mutually beneficial school- those affected by conflict, and belonging to
community partnerships. families of ‘river gypsies’, dalits, religious
• Training and supporting teachers to use and ethnic minorities, migrant workers,
a variety of teaching methods, especially nomadic populations, and child labourers.
(inter)active methods. Even though most countries have abolished
Measures for ensuring equality of outcomes/ tuition fees, parents may still have to pay
right through education: This could be for books, exams, uniforms or school
achieved by the following measures: development funds. Such costs make
• Make sure that learning achievement, education inequitable. The implications
length of school careers, academic are that those who can afford to pay are
qualifications and diplomas do not differ educated, while others continue to be
by gender. denied of their right to education.
• C r e a t e c o n t i n u i n g a n d e q u a l To make education available to all, it
opportunities for lifelong learning, is important to cut its costs and improve
professional training, empowerment its quality because as long as education
and positive participation in society is costly or in short supply, access will
(decision-making power, control of continue to be “rationed”, with those
resources, etc.). who are wealthy, urban and male, who
• Increase tertiary education options, are always in the forefront (Aikman and
especially for girls and other Unterhalter, 2005).
disadvantaged groups. Net Enrolment Ratios (NER) and Gender
• Increase employment and equal income Parity Index (GPI) figures are less useful
opportunities for men and women, as indicators of success beyond enrolment
especially from socially disadvantaged because they provide little information
groups. about the quality dimensions of schooling.
• Abolish discriminatory laws, customs, There is a need to look at what happens in
practices and institutional processes. classrooms and ask questions like:
(a) Quality Concerns in Education of • How do teachers interact with students?
Girls • Do girls participate meaningfully?’
South Asia is a diverse region with generally • Do teaching-learning materials and
strong patriarchal and hierarchical social subject choices challenge gender
structures. In the regions where gender stereotypes?
gaps are wide and families poor, the chances Quality education for girls must contribute
of girls being sent to schools are less. Thus, to achieving gender and social equality by
From Parity to Equity Girls’ Education: Lessons from South Asia 19
empowering and overcoming the multiple many street children, most of whom have
sources of exclusion. no access to education and are vulnerable
Causes of Discrimination to exploitation and abuse – especially
girls. HIV/AIDS is a growing concern.
Many girls face discrimination and
Most formal education systems are yet
challenging circumstances that keep
to educate young people about risks and
them out of school or exclude them from
prevention strategies. In India and Nepal,
meaningful learning. In some countries,
caste, associated with gender, ethnicity,
there is a strong ‘son preference’. Parents
occupation and residence seems to overrule
tend to value education for boys more than
all other factors while explaining non-
for girls. Furthermore, early marriage and
enrolment and no-completion (Lewis and
teenage pregnancy are still widespread in
Lockheed, 2006).
most South Asian countries, which further
Diversity itself does not necessarily
reduce girls’ opportunities for education,
lead to failure to educate girls. On the
influencing their attendance and retention.
other hand, it is diversity accompanied by
Contrary to the popularly held beliefs,
derogation and discrimination that leads
parents, including those with limited
to exclusion (Lewis and Lockheed, 2006).
resources, want education for their
Children’s vulnerability to discrimination
daughters. The quality and meaningfulness
is also dependent on crucial factors such
of education is however important in
as their place of living (rural/remote areas,
their decision to send girls. This in turn
urban slums, refugee camps), mode of living
depends upon several factors such as low
(in poverty chronically ill, malnourished),
expectations on account of their gender,
and their identity (with disabilities, gender,
class and social status, poor quality of
from ethnic, language, religious minorities).
teaching and teachers; ill treatment by
These children are unable to break the cycle
parents, which results in educational
of discrimination and exclusion without
deprivation and confinement within the four
affirmative action by local communities,
walls of house.
national governments and international
Diversity in the Region agencies. Most current education strategies
Cross-country comparison may be difficult and programmes have been insufficient
in such a diverse region as within regions regarding the needs of children vulnerable
there exists great urban-rural divide and to social exclusion. When programmes
socio-economic disparities. For example, do exist, they are often planned and
unlike other countries, in Bangladesh the implemented as special programmes for
government managed less than half of children identified as ‘different’ or ‘difficult’.
the total number of primary schools, the This has resulted in parallel education
other half being managed by NGOs. India systems within countries: for the poor,
is dealing with a school-going population for working or ‘hard-to-reach’ children,
much larger than any other country in the for children with disabilities, and private
region, with diverse cultures, topography schools for the privileged (Heijnen, 2003).
and levels of development. Though small The question remains how such parallel
in size, Bhutan’s difficult topography and programmes can challenge social exclusion
remoteness of most rural areas present in society at large and whether they will
a number of challenges that need special result in more equal opportunities beyond
efforts and attention. education.
Child labour is common in South Asia, In our country, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
and the work girls are involved in is often (SSA) is a government flagship programme
hidden. Large cities in South Asia ‘house’ designed to get all children into school,
20 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
especially girls disadvantaged by caste, has done well in achieving gender parity,
tribe or disability. It relies on community 15 per cent of school-age children are out
participation and monitoring with an of school, including tribal children, street
emphasis on the recruitment of women children and child workers, those with
and members of disadvantaged groups. disabilities and children living in slums.
The initiative evaluates every aspect of Important challenges include improving the
the learning space against gender-friendly quality of education, reducing dropout rates
standards, including the provision of and expanding facilities for disadvantaged
safe water and sanitation. To ensure the groups.
retention of girls, schools serve midday In Nepal and India, social inclusion is a
meals and offer girls scholarships for challenge, especially with regard to Dalits,
uniforms and school supplies. children with special needs, and those from
linguistic and ethnic minorities. Girls in
(b) Impact of Armed Conflicts and
such groups tend to be more disadvantaged
Natural Disasters
than boys. Education must be improved
Access, attendance and learning outcomes in terms of learning environment and
have also been undermined by armed achievement, while enhancing gender
conflicts (Nepal, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan) and sensitivity. Strategies to address the
natural disasters (tsunami, earthquakes), different challenges include decentralization
seriously impacting on all children’s of training and school development, support
education rights – but often more so for services and monitoring. Throughout the
girls. Girls and women experience conflict region common priories are to seek out
and disaster differently from boys and men. those learners who have not been reached,
Their different roles, activities, skills, while enhancing educational quality and
positions and status create gender - relevance.
differentiated risks, vulnerabilities and (i) Major challenges
capacities in such situations. Extra attention
Whether children stay in and benefit
and care is warranted for vulnerable groups
from school depends on what happens
such as internally displaced girls or those
in school. Throughout the region schools
in refugee camps, girls with disabilities and
face challenges of poor management and
those from ethnic minorities. In situations low teacher quality. Teacher absenteeism
of conflict or natural disaster, quality is high, especially in Pakistan, Nepal and
education is a necessity that can be both India. Teaching is often not stimulating and
life-sustaining and life-saving, providing the school curriculum too theoretical.
physical protection, psychological and social Private schools are mushrooming in
well-being, and cognitive development. South Asia. There is a tendency to send
Such programmes must focus on survival boys to private schools, and this often
skills (learning to live where you live), creates a two-tiered system of education
developmental skills (learning to be) and which entrenches inequalities based on
academic skills (learning to learn) while social class and caste, while also increasing
incorporating the skills, understanding the gender gap (Bista, 2004). In addition,
and attitudes needed for peace and conflict public school students may have to engage
prevention as well as natural disaster in private tuition to be able to pass exams
preparedness. and complete schooling, further raising the
Afghanistan is still coping with the costs to families and pointing at the lack
after maths of ar med conflict, while of quality teachers in many schools. In
rebuilding the education system – both countries like Sri Lanka and Bangladesh
enrolment and quality. Though Bangladesh this seems to have become institutionalized.
From Parity to Equity Girls’ Education: Lessons from South Asia 21
One major challenge is the shortage School feeding programmes are also
of trained teachers. Despite more than 97 implemented in South Asia, for example in
per cent enrolment rate in Sri Lanka, 17 India and Afghanistan. In some cases these
per cent of children do not complete the programmes have been associated with
compulsory education (6-14) cycle. There reduced dropout rates and higher student
is an urgent need to develop strategies to achievement, but insufficient research has
address the non-completion rate. been undertaken to prove this. To be most
Thr oughout the r egion incentive effective in boosting children’s achievement
and behaviour, micro nutrient-fortified
schemes like scholarships, stipends and
school meals must be given as early in the
school feeding programmes have been
day as possible.
implemented. This has resulted in increased
Some studies suggest that in places
enrolment of girls and other disadvantaged where enrolment is already high, school
children, but also in overcrowded classrooms feeding programmes are less effective.
where the quality of teaching and learning Most of these programmes target children
may be at stake. Where such incentives of poor families. However, identifying who
have been successful in addressing the is poor and which communities are most
needs of hard-to-reach socially excluded vulnerable is difficult. In that respect,
groups is not clear, and more research universal school meals may be a better
may be needed to look into groups reached strategy. Midday meals in our country
and its impact. Incentives for girls from target all students of government-aided and
excluded groups, for example, may need Education Guarantee Scheme Centres with
to be accompanied by other forms of’ the objective to boost UPE by increasing
compensatory support in order to help them enrolment, retention and attendances,
succeed in school, such as ‘bridge courses’ while improving the nutritional status of
or remedial coaching. Furthermore, in- children.
school programmes that compensate for the In addition, the World Food Programme
(WFP) provides take-home food rations in
absence reinforcement at home are critical
various countries in return for a child’s
to retaining disadvantaged learners and
regular school attendance. Questions
helping them learn, ranging from academic
though may have to be asked whether
support to after-school supervision. Such school feeding programmes and ‘take-
additional support offers a major incentive home’ rations provide additional nutrition
to parents to keep their children in school. or simply substitute for home meals not
In some countries scholarships are received.
inadequate and quotas small and thus do Though children certainly learn better
not help poor families to meet the most when well-fed, without improving the
essential education costs (Bista, 2004). quality of education, the impact of school
Furthermore, challenges around these feeding programmes on learning is likely
programmes reported from countries like to be minimal. These programmes need
Bangladesh and Nepal include scholarship to be complemented by other measures
money being delayed and/or misused, that improve what happens in schools in
lack of transparency in identification terms of teaching and learning, such as
and distribution of scholarships, poor for example the development of girl friendly
coor dination and monitoring of its schools.
effectiveness and parents being unaware (ii) Creating Girl Friendly Schools
of the various scholarship programmes In order to retain girls in school interventions
(Ahmed and Chowdhury, 2005). that make learning environments more
22 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
girl friendly, need to be planned with women’s capacity so that their presence
care. Most schools in South Asia are not translates into influence. Without this
girl friendly, and girls often suffer from dimension, quotas are only symbolic, with
harassment, bullying and other forms of female teachers continuing to play relatively
intimidation. Making schools girl friendly, minor roles, either because of the type of
or child friendly, also benefits boys, as this responsibility they are given (only lower
includes improving the physical school grades) or because of their own lack of
infrastructure, teaching in ways that confidence. The feminization of the teaching
discourage gender stereotypes, providing profession – as is the case in Sri Lanka
trained (female) teachers to act as role and the Maldives – may also reinforce the
models, and including the community in impression of women being especially suited
the management of schools. for nurturing and caring jobs.
In many education systems women
(iii) Female Teachers
have lower status and lower pay than their
Throughout South Asia there is a need for male colleagues. Initiatives to promote
more and better quality teachers – especially employment of more female teachers by
female teachers and teachers recruited reducing the qualifications needed for entry
from minority populations. Except for into the profession, and employing mainly
the Maldives and Sri Lanka, women are women in non-formal or alternative schools
seriously under-represented in the teaching for little or no remuneration, may confirm
profession, while there are also few female assumptions about women’s inferiority in
head teachers, principals, administrators society at large.
and policy makers. Lack of female teachers Arguments in favour of having women
is more problematic in rural and remote as teachers vary and include perspectives
areas. In Afghanistan and Pakistan this of community demand on the one hand,
is said to be directly correlated with lower and girls’ specific needs on the other.
achievement and retention levels of girls. Having female teachers does not, however,
A woman as teacher, though, may be more automatically translate into a girl friendly
important where girls are approaching and gender sensitive learning environment.
adolescence. In secondary schools in While there are good reasons for encouraging
Bangladesh there are few female teachers women to enter the teaching profession, it
but still girls enrolment and attendance may be more important to look at the quality
tend to surpass that of boys. of teachers – irrespective of gender – and how
Various countries have established they create gender sensitive and learning
quotas for female teachers, yet few have friendly environments that support girls
managed to fill them primarily because and boys.
governments have not developed effective One important argument in favour
incentives and support mechanisms to of female teachers is that they act as
encourage women to work as teachers, role models for girls. In rural situations,
especially when deployed outside their where girls do not come across many
home communities. In Nepal, for example, educated women, the presence of female
more than 62 per cent of primary school teachers serves this critical purpose. Other
teachers in Kathmandu are women while arguments relate to safety and security
the average for the whole country is 29 per of girls and to the issue of gender equity.
cent with only 19 per cent female teachers Children, girls and boys, are expected to
in the Far West Region (Bista, 2006). be more gender sensitive if they grow up in
Having quotas only makes sense if an environment where they see both men
these also include measures to develop and women perform similar functions and
From Parity to Equity Girls’ Education: Lessons from South Asia 23
duties as compared to the ones where they more inclusive teaching approaches.
see women performing only stereotyped In many states in India, decentralized
jobs. in-service teacher training takes place
A gender balance in teaching and while training curricula are reviewed and
education leadership is important and must improved. Training is especially needed in
be based on professionalism and gender the situation that two-thirds of teachers
equality. have to face multi-age, multi-lingual and
(iv) Teacher Education multi-grade classrooms (Shukla, 2004). In
Bhutan, UNESCO’s ‘Embracing Diversity:
Teacher training may seem a technical Toolkit for Creating Inclusive Learning-
matter focusing on contents of curricula and Friendly Environments’ is integrated
specific teaching methods. To bring about into the existing pre-service education
quality change in school education training programme in the modules.
of teachers must go beyond obtaining Teachers in rural schools often lack
technical knowledge and skills. Being strong foundations in the subjects they
certified as a teacher does not guarantee teach. Classroom-based research can
success in the classroom. Effective teaching provide rich information about the learning
is often described by students as competent, atmosphere and the opportunities provided
dutiful, fair, responsive, flexible, reflective, for participation and learning to students.
expert, inclusive, welcoming and respectful Integrating ‘action research’ into the pre-
(Heijnen, 2004). service teacher education in Bhutan can be
Good teachers understand that their considered an effort to promote reflective
work goes beyond the transmission practice where teachers, for example,
of curriculum and the assessment of investigate the impact of their teaching on
measurable achievement. They are aware different students.
of the challenge of broader social contexts Reviews of curricula in the Maldives
in which they teach and keep searching for aim to make subjects more interesting and
more effective ways to reach all students. relevant and are designed to encourage
Throughout South Asia, teacher training teachers to change their style of teaching
and ongoing professional development of by encouraging them to:
teachers (in-service training) has become • develop meta-cognitive skills and
a priority area in the quality improvement understanding;
of education. Female teachers must benefit • be problem posers and guides rather
from in-service training. They should than problem solvers;
be able to enhance their professional • present the material in everyday
knowledge and skills through such training contexts;
programmes and workshops. Professional, • encourage wider involvement of the
institutional and family reasons continue parents and the wider community in
to prevent women from participating in the learning process;
training courses (Bista, 2006). • enhance group work; and
In Bangladesh professional quality • encourage process-oriented teaching.
of primary school teachers in the field is The feedback from schools has been very
enhanced through a 12-month Certificate positive. It claimed, for example, in social
in Education course conducted by Primary studies that students’ interest in the
Training Institutes (PTI). In-service teacher subject increased and was generating lively
training includes a unit on gender issues, classroom discussions. It also encouraged
providing teachers with a method of critical thinking and made students more
exploring their own practice and developing active participants in class.
24 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
2.6 TEACHERS: THE CRITICAL LINK instruction. High repetition rates and poor
Though the number of teachers throughout learning achievements are closely linked
the region has grown, the pace of growth has to what and how teachers teach children.
not kept up with the increase in enrolments, Prejudice, negative language use,
resulting in teachers struggling to manage corporal punishment, and stereotyping of
large classes. Bangladesh, for example, girls or children from minorities remain
needs an additional 167,000 teachers critical barriers to children’s learning. In
(UNESCO, 2006). The gradual erosion of Nepal, teachers tend to routinely use biased
teachers’ terms and conditions has also language which reinforces distinction of
resulted in a decline of teacher motivation class, caste and gender. Children from poor
and morale. Furthermore, primary teaching and low-caste background are most often
in particular is undervalued, while teachers discriminated against, and they are not
at this level have the most critical task of helped by the fact that teachers mostly come
laying the foundation for life-long learning. from higher castes. When marginalization
Educational and financial investment is continues inside classrooms, enrolment
especially needed in the lower primary of previously excluded children becomes
grades (Abadzi, 2006). a meaningless exercise. Teacher training,
All countries in the region continue to rely therefore, needs to focus on how teachers
on traditional teacher-centred classrooms, can create learning environments where
with programmes forcing teachers to teach the participation and contribution of all
for the test and learners to memorize facts students is sought and valued, where
in order to pass exams in some countries all girls and boys can feel secure, where
stating at pre-primary level. Child-centred stereotypical views are challenged and
teaching is perceived as difficult and time where children learn to appreciate diversity.
consuming. Countries have now started to A study in Nepal assessed girls’ access to
respond with various interventions, one of and participation in science and technology
them training more and better teachers both education (STE) while also reviewing
in the subjects they teach and in teaching-
its curriculum using a gender lens and
learning methodology. Teachers are the
observing classroom dynamics. The study
cornerstone of education systems and the
revealed continuing obstacles to gender
mediators of quality in education.
equality in participation – some of which are
Pedagogical processes in the classroom
teachers’ gender insensitive behaviour and
need to change. Teachers are not just
stereotypical notion about girls’ aptitude,
responsible for teaching a curriculum;
gender biased attitude of male students
they must teach children. It is crucial to
reflect on the roles of teachers as their towards girls, gender unfriendly classroom
attitudes, behaviour and methods can either seating, inadequate access of girls to STE
enhance or impede a child’s ability to learn labs and libraries, and low career options
effectively. In overcrowded classrooms where for girls (Koirala and Acharya, 2005).
undifferentiated large group instruction is In Bhutan, teachers claim they cannot
the norm, teachers do not detect individual use participatory teaching-learning methods
learning needs or signs of neglect or abuse. as these are too time consuming and there is
Children who do not progress in such much pressure to finish the syllabus. More
situations are easily labelled ‘non-achievers’ focus on Continuous Formative Assessment
and may subsequently drop out, while they (CFA) and the New Approach to Primary
may find the curriculum irrelevant or have Education (NAPE) tried to change this. Both
problems in understanding the language of approaches have helped teachers to become
From Parity to Equity Girls’ Education: Lessons from South Asia 25
removed by developing a new curriculum who speak the language of school can start
and that more needs to be done to reverse learning from the first day, while the others
deep rooted, often negative, perceptions of must first learn the foreign code.
diversity. At every level and in every subject Those who are not engaged in learning
area, textbooks can become important or who are not participating in class will
vehicles for promoting the principles and often be the students who drop out. Those
practice of non-discrimination and gender who cannot afford textbooks and notebooks
equity. They can also function as valuable to enable them to succeed and those who
resources in the process of education for do not see the relevance of what they are
sustainable development, for prevention learning may also leave school.
of and response to gender-based violence Non-discrimination and participation
and HIV/AIDS. Textbooks and learning are important dimensions of quality
materials which effectively integrate these education. Children’s right to participation
themes and teach relevant skills in culturally is still somewhat controversial in most
appropriate ways are a key component of South Asian cultures. Education may be
quality education for girls and boys. best placed to take a lead in changing
Loreto Schools in India have designed this while transforming education into
their own curriculum, which is allowed as a more interactive process. Within the
long as students are prepared for the state learning environment children must be
exams in Class X and XII. The curriculum is able to express their views, thoughts and
an enabling curriculum in the sense that it ideas to participate fully and to feel
tries to challenge the status quo. Students comfortable about who they are, and what
receive positive messages on possible roles they believe in.
of women through role models and through It is important to ensure that children
the learning materials. Attempts are made to – boys and girls – have a say in policies
provide strong non-stereotypical messages and practices that affect them. This means
and images about women’s roles in life (as that adults need to listen to what students
can be seen in the Value Education Books have to say. When given opportunities,
‘We Are the World’ which portary women children have shown that their voice
as surgeons, construction-site managers, can be a real force for change. Examples
scientists, etc. (Aikman and Unterhalter, can be found throughout the region,
2005). such as refugee children in Pakistan
(i) Language of Instruction successfully campaigning for a school
In many countries the language of and the creation of student councils in Sri
instruction in primary schools is in the Lanka. Giving children a say in matter that
national or regional language, even though affect them improves standards, behaviour
large number of people have different and inclusion, while recognizing that social
mother tongue. A mismatch between the and emotional learning is as important as
language spoken at home and the language academic learning. Children need to build
of school has several negative consequences knowledge and understanding of issues like
such as increased chances of repetition and social justice, human rights and sustainable
dropping out. This affects girls more than development. As such education should
boys as their lives are often restricted to create the basis for a democratic and just
the home and family where only the local society.
language is spoken. Teaching strategies that require active
There is inequality of opportunity in engagement by learners are more effective
such learning situations because those than approaches that restrict students
28 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
to passive roles. But these are more effectively adopted and applied to make
time consuming and require a critical teaching more child-centred, participatory
reconsideration of present curricula and and joyful. Lessons learned have revealed
exams. Extensive research has shown, that IDEAL significantly increased student
however, that more interactive teaching- learning achievement. In addition, School
learning approaches and the development of Management Committees also became more
problem solving and critical thinking skills active in improving and supporting the
result in a more sustainable and higher schools. (Aikman and Unterhalter, 2005)
quality of learning. (ii) Curriculum
Students Partnership Worldwide (SPW),
In many countries in South Asia equality as
an NGO in Nepal, is committed to children’s
a key component of good curriculum is often
participation in decision making about their missing. Teaching and learning materials,
education. SPW facilitated consultation evaluation and assessment procedures as
exercises by involving school children in well as language policy are all components
discussions at village, district and regional of a curriculum and all have gender
levels on the issues of quality education dimensions, challenging or reinforcing
and gender equality in education. On the equality. Similarly, a curriculum reproduces
basis of those discussions, selected student idea about caste, class, religious and ethnic
representatives brought recommendations identities and divisions. Curriculum policies
to policy makers at a national level forum are now being developed in our country
through different media including art, stressing the importance of critical self-
drama and dance. SPW also mobilizes awareness amongst learners and indicating
young Nepalese graduates as volunteer the potential for learning materials to be
assistant teachers and ‘youth animators’ in concerned with equality issues. Analysis
rural schools. Over half of these volunteers of curriculum is the first useful step in
are female and they can be powerful role learning about quality and equality issues.
models for young rural girls, while playing It highlights the importance of asking
an important role in encouraging girls to questions regarding what girls and other
stay in school. (UNICEF, 2005) previously excluded learners are being
Intensive District Education for All taught about themselves, whether they
(IDEAL) in Bangladesh has been an can effectively participate and whether
important component of PEDP. It especially situations of girls and other learners are
focused on enhancing the effectiveness of enhanced or diminished by the education
primary education by improving the quality they receive.
of teaching, the school environment, the Goals of some curricula are explicitly
learning achievement of children and differentiated by gender. In some countries
decentralizing schools. The main objectives girls are denied access to, for example,
of IDEAL were to establish and strengthen manual arts, technical subjects or higher
local level planning and management, mathematics. If they are able to enrol in
improve classroom teaching and learning those courses, textbooks and teaching are
methods, reduce gender disparity, and often geared mainly towards boys. Research
promote active community participation. shows, however, that girls are as capable as
The project started in one district and was boys in these subjects. Schools and teachers
scaled up to other districts. An innovative must thus shape learning environments in
teaching approach known as Multiple which the right of children to learn is not
Ways of Teaching Learning (MWTL) based linked to their sex. Girls may need to learn
on the multiple intelligence theory was about vegetable gardens or traditional
From Parity to Equity Girls’ Education: Lessons from South Asia 29
dancing, yet if these are only taught to In Bangladesh, the National Curriculum
girls, stereotypes and gender barriers are and Textbook Board (NCTB) identified 53
reinforced. Such subjects should be open to terminal competencies. All countries in the
boys as they also need domestic skills, while region are focusing on improving curriculum
on the other hand girls may need technical, relevance for rural areas and different social
mechanical and mathematical skills. groups. Taking into consideration the
The International Rescue Committee multilingual context, Nepal has formulated
(IRC) has negotiated with communities in a new language policy emphasizing the right
Afghanistan to get their consent for older of children to learn in their first language.
girls’ continuation to secondary levels by Incorporation of values of different cultural
community provision of transport to a groups is also being planned. Pakistan aims
secondary school in an adjacent village, at making curricula more learner-centred
teaching single grade cohorts at separate while removing urban-rural divide and
times and using a house-based location gender biases from textbooks and other
in the village. Community suggestions to materials.
include domestic studies and healthcare Our country has spent considerable time
in addition to the required academic and budget on renewal of curricula and
subjects perpetuates what are considered textbooks aiming to making it broad-based
appropriate gender roles, but also offer and the textbooks more relevant, interesting
the opportunity to introduce good practice and child friendly. Three steps characterized
and thus may help meet female practical the process of material development:
gender needs. Community-driven concepts • A participatory approach involving
of relevance have also determined content teachers, field staff and experts in
of ‘second chance’ education for girls. In the developing textbooks.
experience of the IRC, the focus has been • Textbook developers being exposed to
on incorporation of life and livelihood skills a number of ‘good practices’ in other
appropriate to the local context (Source: states and in NGO programmes.
World Bank, 2005). • Field testing and systematic feedback
Curriculum development in South Asia leading to refinements, before large
tends to be a male dominated process. In scale introduction of new materials. As
Nepal, for example, most textbook writers a result, the new textbooks for primary
are males with potentially inadequate level are significantly different from the
sensitiveness to gender issues in education. old ones (Source: Jha, 2004).
In the then developed materials men are
shown as breadwinners, doctors, principals (iii) Assessment
and scientists, and women as nurses, Education systems tend to measure
teachers, mothers and servers of food. achievements by outcomes, based on
Curriculum developers and reviewers testing and reflected through scores. This
need to develop an understanding of how normally implies standardized tests and
learners and teachers respond to different national exams. There are, however, serious
materials. There is a need to develop limitations in relying too heavily on tests or
links between curriculum developers educational outcome measurements as they
and teachers for mutual feedback as well do not tell us if what children have learnt
as create opportunities for curriculum is meaningful to them. To be able to assess
developers to observe classroom teaching. education efficiency and effectiveness, it is
Textbooks and curricula are being important to look at classroom practices,
improved, often making programmes as these have the strongest association
competency-based and skills-oriented. with achievement. As teaching and learning
30 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
resolve their own educational problems. The and implemented, children do not master
need for teachers and communities to forge the majority language, limiting their
stronger partnerships with each other and opportunities for upward mobility.
reach a better understanding of the various Children from ethnic and language
factors impacting on children’s access and minorities in Bangladesh are disadvantaged
learning is an integral part of this process. by a mainstream education which does not
C-EMIS data is meant to complement recognize their language or culture. Their
national EMIS data. The result is improved problems can be grouped into four main
quality data and local and national level areas:
planning and decision making. Parents, 1. P o o r a c c e s s : I t a r i s e s d u e t o
teachers, community volunteers and discrimination by teachers on account
children collect the information at the of poor Bangla language skills; inflexible
local level. A particular feature of C-EMIS school calendar, not reflecting local
is the inclusion of data and indicators on conditions; lack of schools in Adivasi
in-school teaching practice and student communities.
learning achievement. (Source: Heijnen, 2. Poor quality: This arises as the learning
2003). needs of Adivasi students have not been
In this regard, girls from minorities have recognized; insufficient teachers from
multiple disadvantages, and their access Adivasi community; teacher deployment
to schooling is most limited when schools does not take account of ethnicity of
expect them to have linguistic resources teacher/learners; schools in Adivasi
that do not exist in their living environment. areas receive less government support.
The cognitive demands on children who 3. Cultural inappropriateness: This
are required to learn multiple languages includes foreign language of instruction;
are substantial. The ef fectiveness of local cultures, values not recognized in
teachers may be seriously compromised curriculum; education system does not
by their lack of knowledge of the home recognize strength of diversity.
language of their students. Differences in 4. Lack of local control: This arises
language competence in school often remain because parents are unable to involve
unnoticed by teachers, especially where in the school proceedings as teachers do
children are given fewer opportunities to not speak community language. Parents
speak and where girls are not expected to see less value in education not linked
perform as well as boys. to culture and language (Durnnian,
When children do not speak the language 2007).
of instruction, specific responses are Research suggests that recognizing the
necessary to bridge that gap. While public importance of mother tongue languages in a
schools in Sri Lanka offer instruction in bilingual or multilingual education structure
Tamil and Sinhalese, India and Nepal have results in improvement of educational
made strides in providing mother tongue attainment and helps to retain students
instruction at the primary level. from minority groups in school. Education
Effective bilingual education starts based on mother tongue has been found to
with developing the child’s reading, writing be particularly effective in breaking down
and thinking skills in the mother tongue. barriers against girls.
At the same time, the target language Research has also found that girls
can be taught as a second language. The who learn in their local/native language
downside of bilingual education is that stay in schools longer, are more likely to
if the programme is not well developed be identified as good students, do better
From Parity to Equity Girls’ Education: Lessons from South Asia 33
in achievement tests, and repeat grades (SSHE) projects has resulted in a high
less often than their peers who do not increase of girls’ attendance over a period of
get instruction in mother tongue. When some years highlighting hygiene education
learners can express what they know in a as a critical aspect of life skills curriculum.
language in which they are competent and In Bangladesh, the SSHE project has
their backgrounds are valued and used in especially focused on adequate water supply
the learning process, they develop higher and personal hygiene issues of girls.
self-esteem and greater self-confidence as Distance can also be an obstacle for girls
well as higher aspirations in schooling and to enrol and stay in school – especially to
life (Benson, 2005). continue education beyond primary school.
Bilingual education is widely agreed Sometimes girls can walk in groups or older
to be the best approach for integrating women accompany girls to school when
non native speakers into the mainstream outside the village, or stipends may cover
language. Even where teaching takes transportation costs.
place in a local language, instructional In Madhya Pradesh the Education
materials may not always be available. Guarantee Scheme has started the practice
India guarantees the right to children to of para-teachers or helpers collecting girls
be educated in their mother tongue in the from their homes and dropping them off
primary grades. However, these are often each day at school to ensure their regular
printed and distributed with less priority attendance, while also ensuring their
and arrive too late in schools. security.
(i) Infrastructure In some countries students are targeted
as change agents by involving them in
Water supply and sanitation and transport
promoting water, sanitation and hygiene
facilities are important aspects of girl
activities in school through child-to-child
friendly infrastructure. This also implies
cooperative teaching and learning, using the
that latrines need to be user friendly,
toolkit on ‘Hygiene, Sanitation and Water in
regularly cleaned, and designed and
Schools’. (Source: www.schoolsanitation.org)
constructed in a gender sensitive manner. It
is thus important to involve students in the (ii) Safety and Protection
planning, implementation and evaluation of The EFA Global Monitoring Report 2003-
school water supply and sanitation projects. 04 states that ‘...schools are often sites of
There are many examples in South intolerance, discrimination and violence.
Asia of infrastructure initiatives that have Girls are disproportionately the victims...
resulted in improved girls’ attendance and Closing the gender gap means confronting
retention, while at the same time studies sexual violence and harassment in schools.’
have revealed that though water and Only limited research about gender-
sanitation infrastructure for boys and girls based violence in schools has been carried
are increasingly implemented, they are out in South Asia, but sexual harassment
often poorly serviced and maintained, again – often called ‘eve teasing’– is widely
increasing the risk of girls dropping out of reported from Bangladesh, India, Nepal,
school (Ailman and Unterhalter, 2005). Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Girls who live at
During the last few years water and some distance from school are especially
sanitation facilities have been installed vulnerable.
or upgraded in thousands of schools in Gender-based harassment and abuse in
Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan. In schools tend to relate to what happens (or
Alwar (Rajasthan), also the introduction of may happen) to girls, based on gender and
School Sanitation and Hygiene Education power inequalities. While addressing gender
34 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
violence in schools, a whole school approach developed outside the formal education
involving the management, teachers and school setting.
students as well as the curriculum is Although most governments have made
needed to reinforce both teachers and explicit commitments to meeting the goal
students. To make such a change may of gender equity in education, there is little
be uphill struggle in many countries as it evidence of national strategies to tackle
means challenging deeply entrenched male gender violence in schools. Neither have
attitudes towards female sexuality, but at Ministries of Education incorporated topics
the same time schools can never become about gender violence in schools in the
‘girl friendly’ as long as such attitudes and curriculum (Dunne et al., 2003). Therefore,
practices are allowed to persist. a whole school approach to eliminating
gendered violence should include a review
Let’s Talk Men – a film project in South of existing policies and cultures. Students
Asia by Save the Children and UNICEF— need opportunities to explore the ways in
aims at increasing understanding around which traditional views of masculinity and
masculinity and its relation with gender femininity inform and constrain them, and
inequity and gender-based violence. Local strategies to empower them to embrace
filmmakers in India, Nepal, Bangladesh change and develop respectful gender
and Pakistan made four documentaries. relationships. This is a critical aspect of
They explored different aspects of male quality education. Teachers may begin
identity and provided a way to deconstruct by counteracting the gender stereotyped
patriarchy in their cultural context. The models and messages that burden boys
primary target audience for these films is with a male ideal that does not allow them
adolescent boys and girls. The films (and to express emotions and the burden girls
accompanying workbooks) have been used with a female ideal of physical beauty.
in schools in order to raise issues about Teachers can be key instructors for
gender -based harassment and violence change and make education child friendly
against girls, and present alternative role and gender sensitive. Teacher education
models and ways of behaving for boys. (Save must prepare teachers for such a role. There
the Children, 2003). is an urgent need for the development of
Making access to education easier and national and school-based initiatives to
safer for girls, for example by building tackle gender-based violence in schools –
schools within a ‘safe’ walking distance of fully integrated into the educational system
their homes, is useful as a stop gap, but and addressed through the curriculum.
will not address the hostile environment In Nepal, the Safe Spaces project,
girls may face while in school, and the wider funded by Save the Children, has involved
societal issues of gender-based violence girls in participatory research (PRA) which
(Oxfam, 2005). has proved a source of empowerment
In dif ferent countries NGOs have for them by allowing them to identify the
started to address the issue of school-based characteristics of a safe environment and
to develop an action plan to ‘take back their
violence. The Centre for Mass Education
space’ in the community and on the way
and Science (CMES) and BRAC, for example,
to and from school. Boys were involved in
organize workshops for adolescent girls (and
the process only when the girls felt it was
boys) throughout Bangladesh. While such
necessary. In order to reclaim their ‘space’,
programmes are promising, they are only
the girls identified the need:
able to reach a small part of the population
• For parent to recognize the importance
and are difficult to scale up as they are of girls’ education;
From Parity to Equity Girls’ Education: Lessons from South Asia 35
• To avoid conservative traditions such The human race is a two winged bird:
as gender discrimination within castes, One wing is female, the other is male.
between sons and daughters, and early
marriage; Unless both wings are equally developed
• For girls to be able to demonstrate their The human race will not be able to fly!
ability within the community;
(Author unknown)
• For people to speak out against the
injustices and oppression of girls;
• To raise awareness of girls’ rights 2.8 REFERENCES
and enable their access to equal • Abadzi, H. (2006). Efficient learning for
opportunities. the poor – Insights from the frontier of
As a result of the process, changes cognitive neuroscience. World Bank.
have occurred within the community. For • Ahmed, M. and Chowdhury R. (2005).
example, the girls’ group was consulted by Beyond Access: Partnership for Quality
with Equity
the community members on various cases
• Aikman, S. and Unterhalter, E. (2005).
of abuse of mistreatment of girls and the
Beyond Access — Transforming Policy
girls’ group got abducted girls released by
and Practice for Gender Equality in
contacting the police, local NGOs and the
Education.
District Child Welfare Board. Teachers and
• Benson, C. (2005). Girls, Educational
boys within schools and the community
Equity and Mother Tongue-based
have started paying more respect to girls and
Teaching. UNESCO.
boys who initially used to tease them now
• Bista, M.B. (2004). Review of Research
support girls’ efforts to negotiate change.
Literature on Girls’ Education in Nepal.
Boys have started spearheading girls’ cause
UNESCO.
through their constructive efforts such as • Bista, M.B. (2006). Status of Female
staging of drama and plays. Support groups Teachers in Nepal. UNESCO.
for girls who have faced abuse have been • Black, M. (1999). Basic Education: A
established by local communities. (Source: Vision for the 21st Century. UNICEF.
www.id21.org/education/genderviolence/ • Dunne, M. et al. (2003). Gender and
index.html) Violence in Schools. UNESCO.
2.7 CONCLUDING THOUGHTS • Durnnian, T. (2007). Mother Language
First – Towards Achieving EFA for
There are many issues related to quality Adivasi Children in Bangladesh. Save
and equality of education with respect to the Children.
girls and other disadvantaged groups in • Heijnen, E. (2003). Children who learn
particular. Every country in South Asia has together learn to live together—Towards
identified improving quality of education as Inclusive Education. Discussion Paper.
one of its priorities, thereby focussing on Save the Children South Asia, South-
the learning environment right from the East Asia and Central Asia.
physical conditions of schools to improved • Heijnen, E. (2004). Quality teaching
pedagogical strategies for equality; from equals quality classroom management.
availability of textbooks and teaching Centre for Educational Research and
learning materials to more community Development, Bhutan.
involvement. The development of child • Heijnen, E. (2005). Reseaching Pre-
friendly South Asian schools or the ones Service Teacher Education: Moments
based on rights perspective is a positive of Truth. Bhutan: National Institute of
step towards quality education. Education.
36 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
and emulating older women in the family. In presses in Urdu namely, Tahizib un Niswan,
addition, parents were superstitious and felt Khatun and Ismat, were all founded and
that providing education to their daughters managed by men, and mostly edited by
would lead to early widowhood and make men as well. However, women contributed
girls defiant towards customary practices. to literature. Two of the earliest women’s
Thus, systemic constraints leading to the magazines edited by women were Paradah-
availability of very few trained women Nashin of Agra and Sharif Bibi of Lahore.
teachers such as Ustani (woman teacher) In Hyderabad, a women’s journal An-Nissa
impacted the initial education of girls. was devoted to social reform and creative
Related to this was the factor of ensuring literature that appeared between 1919 and
educational standards of instruction for 1927. It was edited by Sughra Humayun
girls which was highly debated by male Mirza who contributed many articles herself
and female intelligentsia during this and encouraged other women to contribute.
period. Early marriage was also a major Humjoli edited by Sayyida Begam Khwishgi,
impediment in the education of girls in the wife of the Director of Osmania University
British presidencies and princely states. Press, was a high quality literary magazine.
While the above mentioned factors blotted These printed literary materials threw light
the canvas of girls’ education, a beginning on the Muslim society during this period
was made during this period by Christian and the need for the growth of women’s
missionaries followed by educated male and education.
female intelligentsia, social reformers and Girls’ schools that were established by
the British government. The agency through Muslim male and female intelligentsia in
which they promoted the education of girls the late 19th and 20th century specially
was formal as well as informal. The formal focused on imparting religious instruction
effort culminated in the establishment – the holy Quran, Diniyat (theology),
of schools and the non-formal one was the life of the Prophet and of exemplary
domestic or the zenana system of education. Islamic women. They also required regular
It was largely informal and was meant for daily prayers, and for older girls, fasting
women who did not go to regular schools. during the month of Ramadan. There were
In addition, several associations were variations on these curricular themes, but
begun by Hindu and Muslim intelligentsia all the schools that were established during
during this period. Among the Muslims, this period combined the three Rs, religious
the well-known association that took up instructions, and practical household skills.
the cause of educating girls was Anjuman-i- Some of the noted women educationists
Himayat-i-Islam of Lahore, Anjuman-i-Islam who contributed towards girls’ education
of Bombay and The All-India Muhammadan were Rokeya Sakhawat Hossein,
Educational Conference (MEC). Several Fazilatunnessa Zoha, Shamsunnahar
aristocratic families also patronized girls’ Mahmud, Tayyiba Begam and the Begums
education. Prominent among them were of Bhopal, namely Sikander Begam, Shah
the Nizam of Hyderabad, Begums of Bhopal, Jahan Begam and Sultan Jahan Begum.
Shaikh Muhammad Abdullah, Sayid
Kaamat Husain and Karamat Husain and 3.3 POST INDEPENDENCE INITIATIVES
Badruddin Tyabji. The rich legacy of women’s education was
Motivating literature was also written reflected in the Constitution of India that
during this period for instilling awareness specially guarantees the right of minorities
on the importance of educating the half of to conserve the language, script and culture
humanity. In this regard, women’s periodical and to establish and administer educational
Education of Minority Communities: The Case of Muslim Girls 39
institutions of their choice whether based other disadvantaged groups for the 11th
on religion or language. The National Policy Five Year Plan (2007-2012) pointed out that
of Education (NPE) 1986, subsequently majority of the people were not aware of all
revised in 1992 has mentioned that among the plans and schemes, which benefit them.
the minorities there are some groups that The Planning Commission constituted
are educationally deprived or backward. a Working Group on “Empowerment of
For identification of educational deprivation the Minorities” for the formulation of the
among minorities, the Ministry of Home 12th Five Year Plan (2011). The report
Affairs, Government of India in 1990 set of the committee mentioned that despite
up a committee under the chairmanship of perceptible improvement in the socio-
Dr. Gopal Singh to look into the educational economic status of minorities, much more
status of disadvantaged groups, backward needed to be done to ensure that they take
classes and minorities in the country. The full advantage of India’s growth story. A
committee identified Muslims and Neo- three-pronged strategy was recommended:
Buddhists as educationally backward (i) social empowerment; (ii) economic
minority groups at the national level. The empowerment; (iii) social justice, to ensure
Neo-Buddhists were given all the benefits removal of disparities and elimination of
which are available to Scheduled Castes and exploitation. Some of the recommendations
therefore, the Muslims were recognised as r elate to pr oper implementation of
an educationally backward minority group scholarship schemes by simplifying
at the national level. procedures, opening of bank or post office
Further, the survey of out-of-school accounts in the name of the awardees and
children conducted by Social Research locating assistance from institutions and
Institute, a unit of International Marketing NGOs. It was further recommended that
Research Bureau (SRI-IMRB) in 2005 the Bicycle scheme could be upscaled to
indicated that the proportion of out-of- secondary and senior secondary stages for
school children is the highest in the Muslim enhancing the retention of girls at these
Community (9.97%). The Sachar Committee stages of education.
Report (2006) on the socio-economic In order to ensure quality education to
and educational status of the Muslim minorities, the report also recommended
Community of India highlighted that that residential schools along the lines
though the enrolment of Muslim children of Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya should
in education had increased significantly be established in a phased manner in
in the recent years, the incidence of never minority concentration blocks and minority
enrolled and drop-outs was still very high. concentration towns/cities. Norms in these
It further stated that one-fourth of Muslim schools needed to ensure admission to at
children in the age group of 6-14 years had least 50% children belonging to minorities.
either never attended school or were drop- Education and upliftment of minorities
outs, particularly the girls. The report also received centre stage in the ‘Prime
highlighted the fact that the educational Minister’s New 15-Point Programme for
status of Muslims varied across the country Welfare of Minorities’ as well. In the
and a differentiated approach would be domain of education, thrust was given
necessary based on levels of educational to improving access to school education
backwardness. In addition, the Report by ensuring that the Kasturba Gandhi
of the Working Group on Development of Balika Vidyalaya Scheme and other similar
Education of SC/ST/Minorities/Girls and schemes were located in villages/locality
40 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
Rural Urban
Source: Calculated from NSS Database 64th Round, quoted in India Human Development Report, 2011
Education of Minority Communities: The Case of Muslim Girls 41
Rural Urban
Males Females Males Females
By Major Religious Community
Hindus 64.5 60.0 73.6 70.7
Muslims 48.7 45.3 49.1 50.8
Christians 63.9 70.9 77.6 71.6
Sikhs 63.3 57.3 75.2 78.5
Source: Calculated from NSS Database 64th Round, quoted in India Human Development Report, 2011
At the Upper Primary level, once again and Muslim communities was better than
the enrolment of Muslim males and females all others.
was the lowest. However, in the urban ACTIVITIES
context, the attendance of female students
1. Prepare a database of enrolment of
was higher than the males. Interestingly, children of minority communities in
the table highlights that in the rural context, your school? Identify which minority
though female attendance was lower than community has lesser participation?
males among Christians, it was higher for 2. Collect infor mation about socio-
females. Similarly, in the urban context, cultural practices of all minorities in
the attendance of both Muslim and Sikh your district?
females were higher than the males. 3. What are the schemes that exist for
The Attendance ratio of secondary level promoting education among minorities?
once again points out the low attendance List the scheme and ministry associated
ratio among Muslim male and female with them.
students. In the rural context, female 4. Have the existing schemes impacted
attendance was lower in all major religious the overall development of minorities?
communities. In the urban context, the 5. Which of the scheme needs better
attendance ratio of girls belonging to Hindu implementation strategies?
Rural Urban
girls’ hostels and providing of incentives in The Mahila Samakhya programme works
the form of mid-day meals, uniforms etc., in tandem with and has organic linkages
were to be fully met. A production-cum- with educational schemes aimed at the
training centre for crafts, exclusively for universalisation of elementary education,
girls, preferably with women instructors to such as SSA. Women’s collectives under
the extent possible in each of the identified the MS scheme, called Mahila Sanghas,
minority concentration districts it was play an active role in working towards
removal of barriers in the participation
articulated, also needed to be established.
of girls and women in education at the
To achieve the constitutional mandate
community level and play an active role in
of free and compulsory education to all
school management/running of alternate
children up to the age of 14 and to achieve schooling facilities where needed. State MS
Education for All in the Indian context, societies are also running Kasturba Gandhi
the government of India enacted the Right Balika Vidyalayas that are formal, girls’
of Children to Free and Compulsory residential schools funded under the SSA
Education Act, 2009. By this Act, provision programme as well as implementing the
of Education to All children, including NPEGEL programme for direct support to
minorities has become justifiable. girls’ education in educationally backward
blocks.
3.7 S O M E SCHEMES AND
Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV)
PROGRAMMES FOR THE
UPLIFTMENT OF EDUCATIONALLY The KGBV scheme is functional in
BACKWARD MINORITIES educationally backward blocks where
female literacy is below the national
Schemes and programmes have been average. It is primarily designed for girls
designed for all childr en including who have dropped-out and those who
women from the educationally backward are never enrolled and younger girls of
communities. Some of the well known migratory population in difficult areas or
schemes that have an overall bearing on the scattered habitations. The scheme provides
status of women are the Mahila Samakhya education for girls at the Upper Primary
(MS) 1989, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) stage (VI to VIII). KGBV provides reservation
with specific schemes designed for the for 75% girls belonging to SC, ST, OBC and
upliftment of girls i.e., that is the Kasturba minority communities. The remaining 25%
Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) scheme priority is given to girls from BPL families.
and the National Programme for Education Presently there are 3,528 KGBV that are
operational enrolling 3,66,519 girls. For the
of Girls at the Elementary Level (NPEGEL).
upliftment of the minorities, the government
Mahila Samakhaya Scheme (1989) sanctioned 492 KGBVs in Blocks and Town/
To fulfil the objectives of NPE, 1986, the Cities having 20% Muslim Population. 423
MS Scheme was started in 1989 for the KGBVs are operational in the states of
education and empowerment of women in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat,
rural areas, particularly those from socially Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand,
and economically marginalized groups. The Karnataka, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
programme currently covers 121 districts Uttranchal and West Bengal.
in 10 states viz., Andhra Pradesh, Assam, National Programme for Education of
Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Girls at the Elementary Level (NPEGEL)
Karnataka, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh and The NPEGEL scheme envisages provisions of
Uttarakhand. enhancing the education of underprivileged/
44 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
of fruits and vegetables, Beauty Culture, education abroad, is the Padho Pardesh
Basic Computing, and Typing in Hindi, scheme which provides interest subsidy
Urdu and English. Currently, this project on educational loans for overseas studies.
is also operational in a pilot mode in the Thus, if these enabling schemes are
NCT of Delhi. In first phase 1,613 girls were properly implemented it will go a long way in
enrolled. In the second phase, 2,051 girls promoting greater participation for students
belonging to Muslim Community have been from minority communities, especially
benefitted in various vocational trades. In Muslim students. For ensuring that the
addition to the above-mentioned trades, scheme brings about transfor matory
three more vocational trades have been changes in the lives of the beneficiaries,
introduced such as: Basic Computing, Toy there is a need to institutionalize regular
making and joyful learning and Data entry monitoring and evaluation mechanism.
operations. Such an exercise would help in assessing the
The uniqueness of the project “Hunar” is success and limitations of each component
linking skill training through the institutions of the scheme for course correctives.
enjoying support of the community. The Further, there is a greater need for
entire delivery mechanism comprises of a disseminating information on success
network of institutions run and controlled by stories and individual cases that have
the community, mostly Maktabs,Madrasas benefitted from these schemes for motivating
and community based Muslim minority others to avail it. Dissemination of success
institutions. stories of women in different fields in
For educational empowerment of the the past and the present would help in
minorities, the Ministry of Minority Affairs encouraging Muslim girls in the schooling
has been implementing the following Six processes.
Plan schemes during the 11th Five Year Therefore, strategies for addressing
Plan: (i) Pre-Matric Scholarship Scheme, (ii) the educational needs of Minority needs to
Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme, (iii) Merit- examine in-depth the specific requirement of
cum-means based scholarship scheme, each community and accordingly planning
(iv) Maulana Azad National fellowship should be made. All the indicators depict
for minority students, (v) Grant-in-aid to that educational interventions are specially
Maulana Azad Educational Foundation, needed for improving access, enrolment,
(vi) Free coaching and allied scheme retention and achievement of Muslim girls
for candidates belonging to minority and boys at different stages of education.
communities. Schemes and programmes on minorities
To improve transparency and reach, a need to be disseminated in different
common National Scholarship Portal has languages and placed at important public
been launched for various ministries of places and media for ensuring awareness
Government of India including Ministry of and reach. Detailed analysis of systemic
Minority Affairs. Further, the scholarship barriers hindering participation of children
amount is transferred in the bank account across regions of their concentration needs
of students in direct benefit transferred to be undertaken for better planning and
mode (DBT). Wherever Aadhaar numbers resource allocation. Mapping of area specific
are available, the bank accounts of students resources and skill needs to be undertaken
are being linked. for purposes of making them self-reliant.
Lately another, motivational scheme These should be need based and as per the
to encourage students to pursue their requirement of the state.
46 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
Activities
• Find out the enrolment and drop-out figures of girls enrolled in KGBV in your block?
• How has the KGBV scheme benefited girls in your blocks?
• Which vocational activity is conducted in your KGBVs?
• List the kind of incentives available in existing model clusters school.
• Divide the class into groups and ask them the following:
Mid-day Meal
Textbook
Uniform
Stationery Items
Scholarships
Any other
include just about anyone who can read parents and community members about
and write a sentence or two. The situation government schemes and programmes. The
in the northern states, especially in rural study was empirical in nature. It covered
areas, is said to be particularly dismal. 85% four districts, namely, Rampur, Bahraich,
of rural north Indian Muslim women are Bareilly and Bijnor of Uttar Pradesh
unable to read or write. On the other hand, representing both eastern and western
the situation in the south, especially in parts of the state for collection of data. The
urban areas, was found to be considerably primary data was collected from the sample
better, with 88% urban South Indian households through household survey
women said to be literate. In the context of using semi-structured household schedule.
improving the education of Muslim girls, The study attempted to answer some of the
the authors have stressed upon proactive questions such as ‘Do the Muslim girls have
role of the community members as well as adequate access to secondary education in
the states in promoting access enrolment, the sample districts?’ ‘If yes, what are the
attendance and achievement of Muslim girls barriers which are responsible in their not
in education. attending schools?’ ‘In what ways family
Srivastava, Gouri. 2006. “The Role of beliefs and socio-cultural factors of a local
Begums of Bhopal in Girls’ Education”. community affect participation of Muslim
Department of Women’s Studies, NCERT: girls in secondary levels of modern school
This publication is based on the contribution education?’ Analysis of data generated
of the Begums of Bhopal to girls’ education. through household survey covering 400
The book highlights the strategies adopted households indicated that the participation
by Sikandar, Shah Jehan and Sultan of Muslim girls in the secondary education
Jehan Begum in promoting education of is found to be very low. Dropout rates
all girls, including Muslims girls. Some among girls are very high in Muslim areas
of the initiatives highlighted in the book after the age of puberty. The community
are – opening of formal institutions of opposition was found to be one of the
learning for girls, writing inspirational important reasons in low participation
literature depicting the significance of of Muslim girls in secondary education.
girls’ education and giving patronage to However, inter-district variations emerged.
educational institutions and awarding Community opposition emerged as a strong
scholarships to needy and meritorious barrier in districts Rampur and Bijnor.
students. Some of the case studies of Additionally, lack of physical as well as
educational institutions begun by the cultural access to secondary education and
begums have been reflected in the book. the conservative attitude of family members
They are the Victoria School, Madarasa emerged as strong barriers in the secondary
Bilqusia, Birjisia Kanya Pathshala, Arts education of Muslim girls in areas that came
School, The Sultania Girls’ School and the under the purview of the study. The results
Village schools. highlighted that advocacy and gender
sensitization campaigns in Muslim areas
Nuna, Anita. 2010-11. “A Study of
were strongly required.
Barriers in Secondary Education (Classes
IX-X) of Muslim Girls”. Department of Jaireth, Sushma. 2010-12. “A Study of
Women’s Studies, NCERT: The study was Madrasas and Maktabs of Southern
undertaken with a view to analyze the status States of India from a Gender Perspective”.
of participation of Muslim girls in secondary Department of Women’s Studies, NCERT:
education; to identify barriers that affect The study was undertaken in three Southern
their participation in secondary education States of India namely Kerala, Karnataka
and assess the level of awareness of Muslim and Andhra Pradesh. The major objectives
48 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
of this study were to- (i) analyse the Gulbarga, Hyderabad and Mehboob Nagar,
curriculum, and (ii) examine the perceptions which were in contrast to the morning,
of stakeholders from a gender perspective. evening and weekend Madrasas of Kerala.
The study concluded that in South India the Yadav, Mona. 2010-12. “A Study on
Madrasa education was of diverse nature. Implementation of KGBV Scheme in
In Kerala, all children went to schools the Muslim Concentrated Districts of
during school hours. Religious education Four States of India — An Assessment”.
was imparted only in the morning, evening Department of Women’s Studies, NCERT:
and during weekends (a new concept coming The study was done to assess the availability
up) as sometimes students found it difficult and quality of infrastructure in the KGBVs,
to move from the Madrasa to school each study the curriculum transaction and
day. In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, analyze the perception of girls, teachers and
the situation was different from Kerala, but parents/community on the KGBV scheme
quite similar to the independent Madrasas for enhancing the participation of Muslim
of North India. In districts like Bangalore girls. Field work was carried out in KGBVs
(Karnataka) and Mehboob Nagar (Andhra located in Muslim concentrated districts of
Pradesh), few Madrasas were also managing Rajasthan, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir and
primary schools which were covered by SSA. Andhra Pradesh. The findings of the study
These institutions were receiving all the showed that the needs of girls belonging to
benefits of SSA (a project of Government of the poorer sections of the society were rarely
India) viz., mid-day meal, free uniform, free met. Further, most parents expressed that
textbooks and teachers’ salaries. Besides they were unable to send their daughters
Arabic language, Urdu was the medium of to schools due to poverty and security
instruction in the Madrasas of Karnataka reasons at the upper primary level. Most
and Andhra Pradesh for most subjects. Some of the girls of the Muslim community in
of the institutions also made efforts to teach these KGBVs were first generation school
English language. In the state of Kerala, goers. For them, staying in the hostel with
students besides the Arabic and English all facilities like cooked food, playground,
languages were also skilled in the local television and quality time to interact with
language i.e., Malayalam. In Kerala, there peers and friends was perceived as a good
were co-educational Madrasas, especially incentive. All the stakeholders mentioned
in the Arabic colleges while in Karnataka that establishment of KGBVs were like a
and Andhra Pradesh, only segregation had social movement and would go a long way
been emphasized. Both men and women in promoting the empowerment of girls.
teachers taught in Kerala Madrasas and The above research studies have
Arabic colleges, while in the other two highlighted that though the education
southern states women teachers were of Muslim girls has gained momentum,
nearly absent in boys Madrasas. Gulbarga many challenges continue to exist. These
Madrasas were conservative in nature challenges are related to socio-economic
and rather backward in their approach. and cultural factors that are at variance and
In contrast, Malappuram Madrasas had follow different patterns from state to state.
highly developed infrastructure to the level Therefore, for addressing these issues state
of advanced institutions with computer specific initiatives have to be evolved with
technologies and subjects like Islamic contextualization. Strategic intervention will
studies, banking opted for by both girls and be important and field level work is what will
boys. Hyderabad and Gulbarga had fewer make a difference. Policies tend to remain
girls’ Madrasas in comparison to many more rhetoric for want of local knowhow on how
boys’ Madrasas. Further, no co-education to move ahead. The approach thus has
classes could be seen in Maktabs at to be multi-layered and must factor in all
Education of Minority Communities: The Case of Muslim Girls 49
levels of state machinery, teachers and more Five Cities, New Delhi. Women Unlimited
significantly, the concerned communities. an associate of Kali for women. India
Human Development Report: Towards
Activities Social Inclusion.2011. Oxford University
1. Prepare a case study of classroom Press, New Delhi.
processes in a minority institution. • Jaireth, Sushma. 2010-12. A Study of
2. Collect perceptions of parents and Madrasas and Maktabs of Southern
teachers on issues concerning the States of India from a Gender Perspective.
education of minority children. Department of Women’s Studies: NCERT.
3. Find out the problems that Muslim • Minault, Gail. 1998. Secluded Scholars:
girls face in pursuing their education Women’s education and Muslim. Social
by interviewing a few of them.
Refor m in Colonial India. Oxford
University Press, Delhi.
4. Initiate a discussion on the pushes and • National Policy on Education.1986.
pulls that minority communities face in Department of Education. Ministry
mainstream education. of Human Resource Development.
5. You can make children list the kind Government of India, New Delhi.
of sports and physical activities • National Policy for the Empowerment of
undertaken in the school. Is it gender Women. 2001. Department of Women
biased? and Child Development. Ministry
of Human Resource Development.
3.9 CONCLUSION Government of India: New Delhi.
There is a need to create awareness and • Nuna, Anita. 2003. Education of Muslim
strengthen implementation of schemes and Girls: A Study of the Area Intensive
programmes for upliftment of education of Programme. Department of Women’s
girls from Muslim communities. Constant Studies. NCERT.
monitoring and evaluation of schemes • Nuna, Anita. 2010-11. A Study of
from time to time have to be undertaken Barriers in Secondary Education (Classes
to see whether they address practical IX-X) of Muslim Girls. Department of
needs or initiate conspicuous changes Women’s Studies. NCERT.
among the beneficiaries. Success stories of • Srivastava, Gouri. 2006. The Role of
Muslim girls and their achievement need Begums of Bhopal in Girls’ Education.
to be disseminated for encouraging the Department of Women’s Studies.
participation of girls in education. Capacity- NCERT.
building programmes for teachers and • Working Group Report on Elementary and
teacher educators on gender concerns in Adult Education: Tenth Five-Year Plan,
education need to be taken up on a regular 2002-2007. Department of Elementary
basis for addressing biases and stereotypes. Education and Literacy. Ministry
of Human Resource Development.
3.10 REFERENCES Government of India. New Delhi.
• Fourth World Conference on Women— • India: Human Development Report
Beijing Country Report. 1995. 2011, Towards Social Inclusion, Oxford
Department of Women and Child University Press, New Delhi.
Development. Ministry of Human • Yadav, Mona. 2010-12. A Study on
Resource Development. Government Implementation of KGBV Scheme in
of India. the Muslim Concentrated Districts of
• Hasan, Zoya and Menon, Ritu. 2005. Four States of India—An Assessment.
Educating Muslim Girls: A Comparison of Department of Women’s Studies. NCERT.
Module 4
Economic Empowerment of Women:
Potential and Possibilities
Structure of the Module
4.1 Overview
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Objectives
4.4 India’s Demographic Dividend
4.5 Highlights of NASSCOM Mc Kinsey Report (2006)
4.6 Initiatives of Ministry of Women and Child Development
4.7 Efforts to build Sustainable Livelihoods linked with Companies Core Business
4.8 Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA)
4.9 Women as Entrepreneurs in India
4.10 Additional Business Opportunities for Women Entrepreneurs
4.11 Conclusion
4.12 References
4.1 OVERVIEW their own region. They can also explore the
It is highly desirable that women be demand for a particular product. They can
educated as they constitute 50% of the get training in the required skills and then
population in India. The main problem lies set up their enterprise. The website of the
in the fact that many girls still do not enrol Ministry of Women and Child Development
in school or even if they do, tend to drop- also gives ideas on how women can be helped
out very early. Thus, it becomes important to set up an enterprise, after undertaking
that they are trained in certain skills which skill development training and further how
will enable them to become economically they can form self-help groups. Industries
independent. Once skills are acquired and can be approached which have a wing for
honed, they can start their own enterprise. social responsibility and self-help groups.
To begin with, they can carry out a survey to One can start a bakery, a poultry, explore
find out what raw materials are available in areas such as vermiculture, floriculture,
Economic Empowerment of Women: Potential and Possibilities 51
tissue culture, beekeeping, mushroom stated that the government will have to
cultivation, etc. Skills in various areas are open 1600 new ITI’s and Polytechnics and
imparted by polytechnics, universities or 50,000 new Skill Development Centres,
distance education programmes. If India’s which would enable one crore students to
developmental policies promote women’s get vocational training. China has nearly
entrepreneurship and scaffold the process, 500,000 senior higher secondary vocational
India can certainly march towards more schools, whereas we have about 5100 ITI’s
gender equity. and 6000 VET schools in all. Once these
many training centres are established
4.2 INTRODUCTION
and also accredited with expert trainers in
Usha is born in a conservative family various fields, school dropouts and women
which is poverty-stricken. Her father sells can be trained. However, while opening
vegetables and earns around ` 300 per day. such centres the requirement of the local
She has a younger brother who goes to community and availability of the local raw
school. Usha also goes to school with him. materials should be kept in mind. Each
Her mother works as a maid and earns centre will have to cater to the needs of
around ` 9000 per month. The household the community. For instance, if particular
work is all done by Usha. In spite of being fruits are grown in abundance in a region,
overburdened with chores, she works very then people should be trained to preserve
hard in school as well as at home and gets and process them. If in a particular region
admission to a College in Applied Sciences. sheep can be reared, that skill should
She pursues a course in instrumentation be imparted to them. Thus, small scale
and gets a job in a Pharmaceutical company industries must be established in each
and thus becomes a great help to her region of the state so that neither the raw
family. Her hard work has paid off. Her material available nor the acumen of the
brother can now be educated in a good young mind is wasted. This will not only
engineering college. Usha does not leave solve the problem of unemployment but
her studies and pursues a post-graduation even create opportunities for women to
in analytical instrumentation and becomes
utilize their spare time to earn some money
an Associate Professor in a College. Not only
for themselves. It will bring women to the
does the family come out of its financial
mainstream of society, and also enable to
problems, but Usha herself is well educated
contribute economically.
and economically independent. What we
infer from Usha’s life story is that only Activities
because she had the requisite skills and • Collect data from your region:
qualifications, she could become financially –– Look at all the raw materials
independent. Usha was able to shoulder the available in your region in
financial burdens and responsibilities of her abundance. List them.
entire family. –– Find out what kind of products can
Economic prudence demands that be made from these raw materials?
women should be educated. Their potential –– Is there a demand for the products
should be tapped as they form nearly half developed by you in your own
the population of our country. Educating region? Carry out a market survey.
a woman means educating a whole family. • The trainer should inform the regional
Many girls in the country do not enrol in vocational training centre to impart
schools or dropout very early. To boost skills for producing the requisite
vocational education and skill development, products. The trainer could also think
the Prime Minister, Dr Manmohan Singh of starting a community college under
IGNOU.
on his Independence Day address in 2007
52 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
North
• Saffron
• Chilgoza
• Sericulture
• Sugar
• Bamboo
• Sugarcane
• Cotton
• Rice
• Mango
• Dairy farming
East
Central • Steel and
West Aluminium
• Tendu leaves
• Sugarcane refineries
• Bidi
• Cotton • Rice
• Sal seed
• Fishing • Sugarcane
• Teak
• Rice • Bamboo
• Lac
• Petrochemical • Pottery
• Khar
production • Pulses
• Amla
• Cargo handling • Oil seeds
• Imli
• Natural gas • Fertilizers
South
• Coconut
• Tea and coffee
• Cashew
• Spices
• Handloom and
handicraft
• Tourism
• Poultry and
fisheries
Economic Empowerment of Women: Potential and Possibilities 53
• Civil Aviation: Needs 5,400 pilots by salaries of top pharma scientists rise
the end of the 11th plan. Thereafter, to US levels.
there would be requirement of at least • Project Management Services: This
150 pilots per year as replacements for labour intensive sector will grow
retirements and normal attrition. with growth in corporate structure,
• Construction sector with a current infrastructure and retail industry.
employment of over 30 million is to (Data compiled from (FICCI report,
witness a boom by an annual growth New Delhi); (NASSCOM); (NASSCOM
rate of 30% in infrastructure. It would Mc Kinsey Report 2006); (Press Release,
translate into a large number of jobs, far Ministry of Commerce and Ind. April 7,
short of the employable skill available. 2006); (Presentation made by NMCC to
• Health sector: Shortage of 5 lakh doctors National Advisory Council, February 18,
and 10 lakh Nurses. There is a dearth 2006) [IL&FS, 2008]).
of para-medical personnel as dentists, The above data indicates that the people
medical laboratory technologists, in the urban areas and some percentage of
physiotherapists, occupational students who go for higher education can
therapists, perfusion technologists, be trained in the above areas and suitably
X-ray and PET technologists, employed.
ophthalmologists, prosthetics and
orthotic technologists, nurses, 4.6 INITIATIVES OF THE MINISTRY OF
pharmacists, General Nursing and WOMEN AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Midwifery (GNM) persons and Auxillary T h e M i n i s t r y o f Wo m e n a n d C h i l d
Nursing and Midwifery persons. Development seeks to promote economic
Dieticians, etc. empowerment of women through policies
• IT sector: Shortage of 5 lakh (half a and programmes cutting across sectors,
million) engineers.
mainstreaming gender concerns, creating
• Education sector: Faculty shortage of
awareness about their rights and facilitating
25-40 per cent.
institutional and legislative support for
• Automobiles: Employment expected to
enabling them to develop their full potential.
increase to 25 million by 2015-16 from
The important programmes in different
current 10.5 million, majority in the
areas are:
shop floor of auto manufacturing.
• Logistics: This will grow in tandem with Skill upgradation – Support to Training
growth in trade, aviation and tourism. and Employment Programme for Women
• Banking and Finance sector: 50-80 per (STEP), a Central Sector Scheme launched
cent of personnel shortage. in 1986-87, which seeks to upgrade
• Aviation sector: Severe shortage of pilots skills of poor and assetless women and
and ground duty officials. provide employment on sustainable basis
• Textile sector: It employs 35 million by mobilizing them in viable co-operative
people directly, besides 55 million in groups, strengthening marketing linkages,
its allied sector. Expected to generate support services and access to credit. The
additional 14 million jobs by 2012. scheme also provides for enabling support
• Pharma sector: Severe shortage of services in the form of health check-ups,
top pharma scientists as research legal and health literacy, elementary
expenditure by pharma companies has education, gender sensitization and mobile
quadrupled in the last 5 years. Thus, crèches. The ultimate endeavour of each
there is a shortage of middle-level and project is to develop the group to thrive on
junior scientists too. This has made a self-sustaining basis in the marketplace
Economic Empowerment of Women: Potential and Possibilities 55
with minimal governmental support and 2011-12 has been the first complete year
intervention even after the project period is of implementation of the scheme. A sum
over. Since inception, around 250 projects of ` 750 crore was allocated for SABLA for
have been provided financial assistance 2011-12.
under the scheme. Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) –
The ten traditional sectors identified for In order to address the socio-economic
project funding under STEP comprise of needs of the women and children of
agriculture, animal husbandry, dairying, selected eight most backward districts in
fisheries, handlooms, handicrafts, khadi the North Eastern region in the economic
and village industries, sericulture, waste arena, Central Social Welfare Board has
land development and social forestry. The formulated the Integrated Scheme for
scope and coverage of the scheme is being Women Empowerment (ISWE). The scheme
broadened with introduction of locally is being implemented on pilot basis since
appropriate sectors being identified and 2008 and has the objective of meeting the felt
incorporated into the scheme. needs of the area by mobilizing community
Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment action, converging available services and
of Adolescent Girls (RGSEAG) – ‘Sabla’, a resources of the area, income generation
centrally-sponsored scheme was approved through feasible and sustainable activities
by the Government on August 16, 2010. for women and to provide services for health
The scheme is being implemented in 200 awareness, career counselling vocational
districts across the country on a pilot training, preventing child trafficking and
basis. In the remaining districts, Kishori other social evils.
Shakti Yojana (KSY) continues to be Economic Empowerment – National
operational as before. However, SABLA has Mission for Empowerment of Women:
completely replaced Nutrition Programme The extent of empowerment of women from
for Adolescent Girls (NPAG) as all districts a holistic and macro-point of view is largely
of NPAG are now part of the SABLA. The determined by three factors, viz., economic,
scheme, interalia, aims at vocational social and political identity. These factors
training for girls above 16 years of age for are deeply intertwined and linked with many
their economic empowerment. cross-cutting linkages. This implies that if
SABLA is being implemented through efforts in any one dimension remains absent
the State Governments/UTs with 100 or weak, the outcome and momentum
per cent financial assistance from the generated by the other components cannot
Central Government for all inputs other be sustained. It is only when all these
than nutrition provision for which 50% three factors are addressed simultaneously
Central assistance to States is provided. and made compatible with each other
Anganwadi Centre is the focal point for that women can be truly empowered.
the delivery of the services. Life Skills Therefore, for the holistic empowerment of
Education and accessing public services, women, an inter-sectoral approach has to
vocational training for girls aged 16 and be adopted. The vision for socio-economic
above under National Skill Development empowerment of women is to empower
Programme (NSDP) are targeted. Nearly women economically and socially to end
100 lakh adolescent girls per annum are exploitation and discrimination, enabling
expected to be benefitted under the scheme. them to develop their full potential to be
Against the allocation of ` 350 crore for the active participants in nation building and
year 2010-11, a sum of ` 330 crore (approx.) sharing the benefits of economic growth
has been released to States/UTs. The year and prosperity. To achieve this vision,
56 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
the National Mission for Empowerment and create livelihood options for women,
of Women (NMEW) was launched on 8th it would ensure that training and skill
March. The objectives of the Mission are: upgradation under schemes/ programmes
• To ensure economic empowerment of of MoS&ME, MoL&E, MoRD, MWCD etc.
women, are available to the women beneficiaries of
• To ensure that violence against women SHGs and that there is no duplication of
is eliminated progressively, errors. Sustainability of income generation
• To ensure empowerment of women with activities by women would be looked at
emphasis on health and education, and they would be ensured provision of
• To oversee gender mainstreaming of adequate forward, backward and horizontal
programmes, policies, institutional linkages. The relevant programmes of
arrangements and processes of National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
participating Ministries, institutions Development (NABARD), Rashtriya Mahila
and organizations, and Kosh (RMK) and participating ministries as
• To undertake awareness generation well as organizations with components of
as well as advocacy activities to fuel processing, storage, distribution and market
the demand for benefits under various networks would be put in a convergent
schemes and programmes and create, mode to strengthen the livelihood of women.
if required, structures at district, tehsil The existing monitoring systems in place
and village level with the involvement of at the state and district levels would be
Panchayats for their fulfilment. utilized by the National Mission for tracking
Economic Empowerment of Women is to the effectiveness of convergence efforts in
be achieved through convergence of the the area of economic empowerment. While
schemes and programmes having focus on at the district level, the District Collector as
formation and promotion of SHGs so as to per the existing arrangement of the District
enable women to have access to micro credit Rural Development Agency (DRDA) would
and micro finance. Programmes like National be responsible for monitoring convergence
Rural Livelihood Mission (erstwhile SGSY- efforts at the district level, the Chief
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana)
Secretary of the State Government with
of MoRD, Smayamsidha of MWCD and
technical inputs from the State Resource
similar programmes of other Ministries and
Centre to be set up for women (SRCW) will
organizations would need to be converged
be made responsible at the state level. At
to help the identified SHGs in a coordinated
the national level, the National Mission
fashion. The Mission would see that access
Authority (NMA) will be responsible for
to credit by women SHGs under schemes of
overall monitoring of actionable agenda
NABARD, Rashtriya Mahila Kosh, financial
requiring convergence and for which it
institutions like NSCFDC/NBCFDC/
will take the inputs from both the Mission
NSKFDC (The National Safai Karamcharis
Directorate and the National Resource
Finance and Development Corporation
(NSKFDC), National Backward Classes Centre for Women (NRCW).
Finance and Development Corporation Rashtriya Mahila Kosh – (National Credit
(NBCFDC), National Scheduled Castes Fund for Women) : It was set up in 1993
Finance and Development Corporation with a corpus of ` 31 crore, against the
(NSCFDC) of MoSJ&E (Ministry of backdrop of socio-economic constraints
Social Justice and Empowerment) and faced by poor women to access microcredit
nationalized banks, is coordinated well from the formal financial system in the
and delivery of credit is timely. In order country, especially those in the rural and
to promote self-employment opportunities unorganized sectors. The principal corpus
Economic Empowerment of Women: Potential and Possibilities 57
had increased to ` 100.00 crore by 2009-10. Functioning of the SHGs – The SHGs
The main objective of setting up of Rashtriya run on collective funds. This fund is
Mahila Kosh (RMK) under the Department accumulated from the fixed monthly savings
of Women and Child Development (now of each member of the group. The group
Ministry) was to provide micro-credit to poor fund is then utilized for internal lending
women for various livelihood support and with an interest, much less than that
income generating activities at concessional charged by private moneylenders. Following
terms in a client-friendly procedure, to bring a stabilization period of six months, the
about their socio-economic development. smoothly functioning groups become
The RMK is now being restructured as eligible to avail government schemes and
a NBFC with a corpus of ` 500.00 crore. can later even access credit from the banks
Till 31 March 2011, 6,87,512 women and other private microcredit institutions.
beneficiaries have been sanctioned ` 307.52 “Access to credit allows well managed,
crore and disbursed ` 251.82 crore. enterprising groups to take up income
generation activities on individual or
Economic empowerment of women
collective basis”, says Sadhna Dube, District
through Self Help Groups (SHGs) : Once
Coordinator of the programme. Apart from
a landless agricultural labourer, Kushabai
this external support, mutual trust and
now owns two milch cows and a couple of
unity among the group members generate
goats. Her earnings of ` 2000 per month on required strength as well as solutions in
an average are almost double the income she dealing with problems. For instance, the
managed to get from seasonal agricultural Prerana SHG from Nandura Khurd was
work. The economic activity has not only all equipped and qualified to access credit
given her a sense of financial security but under the government-sponsored Swarna
also induced in her newer aspirations for Jayanti Gram Swarozagar Yojana (SGSY)
self-reliance. scheme from a year of its formation. However,
Life began to change for this 50-plus the bank dismissed their proposal on the
woman from Nandura Budruk village in grounds that two of the group members
Babhulgaon block in Yavatmal district belonged to a family of loan defaulters. This
when she, together with nine other women made the entire group unqualified to apply
in her village, formed a Self-help Group for loan. The group however did not give up
(SHG). The formation of Prerana SHG in and decided to repay the loan amount from
2001 has helped its 10 members to support the group savings.
themselves by initiating collective ventures Once the women crossed this hurdle,
for income generation. More importantly, they were entitled to an initial revolving
this has raised the status of these diligent fund of ` 25,000, with a subsidy of
rural women from being labourers to micro- ` 10,000. They used part of this money
entrepreneurs. to buy goats and utilized the remaining
This micro-entrepreneurship programme amount as individual loans. As they repaid
is based on the concept of Convergent this initial fund within six months, the
Community Action (CCA) primarily laying group became eligible for a fresh loan
stress on pooling common resources and of ` 1,50,000 at 18 per cent interest. In
channelizing it for their overall development. consultation with Sadhna Dube and other
In 2000, the District Rural Development government officials, members of the
Agency (DRDA) launched the programme Prerana SHG decided to buy cows and
in partnership with a network of NGOs and start a dairy. The group now owns 21 cows
with support from UNICEF. and is able to sell 35-45 liters milk daily
58 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
philanthropic groups and academia. The more women (and thereby create a
company aims to impact and improve the multiplier effect).
lives of 25,000 women in India by the end Another main thrust is to build a cadre of
of 2016. trainers who can provide training to the
other people in the subsequent years. It
4.8 S E L F E M P L O Y E D W O M E N ’ S
is envisaged that out of the pool of trained
ASSOCIATION (SEWA)
cadres, some cadres can become trainers
There are many NGO’s imparting vocational and start investing on this skill as an asset.
skills so that women can become self- They can find out a livelihood out of this
reliant. One of the most well known one is skill and become master trainers.
SEWA, Self Employed Women’s Association.
It runs the Swavlamban Programme. The 4.9 WOMEN AS ENTREPRENEURS IN
core objective of this programme is to build INDIA
self-reliance in poor, marginalized women. Women-owned businesses are increasing
Since women are the key to the economic in number in the economies of almost all
well-being of a household, by making poor countries. The hidden entrepreneurial
women self-reliant the target is to increase potentials of women have gradually been
household income and consequently changing with the growing sensitivity
improve the quality of nutrition and the level to the role and economic status in the
of education of the children. The core of the society. Skill, knowledge and adaptability in
programme is large scale capacity-building business are the main reasons for women
in the areas of Textiles and Garmenting, to emerge into business ventures. A ‘Women
Agro and Food Processing, Agriculture and Entrepreneur’ is a person who accepts a
Nursery Raising, Construction, Information challenging role to meet her personal needs
and Communications Technology, Building and become economically independent. A
and Managing Micro-enterprises, Salt strong desire to do something positive is
production, Para-medical training, Para- an inbuilt quality of an entrepreneurial
veterinary training, Renewable energy, woman, who is capable of contributing
Rural Infrastructure and Livelihood. values in both family and social life. With
Further, since skill and capacity-building the advent of media, women are aware of
are only one part of SEWA’s integrated their own traits, rights and also about work
approach towards uplifting households, the situations. The glass ceilings have been
women are also exposed to one or more of shattered and women are found engaged in
the following services to facilitate livelihood every line of business, from pappad making
generation for them: to power cables.
• Market linkages and access to market The challenges and opportunities
information (particularly for trades such provided to the women of the digital era
as agriculture and salt production). are growing so rapidly that the job seekers
• Handholding support and micro-finance are turning into job creators all over the
for those who choose to run their own world. They are flourishing as designers,
micro enterprises. interior decorators, exporters, publishers,
• Opportunity to work in the supply garment manufacturers and still exploring
chain – as producers, processors, value- new avenues of economic participation. In
adders and sales personnel in one of India, the situation is somewhat different.
SEWA’s producer companies. Although women constitute the majority of
• Opportunity to be part of SEWA’s rural the total population, the entrepreneurial
resource and training team to train world is still a male dominated one. Indian
60 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
women entrepreneurs continue to face some of incentives, loans, schemes etc. Even
major constraints like: then every woman entrepreneur may not
Lack of Confidence : In general, women be aware of all the assistance provided by
lack confidence in their strength and the institutions. So often the sincere efforts
competence. The family members and taken towards women entrepreneurs may
the society are usually reluctant to back not reach the entrepreneurs in rural and
their entrepreneurial growth. To a certain backward areas.
extent, although the situation is changing Exposure to Training Programmes :
somewhat, there is still a long way to go. Training programmes and workshops for
Socio-cultural Barriers : Women’s family every type of entrepreneur are available
and personal obligations are sometimes through social and welfare associations,
a great barrier for succeeding in one’s based on duration, skill and the purpose of
business career. Only few women are able to the training programme. Such programmes
manage both home and business efficiently, are really useful to new, rural and young
devoting enough time to perform all their entrepreneurs who want to set up a small
responsibilities in priority. and medium scale unit on their own.
Identification of Available Resources :
Market-oriented Risks : Stiff competition
Women are hesitant to find ways of fulfilling
in the market and lack of mobility of
their needs in the financial and marketing
women make the dependence of
areas. In spite of the mushrooming growth of
women entrepreneurs on middleperson
associations, institutions, and the schemes
indispensable. Many business women find
from the government, most women are not
it difficult to capture the market and make
usually enterprising and dynamic enough
their products popular. They are not fully
to optimize their resources in the form
aware of the changing market conditions
of reserves, assets mankind or business
and hence can effectively utilize the services
volunteers.
of media and internet.
Highly educated, technically sound
Motivational Factors : Self-motivation and professionally qualified women should
can be realized through a mindset for a be encouraged for managing their own
successful business, attitude to take up risk business, rather than being dependent on
and behaviour towards the business society wage employment outlets. The unexplored
by shouldering the social responsibilities talents of young women can be identified,
involved. Other factors are family support, trained and used for various types of
Government policies, financial assistance industries to increase their productivity
from public and private institutions and in the industrial sector. A desirable
also the environment suitable for women environment is necessary for every woman
to establish business units. to inculcate entrepreneurial values and get
Knowledge in Business Administration: involved in business dealings.
Women must be educated and trained
4.10 THE ADDITIONAL BUSINESS
constantly to acquire the skills and
OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN
knowledge in all the functional areas of
ENTREPRENEURS
business management. This will enable
them to become effective decision makers (a) Eco-friendly technology – Women
and develop a good business network. Entrepreneurs Go Organic!
Awareness about Financial Assistance: Organic food is eco-nutritionist Kavita
Various institutions in the financial sector Mukhi’s passion. First as the founder of
extend their maximum support in the form Conscious Food and now as the person
Economic Empowerment of Women: Potential and Possibilities 61
behind Mumbai’s first weekly organic to create enzymes from pilot to plant level.
farmer’s market, she has consciously Later, she led the company to the realm
spread the word on nutritionally healthy of bio-pharmaceuticals, a fully integrated
foods. bio-pharmaceutical venture comprising
Of course, now with the ‘Go Organic!’ a well-balanced business assortment of
mantra finding favour with many eco- products and services with specific research
conscious city women – simply because on diabetes, oncology and auto-immune
the advantages of choosing natural over disease. In 2004, Biocon’s unprecedented
adulterated are far too many – it’s little success made Kiran India’s richest woman.
wonder that the number of organic product (c) IT enabled enterprise
companies and consumer stores across Revathi Kasturi – The founder and
Indian metros is only growing. Behind CEO of the Laqsh Job Skills Academy.
these ventures are successful women Revathi Kasturi is a highly successful IT
entrepreneurs for whom ‘healthy’, ‘farm- entrepreneur. She started her career in
fresh’ and ‘chemical-free’ are the magic Wipro, and after 17 years in the company,
words. moved on as Co-founder and President of
(b) Bio-technology – Kiran Tarang Software Technologies. She also
Mazumdar Shaw–Bio-technology served as the Managing Director of Novell
Entrepreneurship India before going on to establishing Laqsh.
There are few people who can show the way Business Today named her Woman of
among the multitudes, who are exceptional the Year in 2001. An electrical engineering
leaders. One such person however is Kiran graduate of IIT, Bombay, this Bangalorean
Muzumdar Shaw. served with NASSCOM as an Executive
Kiran is the Chairperson and Managing Council Member for 6 years – and is now
Director of Biocon Ltd., India’s biggest on the Regional Council of NASSCOM,
biotechnology company and one of the 20 Karnataka. Laqsh Job Skills Academy
leading biotech companies in the world. She provides courses and training to companies
never dreamt of becoming an entrepreneur. and individuals in life skills development,
The cards were stacked against her. Her English-speaking skills, computer literacy,
father lost his savings in a bad investment, sales skills and service skills. The company
she had no background in biotech or is also committed to provide “quality training
entrepreneurship, and she had to overcome for skill repair at an affordable cost and to
the stigma of being a female entrepreneur reach out to urban and semi-urban India
in the sciences. At the time of Biocon’s providing holistic training and placement
founding, banks were unwilling to give loans services for youth.”
for the unfamiliar field of biotechnology. (d) Vermiculture
With the help of a fellow female
biotech mentor and just ` 10,000, Kiran Case Study 1 – Entrepreneur: Farida
founded Biocon in 1978. The company Banu, Ganadalu village, Karnataka
began by developing a process to extract Farida Banu, a young lady, was among
papain, an enzyme from papaya. The the first to set up a vermicomposting
fermentation process subsequently led to enterprise in the backyard of her parents’
the development of several other industrial house. Having begun with a population
enzymes. By the year 1990, Biocon became of 2,000 earthworms of three epigamic
capable enough to kick-start an in-house species, she regularly harvests close to
research programme in solid substrate 400 kg of vermicompost every month. Her
fermentation technology that permitted it unique marketing strategy involves meeting
62 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
potential customers. Farida has tie-ups and the market. They are convinced that
with the Social Forestry Department in both the quantity and quality of their
Chikkanayakanahalli and farmers in towns, produce has improved considerably.
such as Sira and Huliyar. Sometimes, she Jayamma values her vermicompost at
even gets customers from Bangalore. Farida market rates and has convinced Gopala
earns an income of around ` 1,000 a month, about her contribution towards the
after covering all the expenses. The sale development of their homestead farm.
of earthworms gives her income a further Today, she is thinking of increasing
boost. Today, Farida is a confident young production in order to produce vermicompost
woman who has the capability to market not only to meet their farm requirements
the vermicompost produced even by other but also for sale, thereby increasing their
entrepreneurs. income.
She has come a long way as a As the examples of Farida and Jayamma
consequence of her training. Abandoned demonstrate, the vermicomposting project
by her husband, her life took a turn for has given an opportunity to uneducated,
the worse when she began to live with her under-employed women to become income
parents since her brothers wanted her to generators and supplement their families’
leave the house. In their view, she had income. In the process, they have gained
become a burden on them. The turning tremendous confidence and have been
point for Farida was clearly the setting up successful in tur ning their previous
of her vermicomposting enterprise. psychology of ‘defeat’ into psychology of
Case Study 2 – Entrepreneur: Jayamma, ‘success’.
Marenadu village, Karnataka (e) Floriculture
Jayamma and her husband Gopala are An all-woman organization in Kerala,
homestead farmers in Marenadu village. ‘ N a t t i k a Va n i t h a P u s h p a K r i s h i
Gopala is a progressive farmer who has Samrakshana Samithi’, Nattika, Thrissur,
been experimenting with agro-forestry, is engaged in production of orchids and
cover crops, inter-cropping and the use of other ornamental annuals through tissue
organic manure. However, he found that the culture. This example can serve as a shining
quality of farmyard manure was not up to beacon for women entrepreneurs intending
the mark. Discussions with the family gave to embark on a similar enterprise.
him the idea that Jayamma was a good (f) Tissue Culture Enterprise on a Home-
candidate for the entrepreneurship training. scale
Jayamma set up her enterprise around A typical, family-operated nursery producing
the end of 1996. Her unit has a production
planting material in about 200 hectares
capacity of about 400 kg of vermicompost
would have an annual turnover of about
a month. Unlike Farida, who sells all her
` 20 lakh and an annual profit of about
produce, Jayamma uses it on vegetable
` 5 lakh. Rural India would require 15,000
patches and for her fruit trees. A lemon tree
such nurseries to satisfy the total demand
has already produced over 1,000 lemons
of planting material of this category of crop
in 1997 and has earned 1,000 rupees for
species, which can be met by tissue culture.
the family.
Jayamma and Gopala have also been (g) Herbal and Health care
developing a horticulture farm for which Shahnaz Husain (Shahnaz) was another
vermicompost is their main nutrient input. successful woman entrepreneur of India.
They have been growing chillies and many She popularized herbal treatments for
vegetables, both for their own consumption beauty and health problems. Her company,
Economic Empowerment of Women: Potential and Possibilities 63
Shahnaz Husain Herbals, was the largest with an initial capital of ` 80, borrowed from
of its kind in the world and had a strong a local money lender and social worker,
presence in over 100 countries, from USA SMGULP grew phenomenally. In 2002, it
to Asia. By 2002, the Shahnaz Husain had a turnover of ` 3 billion and exports
Group had over 650 salons around the worth ` 100 million. It employed 42,000
world, employing about 4,200 people. The people in 62 divisions all over the country.
net worth of the Group was $100 million. (j) Poultry-raising – Popular Women’s
(h) Food, fruits and vegetable processing Micro-Enterprises in Manipur
Dairy products: A case study of a successful Poultry was the most popular loan-funded
dairy entrepreneur of Tadborgaon village in activity among the very poor. It is a traditional
Parbhanl district of Maharashtra state was activity in the area, and the women there
conducted. She is 33 years old, illiterate, possess the required know-how. Three
having two sons, her family is nuclear main advantages of poultry-raising from the
and has small land holding. Her husband women’s viewpoint were low set-up costs,
is engaged in tailoring and fanning. With easy management and easy marketing.
support from her brother she purchased Poultry-raising requires little labour input.
one buffalo from her savings and some Women in this area were already working
money borrowed from a moneylender to 14-16 hours a day and were therefore not
enhance the economic condition of her keen to take on extra work. Set-up costs
family. From the business of milk and milk are also low, as poultry requires little in the
products she purchased more buffaloes. She way of shelter. Moreover, it quickly begins to
performs all animal and dairy management generate a return on the investment. Female
practices except grazing, buying and selling chicks begin to lay eggs within a relatively
of animals. She could run a dairy business short time. These can be easily sold locally
successfully. in exchange for other items needed by the
HESCO (Himalayan Environmental family such as staple food items.
Studies and Conservation Organization) is But there was another reason why
yet another example of an NGO which has women liked investing in poultry. Poultry are
helped tribal women in hilly areas to become seen as women’s property. Although men
self-reliant. They have made Prasad from make the major financial decisions in the
the local plant bioresources available in that family, women need not consult them about
region. The Prasad is sold in the name of poultry. Many women in the study reported
“panchamrit”.Women are trained to make that keeping poultry gave them quick access
the Prasad kit which consists of a basket, to money for emergencies. Because they did
incense and Prasad (ladoos) all made from not have to ask their husbands for small
locally avaible plants. This is sold to the amounts of cash, it also gave them a sense
devotees who visit Badrinath temple. The of independence.
above case descriptions clearly illustrate Pig-raising: Keeping pigs, as with poultry, is
that each region in India can evolve methods an important element of the rural economy
of training women to become entrepreneurs in the north-eastern region. The profit
by using locally available raw materials. potential is attractive. According to the
(i) Pulses – Shri Mahila Griha Udyog villagers interviewed, a piglet cost` 800–
Lijjat Papad (SMGULP) 1000, but could be sold in a year’s time for
The entrepreneurial success of SMGULP is ` 2,500–3,000. This is a considerable
noteworthy. SMGULP was a co-operative income for a poor household. There is also a
system in which women over the age of 18 good market for pigs in the region. However,
could become members. Starting humbly, the labour implications for the women are a
64 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
all types of financial needs of the poor who women to create their own business.
are not able to access credit from banking By making loans available to these poor
institutions due to lack of collateral and women, the micro-finance industry
high cost of transaction. They are able to not only helps pull themselves out of
get access to credits necessary for starting a poverty, but it also promotes gender
small business in order to generate income equality throughout the world.
and secure a better life for themselves and (d) Financial Independence: It helps in
their families. Micro Finance Institutions creating long term sustained financial
(MFIs) refer to a wide range of organizations independence for poverty stricken
dedicated to providing these services to low poor. It educates recipients on how
income people. These MFIs include NGOs, to create their own business and how
Cooperatives, Private and Government to properly manage and grow their
Commercial Banks and Non-Banking money.
Financial Institutions. Micro-finance as a
The amount borrowed can be anything
development tool in the fight against poverty
but it is normally seen to be around
has been pioneered by Mohammad Yunus
` 500 to ` 2000. Interest is charged on
who established the delivery through the
these internal borrowings normally at the
grameen model of group-banking in the
rate of two per cent per month. Initially,
early 1980s. In India, out of various delivery
models adopted by MFIs, SHGs have been the loan amount used to be spent on
the most popular delivery mechanism. personal expenditures like children’s
MFIs in India are growing at a rapid rate education, health and other miscellaneous
and millions of poor have been given small requirements. Later, these women are
loans to allow them to pull themselves and encouraged to start an economically viable
their families out of poverty. These loans venture. Micro-finances allow women
are aimed at empowering the impoverished to work to end their own poverty with
to start their own business and to grow dignity. These poor women have shown
their money, so that they can achieve long strong repayment records, higher than
term financial independence. The main conventional borrowers and saved the
advantages of micro-finance are briefly banks from their major concern regarding
described here: repayment. As the micro-finance models
(a) Helping the Poor: The concept of SHGs are based on a group approach, repayment
is based on providing small loans that rates are high because of peer pressure.
are paid back with interest and not on As the borrowers are responsible for the
just donating money to help the poor. entire group, they have to ensure that every
Most of these loans have also been member of their group is able to repay their
repaid. loan.
(b) No Collateral: Poor people are deprived However, MFIs are often viewed as
of loans as they do not have anything profit making organisations and are not
to offer as collateral. As a result, free from corruption. Another problem with
they are not able to come out of the the MFIs is poor record keeping resulting
vicious circle of poverty. Micro-finance in rising number of defaults. The reasons
allows the poor to get loans, use for poor book keeping are the complex
them productively to create their own and time consuming procedures involved.
business, grow their assets and get out Moreover, the deal is too small for the lender
of poverty. to devote time and money to do proper
(c) Women’s Empowerment: Micro-finance documentation. This also results in a rising
industry is aimed at empowering number of defaults. Another reason is lack
Employment and Empowerment of Women through Self Help Groups 69
to save ` 50 per month, which after a certain the small homogeneous groups. The
period, will be ready for the loan distribution members of SHGs decide on the minimum
among the same group which is known as amount of deposit which ranges from ` 20
the “Revolving Fund (RF)”. After six months to ` 100 per month depending upon the size
to one year of disciplined operations, they are of the group. They make their contributions
eligible for a loan from scheduled commercial over a few months until there is enough
banks in multiples of its savings (nearly capital in the group to begin lending. The
four times to the saved amount) or micro- members regularly meet on a fixed time and
credit institutions. This loan amount is to date to collect savings under the supervision
be distributed among the members as per of SHPIs. Capital formation also takes
the discretion of the group members, but place with the help of other external grants
has to be for an income generating activity. (revolving funds, grants, loans, etc). External
It is mandatory for the members to specify grants are usually a multiple of their own
savings (4:1). The next step is availing of
the purpose of the loan and its usage while
loans, where small loans are given to needy
applying for loan. During this part of the
members during periodic meetings. These
activity, the members are helped by the
loans are short duration loans with definite
volunteers/NGO workers. Normally, under
repayment schedule. The funds are rotated
SGSY a loan of ` 2,50,000 is given to each among themselves. The group shall have
SHG. Of this, ` 1,00,000 is the subsidy a bank account to deposit the fund and
component and the remaining `1,50,000 is maintain certain basic records. Members
meant to be the credit component. The rate use collective wisdom and peer pressure to
of interest charged by the bank is between ensure proper use of credit and its timely
9.5% and 10.5% which is always below the repayment. This system eliminates the need
Private Lending Rate. The total loan given for collateral and is closely related to that
to the group is generally shared equally of group lending to make the book keeping
between the members. Repayment is to be very simple so that it can be handled by
made in monthly instalments. The amount the members themselves. The SHGs are
of instalment is decided by the group itself free to charge the members any amount of
at their monthly meetings. These range interest acceptable to them. Usually, the
between ` 300 and ` 500 per person per flat interest rates are used for most of the
month. loan calculations. SHG members take up
different income generating activities. SHPIs
5.6 FORMATION OF SHGs also play an important role in the selection
The formation of SHGs go through four of economic activities suitable to their skill.
stages, (i) group formation, (ii) capital Some of the Income Generating Activities of
formation through savings, (iii) availing of SHGs are given below:
loans, and (iv) income generation through
economic activity. The group formation can • Agricultural activities
be either voluntary or can be facilitated by • Animal Husbandry
Self Help Promoting Institutions (SHPI), • Hosiery
which play a vital role in the initial stages • Candle Preparation
of group formation. These SHPIs can • Cane Products
be Non-Governmental Organizations, • Carpet Weaving
Social Workers, Village Level Workers, • Chicken Shops
Local Volunteers, Community Based • Running Mess
Organizations, Government Departments,
• Mid-Day Meals in Schools
Banks, and Clubs, etc. They interact with
• Embroidery
poor families, especially women to identify
Employment and Empowerment of Women through Self Help Groups 71
The presence of women in the civic and education, family planning, eradication
political spheres helps to change the of child labour and understanding the
perception of women and their roles. value of maintaining personal hygiene.
Thus, one of the key benefits of SHGs SHGs demonstrate leadership roles
is facilitating the presence of women by gathering the support of the entire
in public affairs by empowering them village. The concept of a woman-
and increasing their visibility. dominated organisation taking up the
(b) Social Empowerment: It has been leadership role for the betterment of
observed that the social empowerment society has a motivational role for the
of women has increased after attaining whole community.
membership in SHGs over a period (d) Economic Empowerment: SHGs
of time. It has also resulted in higher have proved to be vitally important in
self esteem among them as they feel the economic empowerment of women
self confident in travelling alone to the as they have generated multiple
nearest town/district, going alone for employment opportunities for them.
medical treatment of self/children and Timely availability of credit and their
handling money. Their participation utilisation for income generating
in the decision making process has activities have resulted in increasing
increased significantly after joining employment opportunities at the
SHGs. These are crucial decisions like household. The loans that the SHGs
the type of food to be consumed by the members receive are intended to
family, schooling of children, decisions improve their livelihoods so that they
pertaining to health, maintenance of can receive greater and steadier cash
the house and similar other things. flows. In rural areas, livelihoods range
“Previously, we had to cringe before from agriculture farming, animal
our husbands to ask for one rupee. husbandry, dairy and various other
We do not have to wear tattered saris goods and services activities. SHGs
anymore and, today, we have the have helped in securing improved
confidence to come and talk to you livelihoods by providing the investment
without seeking permission from our needed to start an enterprise.
husband,” remarked a member. (e) Lowering of Interest Rates: SHGs
(c) Social Harmony: As the members of have an instrumental role in saving
the group belong to different castes/ poor people from the monopoly of
social groups, their impact on social village money lenders by providing an
harmony is also positive. They choose alternative source of securing loans.
to focus on some core issues and make Micro-finance institutions have a
efforts towards fulfillment of these. significant beneficial effect in bringing
They also fight for the problems of their down the interest rates charged by
members. There are several examples money lenders from 2 to 3 per cent
of SHGs resolving disputes between per month. The rates have come
members and the community at large. down because with the appearance
These instances include initiating of the micro finance institutions,
legal action, arbitration, divorce and the villagers prefer taking loan from
others. SHGs impact on securing social this system. Before the formation of
justice is also being noticed, though SHGs, the major sources of borrowing
slowly. There have been instances of for the villagers were money lenders,
significant contributions from SHGs to followed by relatives and friends. Now,
74 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
SHG did not have any difficulty in getting a gained the self-confidence to interact also
loan of ` 10,000 from the bank for making with government authorities. They are now
the initial deposit for the dealership. The more respected in their households and get
SHG is running this business successfully involved in the household decision making
and the villagers are quite satisfied with process.
the SHG. The villagers were unhappy
with the previous dealer since they were Income Generation – Basic Ingredient
not getting their quota of kerosene due to of Successful SHG
irregularities in the operation. The SHG is
getting a monthly commission of ` 500 for Utsav Bahar SHG is located in Mari-
the dealership and out of ` 10,000 which Musalman Gaon of Marigaon district
had been taken as bank loan by the group, of Assam. This SHG was formed by 10
` 6,000 has already been paid back. women, all from BPL families, was a mix
of educated and illiterate members. This
Thanks to the success of the kerosene SHG is running successfully since 2002. As
dealership and the promptness with all the members belonged to poor families,
which the SHG has been repaying loans,
they began by contributing ` 5 per week
Budharajan SHG has recently been
each, so that they could save at least ` 20
sanctioned a loan of ` 5,00,000 by the bank.
in a month.
From this amount, these highly enterprising
women have utilised ` 2,98,000 and have The members of SHG and a collector
started a tent house business. Along with from the Rashtreeya Grameen Bank (RGB)
the tent business, the SHG members would gather on Wednesdays to collect the
decided to take up cooking activities for saved money. In order to inculcate a sense
further augmenting their earnings.The of discipline among the members, it was
loan was utilised for purchasing utensils, decided by the SHG that any member who
chairs, durries, mats, mike set, sound box, turns up late for a meeting would be fined
stage and altar, decorative items, mattress, ` 2, which applied to the collector as well.
pillows, roof top tent, water drum, pots The SHG has a very good track record in
and pans and aluminum discs that are repayment of the loans received from the
required for the business. In order to attract RGB. Because of this, the bank has been
customers, the SHG distributed leaflets granting them larger loans. Each year,
and pasted posters at different places members take loans which is double that
within and around their village. It did brisk of the previous year. So far, in all these
business during the marriage season and years, they have returned the loans without
till now they have earned a good amount default. The SHG was sanctioned a loan of
of profit. It is very rare for women to take ` 20,000 in 2002, ` 40,000 in 2003,
up such activities which were considered ` 80,000 in 2004 and ` 1,00,000 in 2006.
to be a male domain and register success All these loans have been duly repaid. The
too. Now, they have acquired fame in the members have not taken up any project
area as the “Tent House SHG”. as a group. However, they have made use
They plan to undertake some more projects of the loan received from the bank in ways
in the near future. The group has also taken suitable for them. They have all adhered
up the social responsibility of creating to the basic principle of the SHG and have
awareness about health issues. Due to the used it for income generating assets/
efforts of the SHG, leprosy and TB patients investments and therefore have been
have been identified and sent for medical able to repay the loan promptly. All the
tests and treatment. The SHG members members, whether literate or illiterate, have
want to ensure that all the children in the been successful in generating additional
village are immunized. The members of the incomes.
Budharajan SHG feel that because of their One of the members, Alimun Nasa,
group, they have been empowered and have though educated up to Class X, was a
76 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
housewife. Her husband was a tailor. After 4. You can share some such success
becoming a member of the SHG, she used stories with your friends.
the loan to buy another sewing machine so _____________________________________
that they could employ an assistant for her _____________________________________
husband. Thereafter, she has been buying
5. You can also visit an SHG located in
one machine from the loan money every
vicinity.
year and presently they have five machines
and five workers to assist them in their _____________________________________
tailoring business. She has also started _____________________________________
supervising and monitoring the business.
Their income has increased three-fold 5.11 MICRO-FINANCE: CAUTIONS FOR
after joining the SHG. They have built a MISUSE
new house and are now well respected in The primary recipients of micro finance are
the village. poor — some may be poor and yet above the
The case of Nurjahan Begum is also poverty line and some may be living in abject
similar. An illiterate woman, Nurjahan poverty. The basic aim of microfinance is to
was a housewife with four children. They
help the poor, which is done in some cases,
owned a small plot of land, the income from
which was very meagre. They also owned
but it may also make them worse off in some
one rickshaw (cycle), from which they cases. It may happen that lending is done
earned ` 20 as rent per day. After becoming for consumption and not for investment
a member of the SHG, Noorjahan used purposes, leading to non-payment of the
the loan for buying additional rickshaws, loan.
which they rented out. Today, they have A micro-finance institution is different
nine rickshaws and the family is mainly from a charitable institution. Hence, it
dependent on renting them out for their expects something in return, over and above
livelihood. Their incomes have increased the money lent to retrieve its operating cost.
by seven times. They also constructed a
This is done by charging a high interest rate,
four -roomed, semi-pucca house. More
importantly, she also learned to read and which at times are done in a bid to make
write. profits. Thus, an excessive concern for profit
Thanks to the SHG, these women are in microfinance may lead MFI away from
now enjoying a better life. They have also poor clients to the clients who want bigger
become instrumental in helping others to loans and are financially better off.
earn their livelihood. Hence, there must be some guidelines
for the MFIs so that they do not lose sight
Activities of their motive of helping poor and also
1. How do you think MFIs have helped earn profits but in a socially justifiable
women? way. Proper management and laying down
_____________________________________ clear terms and conditions is the key to
_____________________________________ the solution of these concerns. This has
2. Besides income, what other positive led to the government to decide upon the
benefits these SHGs have upon women? compulsory registration of MFIs, control
_____________________________________ on their activities and an increase in loan
_____________________________________ recovery period.
3. What image of women emerges from
the above success stories? 5.12 REFERENCES
_____________________________________ • Colloquial–Annual Journal (2010-11).
_____________________________________ Economics Department, Lady Sri Ram
College for Women, New Delhi.
Employment and Empowerment of Women through Self Help Groups 77
policy matter, they decided not to interfere can stay with the mother till the age of five
in personal laws. years. Later on in 1980, the Guardians and
The Hindu Laws: Hindu laws have originated Wards Act came into force and the power to
from ancient religious (Sanskrit) texts and appoint the guardian was given to the court.
old customs. Under the Hindu Marriage The Hindu Succession Act, 1956
Act, 1955, only monogamy has been given determines the rules of succession relating
legal status. If without getting divorce to women. This act has retained the co-
from his or her spouse a man or woman parcenary under the Mitakshara joint
marries another woman or man it becomes family system, where women are excluded
a criminal offence. According to this act, from the right to inherit and control joint
the marriageable age for brides is to be 18 family property. The property is owned by
and for the bridegroom, 21 years. Further, the male members of the family and their
if a marriage is performed according to male descendents. These provisions reflect
the Hindu Marriage Act, it need not be the masculine bias. Many people raised
registered. Optional registration (Section their voice against the discriminatory
8) provision exists. (Currently, government features of the Mitakshara joint family. The
notification requires all marriages to be Hindu Succession Act has been amended
registered). Hindu women have also been to give daughters equal rights as sons in
given the right to divorce under specified ancestral property. Property here includes
conditions, such as impotency, cruelty land (agricultural) as well. Further, the ever
or desertion. Divorce can be taken with increasing trend of urbanization in Indian
mutual consent too. These provisions are states has become a major factor to attract
progressive, but our society is patriarchal people to migrate to these urban centres
in nature where women generally are not for better employment and opportunities.
allowed to take decisions independently. This is in turn leading to break up of joint
Social and family pressures force women to families and emergence of nuclear families
bear discrimination, cruelty and atrocities. in cities.
Lack of education and information is one of Muslim Laws: Two main schools of Muslim
the major factors why women continue to law are functional in India. One is Hanafi
suffer and do not raise their voices against School governing Sunni Muslims and
injustice. Many women are conditioned to another one is Ithna Ashar Shiite schooling
accept this as their fate. In 1856 the Hindu gover ning Shia Muslims. Majority of
Widow Remarriage Act,too was passed. Muslims in India belong to the Sunni sect.
The Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Muslims follow polygamy. A Muslim
Act, 1956 provides for the divorced or the man can have four wives. However, it is not
separated wife to claim the maintenance. The followed in many Muslim countries in the
wife, ex-wife, mother, unmarried daughter same way. The Child Marriage Restraint
and widowed daughter and daughter-in-law Act, 1978 is also applicable in Islam. In a
have the right of maintenance. Adoption is Muslim marriage, the consent of both the
not very easy in our society as it seems in parties is essential. A Nikahnama is drafted,
personal law. Single women, unmarried, containing all the terms and conditions of
widow or divorced women face problems the marriage. There is a concept of Mehr
in adopting a child although provisions do (dowry), which is a sum payable to the
exist. wife by her husband in consideration of
The Hindu Minority and Guardianship marriage. Signatures of the bride groom and
Act, 1956, states that father is the natural the bride are done at the time of marriage.
guardian of the child (minor), but the minor In this way marriages are registered.
82 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
There are many women friendly The practice of adoption is not very
provisions, but in reality these are one sided. prevalent in Muslim society but a Muslim
Many women are not aware of the mehr can foster a child and can give the property
amount and also the terms and conditions to that foster child. The Adoption Bill which
of the nikahnama. Widow remarriage can was introduced in 1972 was opposed by
take place after the period of iddat (three the conservative Muslims, and never came
menstrual cycles). Dissolution of Muslim into practice.
Marriage Act, 1939 has provisions for Guardianship is of two types related to (i)
Muslim women to seek divorce. Details of custody, (ii) property. Custody of the minor
circumstances and situations are given, in child is known as “Hizanat”. The Minor boy
which divorce could be sought. On the other has to be in the custody of the mother or
hand, the husband has the right to divorce other close relatives till the attainment of
his wife either pronouncing ‘Talaq’ thrice or seven years and similarly, the minor girl till
pronouncing it during three periods (Tuhers) she is married. In the absence of the mother,
on his wife. father or any other near relatives, the court
A Muslim wife can get maintenance may appoint a guardian. The law relating
according to Muslim law as per the terms to succession is different in the Sunni and
of the marriage contract. Maintenance is Shia sects. In Hanafi law, the Muslim widow
only given during the period of Iddat before inherits only 1/8th of his property. This is
divorce is granted or during the term of blatant discrimination against women.
pregnancy, if pregnant. Other Minorities’ Personal Laws: The
situation of women in other minority
The Shah Bano case, in this context,
communities is no better. They also continue
deserves a mention. Seventy-year-old Shah
Bano filed and fought for maintenance and to face discrimination and biases. Like
had a six-year long legal battle. Judgment Hindus, Christians also follow monogamy.
in the Mohd. Ahmed Khan vs. Shah Bano As per the 1936 Act, a bigamous marriage
and others (AIR 85SC 945) attracted is void and punishable among the Parsis.
the attention of the nation. It was held The ages prescribed for the Indian Christian
here that a divorced Muslim woman, as bridegroom and bride are 21 and 18 years
long as she has not remarried can claim respectively (Section 60 Indian Christian
maintenance under Section 125 of the Marriage Act, 1872). On the other hand, in
IPC. This judgment recognized the right
Parsi marriage both the parties should be
of the divorced woman for maintenance
aged not below 21 years, otherwise the father
and pointed out the need for a common
civil code. Several processions were led by or guardian’s consent is necessary (Section
Muslim fundamentalists who believed that 3(c) of the Parsi Marriage and Divorce
the Supreme Court’s decision was against Act of 1936). In both the communities
the tenets of Islam. marriage gets registered. Widow remarriage
Then the Parliament bowed down and is prevalent in both these communities.
reversed the judgment of the Supreme The Christian wife gets maintenance on
Court and Muslim Women’s (Protection separation or divorce as per Section 37 and
of Right of Divorce) Act was passed in 38 of the Indian Divorce Act of 1869 and
1986. The new Act exonerated Muslim Section 40 of Parsi Marriage and Divorce
men from maintaining their wives after Act, 1936 provides maintenance even
divorce and instead placed the burden during the continuance of the divorce suit
of maintenance on the women’s blood
and on divorce.
relations. This legislation was a rude shock
to the progressive elements. Succession in Matriliny: There are some
groups in India which are matrilineal.
Protecting the Rights of Girls and Women: The Legal Framework 83
Garo, Khasi, Jaintias, tribes of Meghalaya, her husband’s property. On the other hand,
the Muslims of Lakshadweep and Minicoy there is no discrimination between sons and
and the Nairs of Kerala, follow matriliny. daughters, grandsons-grand daughters,
The youngest daughter in the family inherits and brothers and sisters. Chapter II, Part V
the property in Kharos, but the parents can of the Act contains the details. In the same
nominate any daughter among the Garos. Act Chapter III of Part V is regarding the
Women in Lakshadweep and Minicoy enjoy succession rules of Parsis. In Section 50, 51
much more power and status. Ancestral (2), 52 of the Indian Succession Act details
property is inherited by women. are available.
A major part of population in our country
is governed by the personal laws of their Activity
religion and community. Fundamentalists Ask the group to analyze the relationship
say that the family matters are personal between social change and gender justice
and, therefore, come within the parameter in the situations given below in the light of
of religion. Many religious practices restrict provisions given in personal laws.
and curtail the freedom and mobility of (i) Marriage
women. We cannot deny the fact that
(ii) Divorce
these practices are man made. These
fundamentalists are deciding the fates of (iii) Educational Empowerment of Women
women. There are still many unfair practices (iv) Family Structures
which are prevalent in many communities, (v) Inheritance
for example, purdah, human sacrifice (Sati), (vi) Increased Employability of women
child marriages, polygamy, ill treatment to Pick any one issue and present a report.
widows, caste disabilities, etc.
How influential and powerful these
fundamental groups are can be assessed 6.2 INTRODUCTION
by some of the recent cases like Shah Bano
Indian Constitution guarantees that all
(discussed above) and the Roop Kanwar
the citizens are equal before law and enjoy
Case. In September 1987, Roop Kanwar
equal participation of the law of the land.
committed Sati (burnt alive on the pyre of
her husband in the name of religion and There can be no discrimination between
tradition). That was inhumanity and cruelty one person and another on the basis of
against a Hindu widow. People from all over religion, caste, race, sex or place of birth in
India went to see this and there were mass the matter of access to public places and
protests against this. Despite all efforts employment.
by reformists later on a Sati temple was Part III of Constitution explains our
constructed at that place. Fundamental Rights which in turn give an
Despite a democratic and secular insight into the most detailed charter of
constitution the aggression of religious human rights framed by any state.
fundamentalism remains beyond control. The Fundamental Rights have been
One cannot ignore the community.Khap guaranteed under six broad categories,
Panchayats in some of the northern states namely,
are overpowering the judicial system, • The Right to Equality including equality
irrationally. before law and the equal protection of
The Indian Succession Act, 1925 is laws (Article 14)
applicable to Indian Christians. On the • Prohibition of discrimination on grounds
one hand, the interests of the widow are of religions, race, caste, sex or place of
neglected and she gets a limited share of birth (Article 15).
84 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
• Female infanticide
• Incest
Infancy • Emotional and physical abuse
• Differential access to food and medical care for girl infants (death
due to malnutrition and avoiding of vaccination)
• Child marriage
• Genital mutilation – female circumcision.
• Sexual abuse by family members and strangers (harassment,
Girlhood
molestation, rape)
• Child labour, child prostitution, trafficking, pornography
• Differential access to resources like food.
• Abuse of widow
• Rape, sexual violence
Elderly
• Physical abuse ( abuse of elders)
• Force “suicide” or homicide of widows for economic reason.
Act of 1994 and its subsequent amendment minds of women. They themselves do not
in 2003 as the Preconception and Prenatal feel comfortable moving out even during
Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex day time. In spite of the legal redressals
Selection) Act (PC-PNDT) were brought into enshrined in the Constitution, women
force to stop female foeticide. Custom of feel inhibited to fight against violence—
dowry at the time of marriage to be given by domestic, sexual and otherwise upon her
the bride’s family to groom’s family, seems person. There are very few success stories
essential. We can hardly see any marriage like Jessica Lal murder case or Mathura
in our neighbourhood or among our near- rape case.
dear ones where dowry is not given or taken. There are various factors which inhibit
In marriages, often the merits and values them from pursuing their case. Not only do
of girls are not the main criteria deciding they require patience, courage and financial
whether the marriage will take place or resources, but they also face a social stigma
not but rather the amount of dowry. This associated with women who dare to raise
is not the end, as after marriage also the their voice against injustice. Talking about
daughter-in-law is forced to bring more molestation and sexual violence is a big
money and assets from her natal home. If taboo in our society and people want to
she refuses then she suffers physical and hush such cases where the prestige, status
emotional abuse. One of the many reasons and honour of their girls are involved. It
behind many divorce cases is dowry, is not easy for a girl or a woman to come
though this fact does not come out in the forward to fight a case against rape. She
open because legally dowry exchange is a needs emotional support which is primarily
punishable offence. The vulnerability of expected from the immediate family. Women
girls and women to gender related crimes is lose their battle at home before going to the
also substantiated through the innumerable law/court. However, we can evince a change
reports of rape cases and murders for dowry. in attitude amongst people with the recent
Protection of Personal Liberty: In a outburst against the Nirbhaya gang rape
patriarchal social structure we can easily case (December 16, 2012). There have been
envision gender differences in terms of mass protests, candle light vigils for the
the availability and accessibility of the victim. These, in turn, have coerced to bring
resources, i.e. education, employment, about modification and amendments in the
health, etc. Women and girls often have legal system. The three member committee
restricted movements in public domain. headed by late Justice Verma, former
They are not allowed to move independently. Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, has
Even if they are given permission to go out, formulated anti-rape laws so as to provide
they are supposed to come back on time or speedy trial and enhanced punishments
a male member of the family accompanies/ for those who have been convicted of
escorts them. Majority women and girls committing sexual crimes against women.
do not enjoy personal liberty of physical Article 23: Right against Exploitation
movement as well as expression of thoughts. Prohibition of human trafficking and
Security of women is a major concern. forced labour: Human trafficking which is
Cases of eve teasing, molestation, sexual manifested in diverse forms such as begging
harassment and rape are increasing day and other similar forms of forced labour is
by day. The rising crimes against women prohibited and any contravention of this
not only propel the family to control the provision shall be an offence punishable in
liberty of women, but also instill fear in the accordance with law.
88 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
2. What significant role did women play women’s personhood and dignity. These
in this movement? could be kept under three categories:
• Indian Penal Code (IPC) and Criminal
_____________________________________
Procedure Code (Cr. P.C.) Rape (Section
_____________________________________
376 IPC), abduction and kidnapping
3. What is the contribution of women in
(Section 363-373 IPC), homicide for
Narmada Bachao Andolan? dowry (Section 302/304B IPC), mental
and physical torture (Section 498-A
_____________________________________
IPC), molestation (Section 354 IPC),
_____________________________________
sexual harassment (Section 509 IPC)
4. Can we name these movements as eco- and eve teasing (Section 509 IPC) are
feminist movements? Give reasons in covered under this category.
support of your answer? • Special Laws aim to remove and control
_____________________________________
social practices such as sati, dowry
_____________________________________ demands, women trafficking for immoral
purposes and indecent/derogatory
representation of women.
6.5 LAWS RELATED TO PERSONAL
• Others such as Child Marriage Restraint
SAFETY AND DIGNITY Act, National Commission of Women
(PERSONHOOD) Act, family courts, legal cell, Medical
This section will touch upon some offences Ter mination of Pregnancy (MTP),
against woman’s body and personhood. regulation of pre-conception and pre-
There are legal provisions to control crime natal diagnostic techniques (PCPNDT
against women and other laws related to Act), etc.
Figures at a Glance 2011
% to Rate Charge
Cases Conviction
Crime Heads total IPC of sheeting
reported rate
crimes crime rate
304-B in IPC and Section 174 (3) and attention to that and tell them to
176 in Cr-PC and Indian Evidence Act adjust in the family. Injured, helpless
(Section 113-A and 113-B) is a great and humiliated women either resort
help to remove this social evil from the to suicide or suffer being burnt alive
society. Giving and taking dowry is in their homes. Most of the cases are
prohibited and this is a cognizable and registered after the death of the dowry
non-bailable offence. If women’s death victim.
occurs in suspicious circumstances
Activities
such as injuries, burns or other
1. Though the court condemns the
unnatural circumstances like cruelty
practices of dowry, dowry is still
or harassment related to dowry by the prevalent all over India. Give any four
husband or his relatives, then the law reasons.
provides punishment to the husband _____________________________________
and his family. (Section 304 B of IPC– _____________________________________
dowry death), Section 498 A of IPC
2. Cases of child sexual abuse are rare.
cruelty, if the husband or his relatives Comment.
subject her (wife) to cruelty they shall be _____________________________________
punished with imprisonment. Section _____________________________________
319, Section 324 will be applicable
when a man has beaten or threatened (h) Defamation: If a woman is wrongly
to beat a woman or is causing hurt with accused of an act which will affect her
a dangerous weapon. reputation, she can complain to the
In a Hindu marriage, a woman has police against her defamers. She can
right over her stridhan (property given also claim for damages.
by her natal family at the time of (i) Molestation: Section 351 IPC defines
marriage). It is the absolute property molestation to include gesture and
of the wife even if the husband is given obscene acts. Section 354 of IPC
possession of the same. describes the crime of molestation
Judicial system has taken some of woman punishable by 2 years
progressive decisions by accepting imprisonment or fine or both for using
the weightage of circumstantial physical force to injure, threaten or
evidence such as letters written by harass a woman.
the dowry victim to relatives about (j) Eve-teasing: IPC call it insulting the
dowry demands and harassment and modesty of a woman. This could be
hurried cremation of the body. Dying done by remarks, sounds and gestures
declarations of the victims are also or by exhibiting an object.
kept in consideration. But contrary to (k) Sati: Sati system was abolished in 1829
that there are cases where victim failed by the Britishers when it was said that
to establish the crime. to burn oneself on the funeral pyre
E x i s t i n g s o c i a l t a b o o s a n d of her husband is suicide and if done
disheartening judgments discourage forcefully then murder. Commission of
the woman and her family to seek legal Sati Prevention Act was passed in 1987.
protection. Parents fulfill the dowry (l) The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act,
demands as they do not want their 1956: Article 23 of the Constitution
married daughters to come back. Many prohibits human trafficking. Section
a times their daughters tell them about 372 and 373 of IPC punish the selling
the cruelty done by the husband and and buying of minors for prostitution,
in-laws. But they do not pay much while Section 360 to 371 deal with
92 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
the offences such as kidnapping, of life, they are the ones who exercise
abduction and slavery. This act was their will over their wives’ desires
amended in 1986. The main target and interests. The law of adultery
group of this act is to punish pimps, is contradictory to prevailing socio-
brokers, brothel keepers and people cultural context.
who are involved in the trafficking (n) The Indecent Representation of
of the persons for the purpose of Women (Prohibition) Act of 1986:
prostitution thereby making a living This act prohibits printed as well
on the earnings of prostitutes. as audio-visual material depicting
Prostitution is not a legal offence but women in an indecent way. Further,
practising in the public areas makes it the indecent representation of women
an offence. The provisions mostly used has been defined as the depiction in any
are those which punish prostitutes manner of the figure of a woman, her
and not the men visiting her. Child form, or body or any part in such a way
prostitution in India is increasing day as have the effect of being indecent or of
by day. Young children, especially girls being derogatory or denigrating women.
are sometimes rescued and sent to the This definition gives wide scope for
rehabilitation centres but the situation value judgment and assessment of
over there is equally threatening. We indecency. That is the reason why
all are aware of the recent exposure in popular mass media, cinema and
of sexual exploitation at orphanage television women are continually
and rehabilitation and shelter homes. portrayed as a sex object or as a
Even if with the interventions of women stereotypical daughter/in-law, mother/
organizations and non-governmental in-law, and sister/in-law reinforcing
organizations these women and young patriarchal norms. Crime related
girls are rescued and rehabilitated, but coverage in the newspapers, magazines
or on television is full of incidences of
their placement and acceptance back
crime against women such as rape,
in their families is next to impossible.
molestation, dowry deaths, trafficking,
Laws are not sensitive enough to
and cruelty.
handle this complex issue judiciously.
There is also a law relating to
(m) Adultery: This law is discriminatory
obscenity defined in Sections 292, 293
in nature. On the one hand, it gives
and 294 of the IPC but these provisions
opportunity to a married man to
are rarely invoked.
prosecute a man who has had sexual
relations with the for mer’s wife. Activities
On the other hand, women cannot 1. C o l l e c t a n y f i v e n e w s i t e m s /
prosecute her husband having sexual advertisements where you find indecent
relations with other woman/women. representation of women and reflect
Section 497 IPC regarding adultery upon that.
is not perceived as a violation of the _____________________________________
woman’s right to equality under the _____________________________________
Constitution. Adultery is seen as a 2. Collect some folk songs, lore, filmy,
violation of husband’s right over the non-filmy songs, mythological stories,
wife’s sexuality. There is no similar where you can find indecent and decent
representation of women.
right available for women. In Indian
_____________________________________
patriarchal situations where men are _____________________________________
the dominant figures in all spheres
Protecting the Rights of Girls and Women: The Legal Framework 93
(t) Protection of Women against Sexual likely to be abused. Children who are
Harassment at Workplace Act, 2010: homeless, destitute, begging, deprived
The inability of Section 354 of the IPC of parental care, associated with
to address adequately the claims of prostitutes or with immoral people,
sexual harassment led to the filing who are being abused or exploited.
a petition in 1997 in the Supreme Girl children are often vulnerable and
Court by some social activists and the worst victims of such circumstances
NGOs. The Supreme Court held in and effective implementation of this
Vishakha vs. State of Rajasthan that Act can have a profound impact in
sexual harassment is a clear violation ensuring their well being, welfare and
of the rights under Articles 14, 15 and development.
21 of the Constitution. It is also the There is a provision in the Act to take
violation of the victim’s fundamental care of the neglected child. Welfare
right under Article 19 (1) (g) “to practice boards to understand the situation of
any profession or to carry out any the child and children’s courts to deal
occupation trade or business”. with their criminal cases have been
The court defined sexual harassment established.
to include such unwelcome sexually (u) National Commission for Protection
determined behaviour, whether directly of Child Rights (NCPCR) Act, 2005:
or by implication, as: It was set up to protect, promote and
(a) Physical contact and advances defend child rights in the country.
(b) Demand or request for sexual For the Commission, protection of all
favours children in the 0 to 18 years age group
(c) Sexually coloured remarks is of equal importance. Commission
(d) Showing pornography examines all factors that inhibit the
(e) Any other unwelcome physical, enjoyment of rights of children affected
verbal or non-verbal conduct of a by terrorism, communal violence, riots,
sexual nature. natural disasters, domestic violence,
The bill seeks to ensure the protection HIV/AIDS, trafficking, maltreatment,
of women from sexual harassment torture and exploitation, pornography
at the workplace, both in public and and prostitution and recommend
private sectors whether organized or appropriate remedial measures. It
unorganized. It provides for an effective also looks into the matters relating
complaint and redressal mechanism. to children in need of special care
Under the proposed bill, every employer and protection, including children
is required to constitute an internal in distress, marginalized and
complaints committee. Committees are disadvantaged children, children in
required to complete the enquiry within conflict with law, juveniles, children
90 days. Sexual harassment includes without family and children of prisoners
unwelcome sexually deter mined and recommend appropriate remedial
behaviour (whether directly or by measures.
implication). (v) Right to Education Act 2009 (RTE):
Laws related to youth – The Juvenile Children between 6-14 years of age
Justice Act, 1986: The act provides have the right to free and compulsory
for a differential approach towards elementary education till they complete
children coming in conflict with law it. Commissions constituted under
but also describes the whole range of the Commissions for Protection of
conditions in which children are or are Child Right Act 2005 will entertain
Protecting the Rights of Girls and Women: The Legal Framework 97
complaints arising out of any violations child as a person below the age group
of the provisions of the R TE Act. of 18 and is gender neutral. It also
According to the Act, it is the right of defines all types of sexual abuses
every child between the age of 6 and 14 like sexual harassment, penetration
years to free and compulsory education or non-penetrative sexual abuse and
in a neighbourhood school till s/he pornography. This Act provides and
completes elementary education. The ensures a child friendly process of
act provides that “no child shall be offence reporting to evidence recording,
liable to pay any kind of fee or charges trial and investigations. The Act
or expenses which may prevent him or makes arrangements to ensure the
her from pursuing and completing the care and protection of the child; it
elementary education.” would pay attention to the fact that
There is a special provision with the child is not re-victimized at the
regard to children not admitted to or time of investigation as well as trial.
who have not completed elementary This Act also makes it clear at the
education. Accordingly, where a child time of a medical emergency that
above six years of age has not been no documentation or magisterial
admitted in any school or though requisition would be demanded before
admitted, could not complete his or the treatment.
her elementary education, then, he T h i s A c t w o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d
or she shall be admitted in a class by the National Commission for
appropriate to his or her age. In case Protection of Child Rights and the
where a child is directly admitted in a State Commission for Protection of
class appropriate to his her age, then, Child Rights periodically.
he or she shall, in order to be at par It ensures flexibility by giving
with others, have a right to receive the provision in section 45, which
special training. A child can also be allows the union government to make
admitted to elementary education till the necessary changes in the Act,
completion of elementary education whenever and wherever applicable.
even after fourteen years. The act also The rules laid down in the act also
provides for non-expulsion of any child define the criterion of awarding the
admitted in a school till the completion compensation by the special court
of elementary education. that includes loss of educational and
RTE ensures the effective mechanism employment opportunities along with
for the protection of child’s right to disability, disease or pregnancy suffered
education and also to safeguard it. by the subject as the consequence
This Act is certainly a step to ensure of the abuse. The compensation is
quality improvements in education awarded at the interim stage as well
and increase in enrolment but it has as after the trial ends.
to have some strict measures to retain This chapter serves as an information base
girls in schools and their qualitative to provide legal literacy to the practitioners,
participation in the school process. academicians and teachers in the field of
(w) The Protection of Children from Gender Studies. The vast knowledge base
Sexual Offences Act, 2012: The provided in this chapter would enable
Protection of Children from Sexual the experts to further disseminate the
Offences Act, 2012 came into force information and inform girls and women
in November 2012. The Act defines a about the policies, programmes and laws
98 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
framed for their benefit. Awareness about • Population Census. (2011).15th National
these would help them to seek legal help Census Survey Organization.
whenever required. • Right of Children to Free and Compulsory
Education Act. (2009) (35 of 2009), the
6.6 REFERENCES statement of purpose.
• Census. (1991). Every sixth person • RTE Act,ibid,Section 3(1)
an Indian. Yojana. Vol.35, No.9, • Ibid,Section 3(20)
4-7. Ministry of Infor mation and • Sharma, Brij Kishore. (2002).
Broadcasting, New Delhi Introduction to the Constitution of India.
• Centre for Social Research. (2005). Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New
Facilitating change, Restructuring Delhi.
gender relation. A Manual for Police • Sherwani, Azim. (1998). The girl child in
Trainer. New Delhi, India. crisis. Indian Social Institute, New Delhi.
• Dagar, Rainuka (ed.). (1998). Manual • Singh, Subhash Chandra. (2009).
on women’s development and gender Gender Justice. Serials Publications,
justice, Institute for Development and New Delhi.
Communication, India. • Women’s Link. (2008). Women and
• Desai, Neera and Thakkar, Usha. (2001). Violence.Vol.14, No.2. Indian Social
Women in Indian Society. National Book Institute, New Delhi
Trust, New Delhi • Women’s Link. (2010). Industrial areas
• Gaag, Nikki Van der. (2005). The No- and impact on women, Vol.16, No.1.
nonsense Guide to Women’s Rights. Indian Social Institute, New Delhi.
Rawat Publications, Jaipur • World Health Organization.(1996).
• Haxar, Nandita. (1987). Mahilayon ke Vi o l e n c e A g a i n s t Wo m e n . W H O
liye kanoon ki duhri manyatayen. Lancer Consultation, Geneva.
Press, India. • h t t p : / w w w . n c p c r. g o v . i n / A c t s /
• Jaising, Indira (ed.). (1996). Justice for National_Commission_for_protection_
Women. The Other India Press, Goa. of_childAct2005pdf
• K a p o o r, P r o m i l l a ( e d . ) . ( 2 0 0 1 ) . • http:/www.prsindia.org/uploads/
Empowering the Indian women. media/sexual/20 harassment%20 bill
Gover nment of India: Publication pdf.
Division, Ministry of Information and • ibn/inc.in.com/news/cabinet-class-
Broadcasting. sexual-bill
• Kashyap, S.C. (1997). Our Constitution. • www.Christian council.in
National Book Trust, New Delhi • http:/indiacode.nic.in/fullact
• Mathew, P.D. and Bakshi, P.M. (2000). • http://ncrb.nic.in/crimeinIndia,
Women and the Constitution. Indian 2011statistics
Social Institute, New Delhi. • http://ncrb.gov.in/prisonstatistics.htm
• National Crime Records Bureau. (2011). • www.nhrc.nic.in
Crime in India Statistics. Government of • http://www.icbse.com/right-to-
India, Ministry of Home Affairs. education-act,2009/2010
• Nayar, Usha. (1997). ‘Legal literacy for • Indiagovernance.gov.in/files/protection
educational personnel with focus on of children from sexual offences Act,
women and girl’, Resource material. 2012
NCERT, New Delhi. • www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
Module 7
Being Self Reliant: Vocational Education for
Empowerment of Girls
faith and social engineering. Education will of the elders in the family to educate
be used as an agent of basic change in the children about the righteous conduct and
status of women. The National Education behaviour, and initiate them into life such
System will play a positive, interventionist that they can face the challenges of life
role in the empowerment of women. It and take responsibilities with the desired
will foster the development of new values preparedness. The children did not usually
through redesigned curricula, textbooks, choose their own careers but adopted the
the training and orientation of teachers, family vocation. This role of parents was
decision makers and administrators...” accomplished by an expert under the
Education is expected to lead to holistic apprenticeship system.
development among individuals, which Besides this, an integrated system of
includes that it prepares the learner for imparting knowledge with manual work
the world of work. It helps a person to (skills) also existed in Gurukuls where
explore her/his talents, acquire necessary education was wholesome. It included
knowledge and abilities to avail livelihood knowledge, character building and skill
opportunities and perform on-the-job. It training. Students were taught to develop
is in this context that Work education, qualities of self-reliance and respect mutual
Vocational Education and Vocationalisation equality. Later, demands for development
of Education are relevant. necessitated the formalization of education
Women not only constitute a significant to be imparted in schools and colleges.
portion of population but also have proven The integrated system of education, which
themselves in all areas. The need is to make interwove knowledge with skill development
them employable so that they can contribute gave way to two distinct systems of General
as equal partners in development. Vocational and Vocational (or Technical) education.
education covers both knowledge and skill General education primarily aims to enhance
development, thus making an individual general proficiency, is mostly knowledge-
more employable. India is a young nation based and does not prepare the learner for
and is projected to be a major contributor any specific job or occupation. Vocational
to the world’s working age population over Education (VE) on the other hand, is
the next several decades. At the same time designed to develop competencies especially
an estimate reveals a global shortage in suited to identifiable occupation(s). UNESCO
skilled Human Resource (HR) to the tune of defines Technical Vocational Education and
56 million by 2020. Thus India can be the Training (TVET) as “those aspects of the
hub for potentially employable and skilled, educational process involving, in addition to
competitive HR. This can be achieved only general education, the study of technologies
by giving equal opportunities to girls also. and related sciences and the acquisition of
practical skills, attitudes, understanding
7.2 INTRODUCTION and knowledge relating to occupation in
Two age-old methods of skill development various sectors of economic life”.
existed in India from ancient times. One was
learning from family tradition and another 7.3 OBJECTIVES
was learning on the job (apprenticeship). After going through this module, the trainee
The young children were exposed to skills will be able to
relating to family vocation from childhood, • clearly explain the concept of Vocational
leading to intensive training within the Education (VE) and other related
family which gradually made them experts concepts
in the vocation. It was also the responsibility • describe the journey and make use
Being Self Reliant: Vocational Education for Empowerment of Girls 101
of the initiatives taken under VE/ work spectrum, strengthen their abilities
Vocationalisation of Education in the and refine their skills in a wide variety
country of vocations at various stages of school
• guide girls regarding options available education. In India the terms vocational
for vocational education in schools/ for education and vocationalisation of education
school drop outs have been used rather interchangeably as
• motivate and guide girls to become self- we see in later description that vocational
reliant through VE/ skill development education was offered under the scheme of
vocationalisation of education.
7.4 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
AND VOCATIONALISATION OF Activity
EDUCATION Discuss reasons of drop out of girls at
secondary stage in your region/workplace
Vocational education is planned and
and whether in your opinion they can be
delivered to develop competencies specially benefitted by VE.
required for specific occupation(s). The
term competency includes not only the 7.5 VOC AT I ON AL ED U C AT I ON AT
skills at difficult levels of performance but SCHOOL STAGE
also the knowledge and understanding and There are 220 million children who go to
the ability to apply these to new tasks and school in India. Out of these only about
situations. Vocationalisation of education 12% of students enter higher education
bridges the gap between the general and after completion of their schooling. The
vocational education, wherein skill based remaining percentage of students either
education and training is integrated drop-out before completing secondary
with general education. The purpose of education, or might only manage to
vocationalization of education is to improve complete secondary schooling. Entering
the relevance of education with the world into higher education may not necessarily
of work and to make the students more be an option for them. Therefore, vocational
employable. Besides this, the other goals education in schools has been given high
can be perceived as to make an individual importance for enhancing the skill sets of
a better person by developing qualities students between the age of 14-18 years.
such as team work, appreciation towards School education in India offered learners
dignity of all types of work, sensitivity to the the opportunity of vocational exposure,
needs of others etc. By giving appropriate orientation, exploration and training in
opportunities to all, vocationalization different ways, i.e. work education (also
of education is also seen as a practical known as work experience or socially useful
strategy towards inclusion. Experiences productive work) from classes I to VIII,
have revealed that it has also shown positive prevocational education in classes IX and
results in reducing school dropout rates. X and vocational education as a distinct
Many students drop out from the school for stream in XI and XII. The work-oriented
various reasons including not being able to education offered at elementary level under
cope up with the rigorous requirements of various nomenclatures, intended to prepare
the syllabus. Such students are unprepared children to face life with the proper attitude,
for the world of work. To respond to this knowledge and skills in relation to work.
situation, schools can provide opportunities This is expected to promote socio-personal
to students to engage in activities that would and vocational development and ultimately
develop among them the right attitude lead to a smooth transition into the world
towards work, suitably orient them to the of work (Agrawal 2007).
102 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
The Programme of Action (1986) of secondary stage, but keeping the scheme
National Policy on Education (1986) flexible, they may also be made available
emphasized that vocationalisation of after class VIII]… Graduates of vocational
education programme must ensure that courses will be given opportunities, under
at the secondary stage, students are predetermined conditions, for professional
prepared to choose a career. It stressed growth, career improvement and lateral
the development of vocational interests entry into courses of general, technical and
and aptitudes to allow the self-exploration professional education through appropriate
of vocational preferences and to enhance bridge courses… Tertiary level courses will
productivity and participation in work. Pre- be organised for the young who graduate
vocational education is offered at secondary from the higher secondary courses of the
stage as a continuance of work experience academic stream and may also require
at earlier stages. The skill training imparted vocational courses”.
through pre-vocational course are not In pursuance of this, a Centrally
expected to be of the level that can be called Sponsored Scheme (CSS) of Vocationalisation
vocational, yet it gives the student sufficient of Secondary Education was launched in
insight to explore a particular area of the 1988 aiming to prepare the students for
world of work. The courses offered under the world of work. Vocational education
the pre-vocational programme are modular offered at senior secondary level in schools
and each school offers at least 3-4 courses as a distinct stream, leading to a senior
relevant to the local needs as options. secondary level certificate got a boost and
Thus, Vocationalisation of education was was thus introduced in almost all the
introduced in India to make provisions for States/UTs. In the formal sector, the state
the orientation and exploration of productive governments implemented the scheme
skills alongside general academic education stage through approximately 9583 schools
throughout the school system of ten years. (MHRD, Annual report, 2006-07), The
Vocational Education Programme (VEP) capacity created was of about 1million
of two years as an alternative to general students, however, about 0.4 million
academic education was offered at the students were enrolled. More than 150
higher secondary stage with an objective courses were offered in six major disciplines:
towards development of competencies Agriculture, Business and Commerce,
for specific vocations. The Vocational Engineering and Technology, Health and
Education Programme (VEP) at + 2 stage, Para Medical Services, Home Science,
was introduced in 1976-77 by some States. and Humanities. A survey conducted by
The NPE 1986 stated “systematic, an independent body, the Operational
well planned and rigorously implemented Research Group (ORG) in 1996 revealed
programme of vocational education is crucial that about 28% students from the vocational
in the proposed educational reorganisation... education were able to get employment
Efforts will be made to provide children at while another about 38% pursued higher
the higher secondary level with generic education (the implementation, being the
vocational courses which cut across several state’s responsibility, has however not
occupational fields and which are not been uniform throughout India). The skills
occupation specific…Vocational Education could be further reinforced during the
will also be a distinct stream, intended to apprenticeship training, however not all the
prepare students for identified occupations vocational students got this opportunity.
spanning several areas of activity. These The vocational students were prepared for
courses will ordinarily be provided after the entry into the world of work at middle level,
Being Self Reliant: Vocational Education for Empowerment of Girls 103
7.5.1.2 C reation of New Management (SSCs), through the NSDC, for performing
Structure a wide range of functions, the most
XI FYP proposed a comprehensive National important of which are determination of
Skill Development Mission which led competency standards and qualifications,
to creation of a three tier institutional and accreditation.
structure in 2008 7.5.2 What is latest
• National Council on Skill Development
• Skill India Mission: The National
(NCSD) chaired by the Prime Minister
Skill Development Mission provides a
• National Skill Development Coordination
strong institutional framework at the
Board (NSDCB)
Centre and States for implementation
• National Skill Development Corporation
of skilling activities in the country.
(NSDC)
The Mission has a three-tiered, high
The NSQF is placed at the National Skill
powered decision making structure.
Development Agency (NSDA) and is being
implemented through the National Skills At its apex, the Mission’s Governing
Qualifications Committee (NSQC) which Council, chaired by the Prime Minister,
comprises of all key stakeholders. The provides overall guidance and policy
NSQC’s functions amongst others include direction. The Steering Committee,
approving National Occupation Standards/ reviews the Mission’s activities in line
QPs, approving accreditation norms, with the direction set by the Governing
prescribing guidelines to address the needs Council. The Mission Directorate
of disadvantaged sections, reviewing inter- ensures implementation, coordination
agency disputes and alignment of NSQF and convergence of skilling activities
with international qualification frameworks. across Central Ministries/Departments
and State Governments. Further, the
Specific outcomes expected from
National Skill Development Agency
implementation of NSQF are:
(NSDA), the National Skill Development
(i) Mobility between vocational and
Corporation (NSDC) and the Directorate
general education by alignment of
of Training function under the overall
degrees with NSQF
guidance of the Mission. The Mission
(ii) Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL),
is anchored to the Ministry of Skill
allowing transition from non-formal to
Development and Entrepreneurship
organised job market
(MSDE).
(iii) Standardised, consistent, nationally
• Unveiling new National Policy for Skill
acceptable outcomes of training across
the country through a national quality Development and Entrepreneurship
assurance framework • Rolling out Pradhan Mantri Kaushal
(iv) Global mobility of skilled workforce Vikas Yojana or PMKVY
from India, through international • It is an ambitious skill training scheme
equivalence of NSQF of central government, under which
(v) Mapping of progression pathways the government provides skill training
within sectors and cross-sectorally courses in different industrial verticals
(vi) Approval of NOS/QPs as national through authorized training centers
standards for skill training across the country. The new list of
courses offered can be seen at https://
http://www.skilldevelopment.gov.in/
www.sarkariyojna.co.in/pradhan-
nsqf.html
mantri-kaushal-vikas-yojana-pmkvy-
7.5.1.3 Determination of standards courses-list-job-roles/. By the end of
National Policy on Skill Development March 2017, there were more than 500
envisaged creation of Sector Skill Councils PMKVY training partners operating
Being Self Reliant: Vocational Education for Empowerment of Girls 105
more than 2 thousand training centers, of women, it seems pertinent that they are
the list of these is available on the attracted to vocational education which
internet. https://www.sarkariyojna. can groom them to take advantage of the
co.in/pradhan-mantri-kaushal-vikas- openings available in the growing economy
yojana-pmkvy-training-partners-list/. of the country. In modern times, girls are
A suitable training centre can be found performing multifarious roles in the society.
on the net, logging on to the http:// They are emerging as career women, and
pmkvyofficial.org/Training-Centre.aspx. many a times are no less ambitious than
boys. In India women are reported to be
7.6 PROSPECTS FOR SCHOOL DROP- highly successful in many emerging sectors.
OUTS AFTER 8th Coleman (1979) found that parental
The students who are not interested to expectations were among the factors
continue regular schooling after 8th standard affecting choice of career of an individual.
can join Industrial Training Institutes A study from NCERT on career aspirations
(ITIs). While for many of the courses at ITI, for girls in urban and rural societies
the entry requirement is 10th pass, some societies vis-à-vis vocational education with
courses, both under engineering and non focus on gender equity, based in Goa and
engineering category are available for 8th Chandigarh (Agrawal,2014) reports that
pass also. These students can however more than 90% of parents in rural areas
continue their schooling side by side or want their daughters to be economically
later through National Institute of Open independent.
Schooling (NIOS) and go up the ladder Adolescence is regarded as a good
academically also. period to identify the occupational choices,
List of ITI courses available after 8th developing skills and grooming oneself
(these may change with time, keep checking towards career. For those who want to be
website for the latest) independent early, in their adolescence
Engineering itself, vocational courses offer good choices.
In India, after the promulgation of RTE Act,
• M e c h a n i c R e f r i g e r a t i o n a n d A i r
2009, elementary education is compulsory.
Conditioner
After 8th standard, the students can offer
Wireman, Pattern Maker, Mechanic
vocational courses in schools as additional
Agriculture, Welder (Gas and Electric),
choices, can join ITI or can get trained under
Carpenter, Plumber
PMKRY. There always remains option to go
Non Engineering up further in the ladder to higher education
Cutting & Sewing, Embroidery & Needle under provisions of NSQF.
Worker, Weaving of Fancy Fabric There is a need for developing skills for
both local employment and for those who
7.7 PROSPECT OF EMPOWERMENT seek to migrate. For Girls’ Empowerment,
OF GIRLS THROUGH VOCATIONAL policy is to adopt non discrimination in
EDUCATION Skill development, i.e. to develop skill sets
As regards girls’/women’s employment, the needed by the economy rather than guided
crucial factors are employment readiness by gender. Hence, it is the responsibility
and employment opportunities. Vocational of all, the parents, the teachers, the
education is seen as a strategy to impart counsellors and the training providers not
skills and relevant knowledge and making to promote gender stereotyping but let the
the youth employable for various sectors girl equip herself in the sector of her choice
of the economy. Viewing the empowerment and that having employment scope.
106 Training Material for Teacher Educators on Gender Equality and Empowerment
KPMG Report 2016, Projected wish to start earning from early years in
Employment - 2025 indicates that the their life, VE is a good option because it
following selected sectors are expected to gives opportunity to equip oneself according
create about 67 % of additional jobs during to the needs of the market making the
the next decade person more employable. There is also
• Auto and auto components scope for continuous up gradation of skills/
• Food processing diversification in skill development or to
• Retail shift to academic stream.
• Handlooms and handicrafts
• Tourism, hospitality and travel 7.8 REFERENCES
• Building, construction and real estate • Agrawal Poonam. 2007. Vocational
• Textile and clothing Education and Training Policies India
Fortunately among these, a majority Country Profile. for The Project on
of sectors are those in which girls/women Vocational Education and Training
have already been doing well, which is an Policies in the EU Competitor Countries
added advantage for girls’ employability by Dep. International VET Research.
enhancement and being economically Institut Technik + Bildung Universitaet
self-reliant. Bremen.Germany.
7.7.1. Some schemes to facilitate girls’ • Agrawal Poonam.2014.Career
employment aspirations for girls in urban and rural
societies vis-à-vis vocational education
(i) Sabla or Rajiv Gandhi Scheme
with focus on gender equity. Report-
for Empowerment of Adolescent
ERIC Research Project.
Girls – aims at Vocational training
• Coleman, John C. (1979) ‘Current Views
for girls > 16 years for economic
of the Adolescent Process’ in John C.
empowerment.
Coleman (ed) The School Years. Vol. 7.
(ii) Self Help Groups (SHG)
(Page No. 1-11) London:Methuen.
The website of Ministry of Women • KPMG Report. (2016). India Soars High.
and Child Development explains how to February, 2016.
set up enterprise or how to form SHGs • Ministry of Human Resource &
after getting trained. Linkage with local Development (2006-07), Annual Report,
industry/entrepreneurs/training or skill Govt.of India.
development organisations/NGOs etc. can • National Policy on Education 1986/92
be very beneficial for skill development as (1992), Ministry of Human Resource
well as for getting employment or starting Development, GOI, New Delhi.
self employment. • ORG (1996). Report: Evaluation of
Activity the Scheme of Vocationalsation of
A girl has dropped out after 8th class as
Secondary Education. Operational
she wants to earn soon. She also wants to Research Group.
possess a Master’s Degree. Design a path Some important websites
for her. http://www.skilldevelopment.gov.in/nsqf.
Vocational Education focuses on html
competency development. Competency is dget.nic.in
a blend of knowledge, skills and the right www.wcd.nic.in
attitude to accomplish a particular task. https://www.sarkariyojna.co.in/pradhan-
Thus it prepares an individual to perform mantri-kaushal-vikas-yojana-pmkvy-
at the real work situations. For girls who courses-list-job-roles/