Chapter 5

Solids, Liquids, and Gases

States of Matter
GASES
Gas pressure: Pressure is force per unit area exerted
against a surface.

Figure 5-2 A mercury Figure 5-3 A mercury

barometer. manometer.
Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)
1. Gases have molecules that are in constant, random
motion. Thus, they possess Kinetic energy
2. Molecules collide with one another and side of container.
No kinetic energy is lost
3. Molecules do not have the same KE. The average KE is
directly proportional to absolute temperature.
Properties of Gases
1. Most gases exist as molecules
2. Molecules are randomly distributed
• Gases can be easily compressed
• Have lower densities compared to solids and liquids
• Intermolecular forces between molecules are negligible
3. Substances that are gaseous at normal conditions
have low molecular mass.
• gases have higher molecular velocities
• can diffuse easily and fill up available space
Property Symbol Common units
Pressure P torr, mm Hg, cm Hg, atm
Volume V mL, L, cm3, m3
Temperature T K (Kelvin)
Amount of gas n mol
Density d g/L

*atm- atmosphere
1 atm= 760 torr= 760 mm Hg= 76 cm Hg
**STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure)
T= OoC = 273.15 K P=1 atm or its equivalents
GAS LAWS
Boyle’s Law
• Boyle’s law: For a fixed mass of gas at a constant
temperature, the volume is inversely proportional to
the pressure.
Boyle’s Law: Application
Boyle’s Law: Sample Problem
1. A sample of H2 has a volume of 4.0 L and a pressure of 1
atm. What is the new volume if the pressure in increased
to 2 atm at constant temperature?
Given:
Initial conditions Final conditions
P1= 1 atm P2= 2 atm
V1= 4 L V2=?

𝑃1𝑉1 (1𝑎𝑡𝑚)(4 𝐿)
V2= = =2L
𝑝2 2 𝑎𝑡𝑚

2 L is the final volume for the sample of H2

Boyle’s Law: Sample Problem
1. A 10 L balloon contains helium gas at a pressure of 655
torr. What is the new pressure when the volume expands
to 20 L at constant temperature?
2. The volume of air in a person’s lungs is 615 mL at a
pressure pf 760 mmHg. Inhalation occurs as the pressure
in the lungs drops to 752 mmHg. At constant
temperature, to what volume did the lungs expand?
Charles’ Law
Charles’s Law: For a fixed volume of gas at a constant
pressure, the volume is directly proportional to the
temperature in kelvins (K).
Charles’ law: Application
FIGURE 5.5 Charles’s law
illustrated in a hot-air balloon.
Because the balloon can
stretch, the pressure inside it
remains constant. When the
air in the balloon is heated, its
volume increases, expanding
the balloon. As the air in the
balloon expands, it becomes less
dense than the surrounding air,
providing the lift for the balloon.
(Charles was one of the first
balloonists.)
Charles’ Law: Sample Problem
• A sample of neon gas at 760 torr has a volume of 5.0 L and a
temperature of 17OC. Find the new volume of the gas after the
temperature has been increased to 47OC at 760 torr?
Given:
Initial conditions Final conditions
T1= 17 + 273.15 = 290.15 K T2= 47 + 273.15= 320.15 K
V1= 5 L V2=?

𝑉1𝑇2 (5 𝐿)(320.15 𝐾)
V2= == = 5.52 L
𝑇1 290.15 𝐾

5.52 L is the final volume for the sample of neon gas

Charles’ Law: Sample Problem
1. A 500 L of gas at 1 atm and 10◦C is heated at 85 ◦C.
Calculate the gas volume at the higher temperature if the
pressure is constant.
2. A sample of carbon dioxide gas occupies 8.20L at 135 ◦C.
Calculate the temperature at which the gas will occupy
3.64L, if pressured is constant.
Gay-Lussac’s Law
Gay-Lussac’s Law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant
volume, the pressure is directly proportional to the
temperature in kelvins (K).
Gay-Lussac’s Law: Application
Gay-Lussac’s Law: Sample
Problem
Suppose a can of hair spray with a pressure of 4 atm at 27 ◦C is
thrown into fire. If the temperature of the gas inside the can
reached 402 ◦C, what will be the pressure?
Initial conditions Final conditions
P1= 4 atm T2= 402 + 273.15= 675 K
T1= 27 + 273.15= 300.15 P2=?

𝑃1𝑇2 (4 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(675.15 𝐾)
P2= == = 8.99 or 9 atm
𝑇1 300.15 𝐾

8.99 or 9 atm is the final pressure for the gas inside the
can
Summary
Combined Gas Law
Boyle’s law, Charles’s law and Gay-Lussac’s law can be
combined into one law called the combined gas law. Note
that mass of the gas is held constant.

22
Combined Gas Law: Sample
Problem
A 25 mL bubble is released from a diver’s tank at 4 atm, 11 ◦C.
What is the volume of the bubble when it reaches the ocean
surface, where pressure is 1 atm at 18 ◦C ?
Initial conditions Final conditions
P1= 4 atm P2= 1 atm
V1= 25 mL V2=?
T1= 11 + 273.15= 284.15 T2= 18 + 273.15=291.15 K

𝑃1𝑉1𝑇2 (4 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(25 𝑚𝐿)(291.15𝐾)

V2= == = 102.46 mL
𝑃2𝑇1 (1 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(284 𝐾)

102.46 mL is the volume of the bubble when temperature

reaches 291.15 K at 1 atm.
Ideal Gas Law
Avogadro’s law allows us to write a gas law that is valid
not only for any P, V, and T but also for any mass of gas.

Ideal gas law:

PV = nRT
P = pressure of the gas in atmospheres (atm)
V = volume of the gas in liters (L)
n = moles of the gas (mol)
T = temperature in kelvins (K)
R = ideal gas constant (a constant for all gases)
Ideal Gas Law
We find the value of R by using the fact that 1.00 mol of any gas
at STP occupies 22.4 L.

• Problem: 1.00 mol of CH4 gas occupies 20.0 L at 1.00 atm.

What is the temperature of the gas in kelvins?
• Solution: Solve the ideal gas law for T, plug in the given
values, and do the math:

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Intermolecular Forces
We discuss three types of intermolecular forces.
Their origins are electrostatic, that is, the attraction
between positive and negative charges.
London Dispersion Forces
A temporary polarization of electron density in one atom in
turn induces temporary positive and negative charges in an
adjacent atom.
Exists in non-polar molecules (example F2, I2, CO2, CH4)
Dipole-Dipole Interactions
Dipole-dipole interactions: the electrostatic attraction between
positive and negative dipoles; attractive forces between POLAR
MOLECULES
• Consider butane and acetone, compounds of similar molecular
weight.

• Butane is a nonpolar molecule. The only interactions between

butane molecules are London forces.
• Acetone is a polar molecule. Its molecules are held together in the
liquid state by dipole-dipole interactions.
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Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bond: a noncovalent force of attraction between
the partial positive charge on a hydrogen bonded to an atom
of high electronegativity, most commonly O or N, and the
partial negative charge on a nearby O or N.
Figure 5-10 Two water molecules joined by a hydrogen bond.
Physical properties of
liquid
Surface Tension
• Increase in the attractive forces between molecules at the
surface of the liquid compared to the forces between
molecules in the center of the liquid.
Viscosity
• Measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow
• The greater the viscosity, the slowler the liquid flows
• Viscosity increases as temperature decreases
Chapter 6
Mixture
• Classification of matter wherein 2 or more substances are
combined physically

• Types of Mixtures

Solution Colloid Suspension

parts -solute -dispersed medium -suspended particle

-solvent -dispersed particle
-medium
phases 1 2 2
Solubility
Saturated solution A solution in which the solvent
contains the maximum amount of a solute that can be
dissolved at equilibrium at a given temperature.
Unsaturated solution A solution that contains less than
the maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved
at a given temperature.
Supersaturated solution A solution that contains more
than the equilibrium amount of a solute that can be
dissolved at a given temperature. When an unsaturated
solution is disturbed in any way, the excess solute
separates and the equilibrium solubility is restored.
Factors that affect the rate of
formation of solutions
1. Particle sizes-small particles dissolve more rapidly than
larger ones
2. Stirring-causes solute particles to come in contact with
solvent particles
3. Temperature- high kinetic energy, high interaction
between solute and solvent particles
4. Pressure has little effect on the solubility of liquids or
solids in each other.
• The solubility of a gas in a liquid increases as pressure increases. For
example, the solubility of CO2 in carbonated beverages.
Percent composition:
• Weight of solute per volume of solution (w/v) Example:
10. g of table sugar dissolved in enough water to make
100. mL of solution has a concentration of 10% w/v.
• Weight of solute per weight of solution (w/w) Essentially
the same as w/v except that the weight of the solution is
used instead of its volume.
• Volume of solute per volume of solution (v/v) Example:
40. mL of of ethanol dissolved in enough water to make in
100. mL of solution is 40% v/v.
Concentration
Molarity Moles of solute per liter of solution.
Molarity (M) = moles of solute (n)
liter of solution (L)
• Example: Describe how to prepare 2.0 L of 0.15 M NaOH.
• First find the number of moles of NaOH required:
0.15 mol NaOH x 2.0 L = 0.30 mol NaOH
1L
• Next convert 0.30 mol NaOH to g NaOH:
0.30 mol NaOH x 40.0 g NaOH = 12.0 g NaOH
1 mol NaOH
• To prepare this solution, dissolve 12.0 g NaOH in enough
water of make 2.0 L of solution.
Concentration
• Problem: If the concentration of NaCl in blood serum is
approximately 0.14 M, what volume of serum contains
2.0 g of NaCl?
• First find the number of moles NaCl in 2.0 g NaCl.
1 mol NaCl
2.0 g NaCl x = 0.034 mol NaCl
58.5 g NaCl

• Using molarity as a conversion factor, find the volume

in liters that contains this many moles of NaCl.

1L
0.034 mol NaCl x = 0.24 L or 240 mL
0.14 mol NaCl

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Concentration
• Molality- number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg of
solvent
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
molality (m)=
𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
Suppose that 0.15 mole of salt is dissolved in 1.26kg of water.
What is the molal conc. of the solution?

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 0.15 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑚= = = 0.12 mol/kg or 0.12
𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 1.26 𝑘𝑔
molal
Concentration
If we dilute a solution, the number of moles of solute
remains the same after dilution. This relation results in the
following relationship.
C1V1 = C2V2
• Problem: How would you prepare 200. mL of 3.5 M aqueous
solution of acetic acid if you have a stock solution of 6.0 M acetic
acid.
• First find the number of L of 6.0 M acetic acid needed:
• To prepare the desired solution, place 120. mL of 6.0 M acetic in a
200. mL volumetric flask and fill to the mark.

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Colligative Properties of
Solutions
-properties that depend only on the number of solute
particles in solution and not on the nature of the
solute particle
Colligative Properties of Solutions
• Freezing-point depression- results from the
introduction of solute molecules to a solvent. The
freezing points of solutions are all lower than that
of the pure solvent and is directly proportional to
the molality of the solute.
• ΔTf=Tf(solvent)−Tf(solution)=Kf × m
ΔTf =freezing point depression
Tf (solution) is the freezing point of the solution,
Tf (solvent) is the freezing point of the solvent,
Kf is the freezing point depression constant
m is the molality.
Freezing-Point Depression
Problem: If we add 275 g of ethylene glycol, C2H6O2, per 1000. g of
water in a car radiator, what will be the freezing point of the
solution?
• Ethylene glycol is a molecular compound; it dissolves in water
without dissociation.
• First find the number of moles of ethylene glycol in the solution
and then the freezing point depression caused by that number of
moles.

The freezing point will be lowered by 8.24°C from 0°C to -8.24°C

(17.17°F).
Freezing point depression
• What is the freezing point of a solution prepared by adding 140. g
trichothecin (C19H24O5) to 0.746 kg of benzene? The freezing point
of pure benzene is 5.5 °C. The freezing point constant for benzene
is 5.12 °C/m.
Solution:
• 140. g / 332.39 g/mol = 0.421192 mol
• ΔT = i Kf m
• ΔT = (1) (5.12 °C kg mol-1) (0.421192 mol / 0.746 kg)
• ΔT = 2.89 °C <--- this is the amount of freezing point depression,
not the freezing point
• 5.5 °C - 2.89 °C = 2.6 °C (to two sig figs this is the new freezing
point)
Boiling pt. elevation
• boiling point of a liquid will be higher when another
compound is added, meaning that a solution has a
higher boiling point than a pure solvent.
• ∆Tb= Kb x m
• ∆Tb= boiling point elevation
• Kb= boiling point constant (of solvent)
• m= molality
What is the new boiling point of a solution prepared by
adding 96.0 g of sodium acetate to 383 mL of water? The
boiling point constant for water is 0.52 °C/m.
Solution:
1) Determine the molality of the NaCl solution:
(96.0 g / 58.443 g/mol) / 0.383 kg = 4.28884 m
2) We utilize this formula:
Δt = Kb m
x = (0.52 °C kg mol-1) (4.28884 mol/kg)
x = 2.23 °C
The new boiling point is 104.46 °C.
Note: Boiling point of water (solvent) is 100 °C. Since solute was
added, boiling point of the solution will elevate or increase.
 What is the boiling point of a solution prepared by adding
29.3 g of methol (C10H20O) to 0.0590 kg of chloroform?
The boiling point of pure chloroform is 61.2 °C. The
boiling point constant for chloroform is 3.85 °C/m
Solution:
1) Determine the molality of the menthol solution:
(29.3 g / 156.267 g/mol) / 0.0590 kg = 3.17796 m
2) We utilize this formula:
Δt = i Kb m
x = (1) (3.85 °C kg mol-1) (3.17796 mol/kg)
x = 12.2 °C
61.2 + 12.2 = 73.4 °C <--- this is the bp of the solution
Colloidal Dispersion/
Colloids
Colloids
• Dispersion of particles of one substance (the
dispersed phase) throughout a dispersing medium
made of another substance
Properties of Colloids
1. Tyndall effect- ability of a colloid to scatter a beam of light
which passes through it
Properties of Colloids
2. Brownian motion- movement of colloidal particle in erratic,
zigzag, and continuous random motion caused by the
bombardment of the dispersed particle by the dispersed
medium
 Properties of Colloids
3. Electrical charge- in most sols,
Particles carry a charge due to
adsorbed ions within molecules
of the dispersed particles
Properties of Colloids
4. Adsorption- causes particles to adhere or hold on to
surface molecules of other substances they come in contact
with
Separation of Mixtures
• Decantation and Filtration – Processes which separate solid
from liquids.
• e.g. Sand and salt mixture can be separated through
filtration by dissolving the salt in the liquid phase, and
letting allowing the mixture to pass through a filter.
Separation of Mixtures
• Evaporation and Distillation
Separation of Mixtures
• Crystallization and Decolorization
Separation of Mixture
Chromatography