10

Pile Foundations

10.1 Introduction
Piles are categorized as deep foundations and are used at deeper stratums compared
to shallow foundations. Installation of a pile is costlier than that of a shallow founda-
tion. However, the use of piles as foundations is often inevitable, such as in the following
conditions:

1. when stratums at shallow depths have very low bearing capacity and cannot resist
the desired structural loads
2. when soil layers are highly compressible, which may result in excessive settle-
ments beyond tolerable limits
3. when bedrock is not encountered at a reasonable depth
4. when problematic soils (expansive and collapsible soils) are encountered
5. to control the vibration amplitudes of machine foundations
6. as foundations for structures such as transmission towers, basement mats, and
offshore platforms below the water table that subjected to uplifting forces

10.2 Classification of Piles
Piles can be generally classified based on the materials they are made of, the way they
resist loads, and the method of installation. The pile types under each of the classifications
are given below.

10.2.1 Classification Based on Materials or Composition

i. Timber piles: made from tree trunks, these are well-seasoned, straight, and free
from all defects. They are generally treated with a preservative as protection
against attack from various organisms and have an average length of 4–6 m, with
maximum length of up to 10–20 m. Timber piles are used where good bearing
stratum is available at a relatively shallow depth. These piles have limited capac-
ity of around 220–270 kN and cannot withstand hard driving stress. It is generally
recommended to avoid the splicing of timber piles, especially if they are likely to
be subjected to tensile or lateral load.

253

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 254 Advanced Foundation Engineering

ii. Concrete piles: these are either precast or cast in-situ. Precast piles are cast and
cured at the casting yard and then transported to the site for installation. Precast
piles with ordinary reinforcement resist vertical loads, tension forces (if any) dur-
ing driving, bending stresses during pickup and transport to the site, and bending
stresses from lateral loads. Precast piles are generally used for short lengths. They
can have square or octagonal cross-sections (Figure 10.1).
To construct a cast-in-situ pile, a hole is first drilled in the ground, following
which reinforcement is placed and, finally, freshly prepared concrete is poured in
to fill the hole. Broadly, these piles can be classified as cased and uncased. A few
examples of cased piles are shown in Figure 10.2 below.
The allowable design load for all concrete piles is given by:

Q = As f s + Ac fc

where Ac and As = area of concrete and steel, respectively, and fc and fs = allowable stress
for concrete and steel, respectively.
For cased piles, the casing is driven into the ground by a mandrel until the pile
reaches the required depth, after which the mandrel is withdrawn and the casing
is filled with concrete.

D
2D

Square pile Octagonal pile

D D

FIGURE 10.1
Precast piles.

10 30

60
Depth (m)

Depth (ft)

20
(c)
30
30
(a)
120
40 (f )
(b) (e) (g)
150
50
(d)

FIGURE 10.2
Cased piles: (a) Raymond step-taper; (b) Franki uncased-pedestal; (c) western uncased without pedestal;
(d) seamless pile; (e) Franki cased pedestal; (f) western cased; (g) monotube.

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 Pile Foundations 255

iii. Steel piles: usually in the form of rolled H-sections or thick pipe sections. Pipe
piles can be driven into ground with their ends either open or closed. If needed,
they can also be filled with concrete.
Steel piles are also used to support open excavations and to provide seepage
barriers. Splicing of piles can be done using welding or riveting. To protect steel
piles from corrosion in organic soils, peats, and other kinds of corrosive soils, steel
thickness can be increased over the original design cross-section or an epoxy coat-
ing can be applied at the factory, or an encasement can be done with concrete at the
field. Figure 10.3 shows typical examples of steel piles. A few advantages of steel
piles are given below.
a. They can withstand high driving stresses or impact stresses.
b. They can penetrate harder layers such stiff overconsolidated clay and dense
sands.
c. They are easy to handle in terms of cutting or extending to the desired length.
d. They have high load-carrying capacity.
However, steel piles also have their drawbacks.
a. Steel pile driving produces high noise levels.
b. Steel piles are more costly than timber.
c. Steel piles are subject to corrosion.
d. During driving through hard layers or when obstructions are met, H-piles
may get damaged or deflected from the vertical.

Weld
Weld

(a) (b) (c)

Weld

Weld

(d) (e)

FIGURE 10.3
Typical steel piles: (a) conical driving point of pipe pile; (b) splicing of H-pile rivets and bolts; (c) splicing of pile
by welding; (d) flat driving point of pipe pile; (e) splicing of H-pile by welding.

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 256 Advanced Foundation Engineering

iv. Composite piles: usually made of two different materials. When the length of the
pile required for adequate bearing exceeds the capacity of simple cast-in-situ con-
crete piles, then composite piles such as those of steel and concrete or timber and
concrete can be used. Composite piles find their use when piles need to be placed
under water permanently and are partially exposed to it. The part exposed to
water can be made of timber and the remaining part can be of concrete. The chal-
lenge in making composite piles is the formation of joints between two different
materials. Due to this, they are not widely used.

10.2.2 Classification Based on Load Transfer Mechanism

i. End bearing piles: the bottom of the pile rests on a hard stratum, such as rock or
soil, with a high bearing capacity. Hence, the pile resists the structural loads by
deriving the required bearing capacity from its end or tip; therefore, it’s known as
an end bearing pile.
ii. Friction piles: if a strong soil layer or stratum is not met at relatively lower depths,
friction piles can be alternatively used. The skin friction along the entire length (or
height) of the pile is used to resist the structural loads coming onto the pile.
Figure 10.4 shows both of these types of pile. Whether a friction or a bearing
pile should be provided depends on site conditions. A pile may resist the struc-
tural loads through both end bearing and skin friction (Figure 10.5).

10.2.3 Classification Based on Method of Construction

1. Bored piles: the bored pile system is used to bore holes in the ground and con-
struct a bored pile. The hole is supported using a casing or by circulating stabiliz-
ing mud, such as bentonite slurry. Later reinforcement is installed and concrete
is poured to fill the hole. As compared to a driven piles, the installation of bored
piles creates less noise and fewer vibrations. Piles with a diameter of up to 600 mm
are considered small-diameter piles, while those greater than 600 mm fall into the
category of large-diameter piles. Under-reamed piles generally have a diameter of
300–450 mm as shown in Figure 10.6.

End bearing pile Friction pile

Weak soil

Hard stratum

FIGURE 10.4
End bearing and friction piles.

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 Pile Foundations 257

Qu
Qu

Load (kN)
Q

L
A1
L Qf

Curves showing the loads

d carried by pile shaft
B Base or trip of pile

Qb Qp
(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.5
Loads resisted by a pile due to end bearing and skin friction.

Timber pile

(a) Driven pile Under reamed

piles
Straight bored pile
(b) Cast-in-situ piles

Fluted steel Corrugated

shell filled steel shell filled
with concrete with concrete
Driven pile
Bulb

(c)

FIGURE 10.6
Driven and cast-in-situ piles.

2. Driven piles: manufactured in a factory, unlike a bored piles, which are cast-in-
situ. The size and shape of piles is predetermined and can be inspected after it
is manufactured and before installation—one advantage of a driven pile over a
bored pile. The pile is driven by the impact of a hammer, vibration, or pushing into
the earth. In cases of granular or cohesionless soil, driven piles tend to densify soil
and increase its strength (stiffness).
3. Driven and cast-in-place piles: these piles are formed by driving a tube with a
closed end into the soil strata, and then filling the tube with freshly prepared con-
crete. The tube may or may not be withdrawn afterwards (Figure 10.6).

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 258 Advanced Foundation Engineering

10.2.4 Classification Based on Function

Figures 10.7a to d show different piles classified based on their functions.

1. Tension piles: structures that are subjected to uplift forces and can be anchored
down by the use of tension piles. Uplifting forces can be due to hydrostatic
pressure.
2. Compaction piles: used to densify loosely packed cohesionless soil or soft clay
to increase its bearing capacity or reduce settlement. Compaction piles are not

Tension piles
(a)

Compression pile Anchor piles

(b) (c)
 
Batte piles
Fender piles

Sheet piles

Dolphins piles
(d)

FIGURE 10.7
(a) Tension piles; (b) compression pile; (c) anchor pile; (d) fender and dolphin piles.

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 Pile Foundations 259

load-carrying piles and are made of weaker-strength materials such as sand. They
are driven into ground by vibration, dynamic impact, or static excitation.
3. Anchor piles: sheet pile walls are subjected to lateral forces due to the soil they
retain. This horizontal pull can be resisted by using an anchor pile. An anchor pile
resist both tensile and compressive forces, which make it suitable to be used for
basements and tunnels.
4. Fender piles and dolphins: extend above the water level and primarily protect
structures from the impact of ships or any floating objects. They are also used to
house navigation aids such as lights and display regulatory or safety information
such as speed limits.

10.3 Load-Carrying Capacity of Piles

The load-carrying capacity of a single pile can be estimated using:

1. static formulae
2. dynamic formulae
3. correlations with penetration test data
4. load tests

10.3.1 Static Formulae
A pile resists structural loads due to its end bearing, skin friction, and weight.

Qu = Qb + Q f + Wp

where Qu = ultimate load or load at failure, Qb = tip or base resistance, Qf = shaft resis-
tance, and Wp = weight of the pile.
The net ultimate load deducting the contribution of overburden pressure is:

Qu = Qb + Qf + Wp − σ ′Ab

Wp and the term for overburden pressure can roughly be assumed equal and, hence,
they cancel out each other’s effects in the equation given above. Moreover, the values of
Wp and overburden pressure as compared to the base and shaft resistance are insignificant
and hence can be ignored safely. Thus, the ultimate load can be expressed as:

Qu = Qb + Qf

From Terzaghi’s bearing capacity formulae, base resistance can be expressed as:

 γdN γ 
Qb =  cN c + σ ′N q +  Ap
 2 

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 260 Advanced Foundation Engineering

where c = cohesion of the soil, σ΄ = effective overburden pressure at the base level of the
pile, γ = unit weight of the soil, d = diameter of the shaft at the base level, and Nc, Nq, Nγ =
Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors.

10.3.2 Piles in Granular Soils

γdN γ
For cohesionless soils, c = 0 and for deep foundations, the term is very small as
2
compared to σ΄Nq and, hence, can be ignored. Therefore, the equation for base resistance
can be written as:

Qb = σ ′NqAp

The shaft resistance can be written as:

Qf = ∑ kA ( σ′tanδ ) (10.1)
si i

i=1

where Ap = cross-section area of pile, D = stem diameter of pile, σ΄ = effective overburden

pressure (critical depth taken as 15D for ø ≤30° and 20D for Ø ≥40°), k = coefficient of earth
pressure, σ ′i = effective overburden pressure at middle of corresponding layer, δ = angle
of wall friction (usually taken as ¾ ø of soil), and Asi = surface area of pile.

10.3.3 Piles in Cohesive Soils

The ultimate bearing Qu of piles in cohesive soils is given by the following formula:

Qu = Ap   N cCp + ∑ αA si   Csi (10.2)

i=1

where NC = bearing capacity factor in clays, which is taken as 9 (see Skempton’s curve),
cP = average cohesion at pile toe, and άi = adhesion factor (Table 10.1 gives values of α for
different consistencies of clay), ci = average cohesion of the ith layer on the side of the pile,
Asi = surface area of pile stem in the ith layer, and άi ci = adhesion between shaft of pile
and clay.

TABLE 10.1
Values of α for Different Consistencies of Clay
Value of α
Consistency SPT N-value Bored Piles Driven Cast-in-situ Piles
Soft to very soft <4 0.7 1.0
Medium 4–8 0.5 0.7
Stiff 8–15 0.4 0.4
Stiff to hard >15 0.3 0.3

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 Pile Foundations 261

10.3.4 Piles in C-Ø Soils

Where the soil has large values of both c and ø (as for a true c-ø), conservative Terzaghi’s
bearing capacity factors must be used to determine the load-carrying capacity:

Qu = ApCN c + σ vb N q + 0.5 γDN γ + ∑ A α + k(σ tanϕ) (10.3)

s c v

i=1

where Nc, Nq, and Nγ = Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors and σvb, σv = effective overburden
pressure at base and pile shaft, irrespective of the critical depth.

10.4 Dynamic Formulae
10.4.1 Engineering News Formula
For piles driven into soils, there are a set of formulae based on the Engineering News
(1888) formula:

WH ηh
Qu = (10.4)
S+C

where, Qu = ultimate load capacity of the driven pile, W = hammer weight (tons), H = fall
of hammer (cm), S = final set (cm/blow), C = a constant depending on the type of hammer
(2.54 for drop hammer, 0.254 for steam hammer), and ηh = efficiency of hammer (0.65 for
steam hammer, 1.0 for drop hammer).
For a double-acting steam hammer, the hammer weight W is replaced by W+ap, where a
is the area of the piston (cm2) and p is the steam pressure (kg/cm2).

Qu
Qa =
F

where Qa = allowable load and F = 6.

10.4.1.1 Hiley’s Modification of Wellington’s Formula

WHnhnb
Qu =
 C  (10.5)
S+ 
 2

where the terms W, H, ηh, and S are the same as before and ηb = the efficiency of the ham-
mer blow,

W + Pe 2
ηh = if W > ep
W + Pe

W + Pe 2
ηb = if W > ep
W + Pe

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 262 Advanced Foundation Engineering

Here, P is the pile weight and e is the co-efficient of restitution, whose value is 0.4 for
concrete and 0.5 for steel.
The quantity C in Hiley’s formula is total elastic compression given by:

C = C1 + C2 + C3

where C1, C2, and C3 are the compression of pile cap, pile shaft, and soil, respectively.
Dynamic formulae are generally found to be less reliable than static formulae.

10.4.2 Load-Carrying Capacity from Penetration Test Data

Data from a static cone penetration test can be used to estimate the unit skin friction.

f = aqc

where qc = static cone resistance in kg/cm2 and a is coefficient whose value depends on the
soil type (0.04 to 0.08 for clays, 0.01 to 0.04 for silty sands, 0.01 to 0.02 for sands).
The maximum unit skin friction for steel H-piles is taken as 0.5kg/cm2 and for driven
concrete piles it is 1.0 kg/cm2. For driven steel or concrete piles, the point resistance may
be obtained from the SPT N-value, as mentioned below:

 l
q = 4N  
 d

For bored concrete piles, the point resistance can be expressed as:

 l
q = 1.4 N  
 d

10.4.3 Load Tests on Piles

Before finalizing the design, load tests are carried out on piles installed for the purpose
on the site. These are called initial load tests. They are useful in determining the general
suitability of the proposed pile foundation, comparing the load capacity obtained from
formulae, and for a general check on the piling equipment to be used as well as on soil
properties.

10.4.3.1 Procedure for Pile Load Test

To perform a pile load test, initial chipping is done at the pile head so that sound concrete
is met. The projecting reinforcement is cut off suitably and the top is finished smooth and
level with plaster of paris. A loading platform of 6.2 m x 6.2 m is constructed by using 2nos
of ISMB 500 as main girders and 21nos of ISMB 300 as secondary girders.
The center of gravity of the platform is made to coincide with the center of the pile. The
platform thus constructed is loaded with sand bags for required weight. A 20 mm-thick
mild steel plate is placed on the top of the pile head; a hydraulic jack of 250 T capacity is
placed centrally on top of the plate as shown in Figure 10.8a and b. The gap between the

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 Pile Foundations 263

top of jack and the bottom of the main girders is filled with steel packing materials. The
hydraulic pump is connected to a jack by a flexible pressure hose. A calibrated pressure
gauge is connected to the hydraulic pump. Datum bars of heavy sections are placed very
near to the pile head and are supported on the ends at a distance of 2 m on either side from
the face of the pile. Two settlement gauges are placed on the pile head at diametrically
opposite locations with the help of magnetic bases fixed on datum bars.
The pump is operated until the ram of the jack touches the bottom of the main girders.
At this stage, the pressure gauge reading is zero and the dial gauge reading is adjusted for
zero loading. The loads are then applied in increments of 20% of the maximum safe load.
For each increment of load the dial gauge reading is taken at intervals of 15 minutes, until
the rate of settlement is less than 0.1 mm in the first half-hour or 0.2 mm after one hour of
for a maximum period of two hours. Then the next increment of load is applied and the
procedure is repeated until the test load is reached. This load is maintained for 24 hours

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 10.8
(a and b) Pile load test setup.

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 264 Advanced Foundation Engineering

Qu Q Qu Q
0 0

s s

(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.9
Determination of ultimate load from load-settlement curve. (a) Single tangent method. (b) Double tangent method.

and hourly settlement readings are noted. At the end of 24 hours, unloading is done gradu-
ally until the entire load is released.

10.4.3.2 Allowable Load from Single Pile Load Test Data

The allowable load on a single pile can be estimated from the load test data using many
different methods. For example, the ultimate load can be estimated from load-settlement
curves and the allowable load can be obtained by dividing the ultimate load with a factor
of safety ranging between 2 and 3—the generally recommended value being 2.5.
Figure 10.9a and b shows two methods of determining the ultimate load. In the first sub-
figure, the x-coordinate corresponding to the point where the curved part changes into
a straight line can be taken as Qu. In the second sub-figure, the x-coordinate correspond-
ing to the point of intersection of the initial and final tangents gives Qu. To estimate the
allowable load, it can be correlated with settlement. Allowable load can be taken as half
of the ultimate load at which total settlement is equal to one-tenth of the pile diameter.
Alternatively, it can also be taken as two-thirds of the ultimate load at which total settle-
ment equal to 12 mm or net settlement equal to 6 mm.

10.4 Negative Skin Friction

When a weak, compressible soil layer is sandwiched between hard layers, a pile passing
through such a stratum may be subjected to an additional load due to compression of
the weak layer. This compression may be caused by consolidation, fill placing, remolding
during driving, or lowering of the water table. The portion of the pile within this layer is
subjected to drawdown force in addition to the structural loads. This force should be taken
into account when designing the pile foundation.
An approximate estimate of the force can be made by empirical formulae, such as following:

Fd = force due to negative skin friction

Fd = (perimeter*soil depth)*Cu (for clays)
Fd = 0.5 (perimeter*(soil depth)2*γKtan δ ) (for sands)
Cu = undrained shear strength
γ = unit weight of soil
K = coefficient of earth pressure
δ = angle of internal friction

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 Pile Foundations 265

10.5 Under-Reamed Piles
These are bored, cast-in-situ concrete piles with one or more bulbs formed by enlarging
the pile stem. They are suitable for loose and filled-up sites, or where soils are weak or
expansive, like black cotton soil.
The bulbs are located at depths where good bearing strata are available but they should
not be placed too near to the ground level. Bulb size is usually two to three times the pile
stem diameter. The bulbs provide a large bearing area, increasing the pile load capacity.
Theyare also effective in resisting the downward drag due to the negative skin friction
that arises in loose or expansive soils. Bulb spacing should not exceed 1.5 times the bulb
diameter.

10.5.1 Procedure for Construction of Under-Reamed Piles

The hole is drilled to the full required depth using augers. The under-reaming tool con-
sists of a link mechanism attached to a vertical rod with a handle at the top and connected
to a bucket at the bottom. The link mechanism incorporates cutting blades. The under-
reaming tool is inserted into the hole. When the central rod is pressed by the handle, the
mechanism actuates the cutting blades to open out. The mechanism is now made to rotate,
keeping the handle under pressure. The blades now scrape the soil from the sides of the
hole, which falls into the bucket below. The rotation under pressure is continued until the
full amount of soil forming the bulb is removed, which is identified by the free rotation of
the mechanism. The volume of the bucket is such that it gets filled when the bulb is fully
formed. The handle is now tightened, causing the link mechanism to collapse back into
position. The under-reamed tool is now withdrawn, the reinforcement cage inserted, and
the hole concreted.

10.6 Group Action of Piles

Piles are generally used in groups with a common pile cap. A group may consist of two or
three, or as many as ten to twelve, piles depending on the design requirement. The load-
carrying capacity of a group of piles is given by:

(Qu ) g = Nqu η (10.6)

where (Qu)g = load-carrying capacity of pile group, N = number of piles, qu = allowable load
per pile, and η = group efficiency. The η -value for bearing or friction piles at sites where
the soil strength increases with depth is found to be 1.
For friction piles in soft clays the value of η is less than 1. The actual value of η depends
on soil type, method of pile installation, and pile spacing. When piles are driven in loose,
sandy soils, the soil is densified during driving, and η > 1 in such cases. It has been
observed that if the spacing between piles is more than 2.5 times the pile diameter, the
group efficiency is not reduced.
The large pile-to-pile spacing will increase the overall cost of construction. The reduc-
tion in load capacity due to the group effect can be estimated empirically. The use of Feld’s

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 266 Advanced Foundation Engineering

2 piles 3 piles
15 14
n = = 94% n= = 87%
16 16

FIGURE 10.10
Group action of piles—Feld’s rule.

B A=L×B

d I As = 2 (B + L)d

FIGURE 10.11
Failure of a pile group as a block.

rule is probably the simplest (Figure 10.10); it states that the load capacity of each pile in a
group is reduced by 1/16 due to the nearest pile placed in each diagonal or straight row.
A group of piles may fail as a block, i.e., by sinking into the soil and rupturing it at the
periphery of the group (Figure 10.11).

10.6.1 Ultimate Load-Carrying Capacity for the Pile Group

The ultimate load-carrying capacity for the pile group taken as a block is given by:

(Qu ) g = Cu N c Ab + Cu Ap (10.7)

where Ap and Ab = the area of the base and the surface area of the block, i.e., Ab = LB, where
L and B = the dimensions of the pile cap, and Ap = the perimeter of the block times the
embedded length of the pile.
The ultimate load capacity for the group is also evaluated as

(Qu ) g = NQu (10.8)

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 Pile Foundations 267

Here, each pile is assumed to individually carry the same load, whether in group or as a
single pile. The load-carrying capacity of a pile group is taken to be the smaller of the two
values obtained from Equations 10.7 and 10.8.

10.6.2 Efficiency of a Pile Group

The efficiency of pile group depends on the dimensions of the pile, the material it is made
up of, the spacing between piles, the total number of piles in a row and the number of rows
in the pile group (Figure 10.12). The efficiency of a pile group is defined as:

Ultimate bearing capacity of the group

ηg =
n × ultimate bearing capacity of single pile inthe group

where n = number of piles in the group.
Pile efficiency can be calculated using the converse Labarre’s formula, given as below:

θ  (n − 1)m + (m − 1)n 
η = 1−
90  mn 

d
where m = number of rows, n = number of piles in a row, θ = tan−1 (degrees), d = diameter
of pile, and s = spacing of pile. s

10.6.3 Settlement of Pile Groups

Due to group action, both immediate and consolidation settlement values of a pile group
are greater than those for a single pile. For bearing piles, the total foundation load is
assumed to act at the base of the piles on an imaginary foundation of the same size as the
plan of the pile group, as show in Figure 10.13. For friction piles it is virtually impossible
to determine the level at which the structural load is effectively transferred to the soil. The
level used in design is at a depth of two-thirds the penetration depth.

10.6.4 Multi-Layered Deposits
Piles driven through a multi-layer deposit can be calculated by their load capacities from
both skin and point resistance, and these capacities may need to be confirmed by load

Pile cap
Single pile

FIGURE 10.12
Group action of piles.

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 268 Advanced Foundation Engineering

1
4

Friction piles End bearing piles

FIGURE 10.13
Equivalent foundations for pile.

tests. Whenever possible, piles should be driven to a layer of sufficient strength and thick-
ness so that they derive their load capacity entirely from the layer.

Q
q′ =
(B + 1.15 H ′)(L + 1.15 H ′) (10.9)

for a side slope of 30 degrees,

or

Q
q′ = (10.10)
(B + H ′)(L + H ′)

for a side slope of 2:1.

If the strength of the underlying clay layer is c, the margin of safety against a punching
failure will be sufficient if:

q′ ≤ 3 c

10.7 Eccentric and Inclined Loads on Pile Groups

When a vertical load due to the weight of the pile cap or some supported structure
accompanies horizontal force acting on a pile group, an eccentric inclined load (Figure
10.14) that will distribute itself into the piles will act upon the pile cap. If there is no hori-
zontal load and if the vertical load is concentric with the centroid of the pile group, the
load in each pile is simply taken to be equal to the total load divided by the total number
of piles.

Qv
Qp =
n

where Qp = total vertical load, Qv = vertical load per pile, and n = number of piles.
Consider a pile in the group at distance X and Y from the centroid of the group.

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 Pile Foundations 269

y Qv
ex
x x

Pile cap

Centroid ey

FIGURE 10.14
Pile group with eccentric vertical load.

From the theory of the bending of beams, tensile and compressive stresses at a distance
Y from the neutral axis is given by:

My
fb = ±
I

where M = applied moment and I = moment of inertia of beam section.

The total vertical load induced in the pile can be expressed by:

Qv AbYMx Ab XMy
Qp = ± ±
n Ix Iy

I x = I o + Ab ∑Y 2
= Ab ∑Y 2

since Io = moment of inertia of the pile section is negligible.

I y = AD ∑X 2

Mx = Qv ey and My = Qv ex

Hence:

Qv AbYMx Ab XMy
Qp = ± ±
n Ix Iy

1 Xex Yey 
Qp = Qv  + +  (10.11)

 n X 2
∑ Y 2  ∑

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 270 Advanced Foundation Engineering

10.8 Laterally Loaded Piles

In addition to vertical loads, pile foundations are also subjected to horizontal and moment
loading. The sources of lateral loads are traffic, seismic events, wind, waves, and earth
pressure. Moment loading on a pile foundation can be due to eccentric vertical force, the
superstructure being fixed to the foundation, and due to the location of the resultant lat-
eral force on the pile with reference to the ground surface. There are two types of piles
encountered in practice:

1. long pile
2. short pile

In the case of a long pile, when the pile is greater than a particular length, the length
loses its significance. The behavior of the pile will not be affected if the length is
greater than this particular length. Three types of boundary conditions are normally
applicable:

1. fixed-head pile.
2. free-head pile.
3. partially-restrained-head pile.

In the case of a free-head pile, there is no restraint on the pile head and it can rotate
freely. The lateral load may act at or above ground level. However, for a fixed-head pile,
the pile can move freely only in a lateral direction and rotation is completely prevented. In
the case of a partially restrained head pile, translation and rotation happen partially under
restraint. The partially restrained head is normally encountered in offshore drilling plat-
forms and other similar structures. The analysis of laterally loaded single piles is based on
the following assumptions.

1. The laterally loaded pile behaves as an elastic member and the supporting soil
behaves as an ideal elastic material.
2. The theory of sub-grade reaction applies.
3. There is no axial load.

The different methods for solving the problem of laterally loaded piles are:

1. closed-form solution
2. difference equation method
3. non-dimensional method
4. direct method
5. pressure-meter method
6. Broms method
7. Polulos Method

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 Pile Foundations 271

For a free-head pile placed vertically, when a horizontal load acts at the pile head, the load
is initially carried by the soil close to the ground surface. This compresses the soil elastically,
which leads to some transfer of load to the soil at a greater depth. When the horizontal load
becomes large enough to yield the soil plastically, the load transfer extends to greater depths.
In the case of a short pile, the flexural stiffness EI of the material of the pile loses its sig-
nificance. The pile behaves as a rigid member and rotates as a unit.
Failure occurs by rotation when the passive resistance at the head and toe are exceeded.

10.9 Piles on a Rocky Bed

A pile is driven into the soil through weak layers until its end (tip) reaches a stratum
hard enough to provide end-bearing resistance. In the case of a pile with its tip on a rock,
driving is performed until refusal to maximize its load-carrying capacity. If the rock has
a strong surface, pile refusal happens immediately when the pile tip reaches the surface,
with negligible penetration. In such cases, pile shaft resistance would govern the load-
carrying capacity of the pile.
If the pile is driven through stiff clay or sand, it is supported from all sides against buck-
ling like a strut. In this case, the maximum load the pile can safely carry at its minimum
cross-sectional area is regarded as the load-carrying capacity of the pile. If the rock onto
which pile is driven is weak, working loads as calculated by the available stress on the mate-
rial of the pile shaft may not be possible. In these cases, frictional resistance developed over
the penetration into the rock and the end-bearing resistance must be calculated. Tomlinson
(1986) suggested an equation for calculating the end bearing of piles resting on rock strata:

qu = 2 N ϕ qur

where Nφ = tan2(45 + φ/2) and qu = unconfined compressive strength of the rock.

10.10  Solved Examples

Example 10.1
Determine the load-carrying capacity of a 5.0 m-long bored cast-in-situ pile in stiff clay hav-
ing variation of undisturbed strength as given below. The density of the soil is 19 kN/m3.

Depth (m) Ci (kN/m3)

1.0 50
2.0 60
3.0 65
4.0 55
5.0 70

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 272 Advanced Foundation Engineering

Solution
Assume the diameter of the pile as 0.5 m:

Qu = Ap N c Cp + αAsiCi

N c = 9.0

Cp = 70kN/m 2

π
Ap = × 0.52 = 0.19625m 2
4

α = 0.45

50 + 60 + 65 + 55 + 70
Ci = = 60kN/m 2
5

Asi = π × 0.5 × 5 = 7.85m 2

Qu = 9.0 × 70 × 0.196 + 0.45 × 7.85 × 60 = 335.43kN

335.43
Safe capacity = = 134.172 kN
2.5

Example 10.2
A reinforced concrete pile of 500 mm diameter is required to carry a maximum com-
pressive load of 500 kN and net uplift load of 250 kN. The soil consists of a medium-
dense saturated sand (N = 15) extending to a depth of 9.0 m below the seabed, followed
by dense sand and gravel (N = 38). Calculate the depth of penetration of the pile. The
submerged density of dense sand and gravel is 10 kN/m3.

Solution
1. Compute the frictional resistance of the pile in the dense saturated soil strata
9.0 m deep.
From Figure 4.7b, for N = 15, Φ = 32°
n

From Q f = ∑ kA (σ′tanδ ) , we have δ = 34 φ = 34 × 32 = 24° and k = 1.5

i=1
si i

9×9
σ ′i = = 40.5 kN/m 2 , Asi = π × 0.5 × 9.0 = 14.13 m 3
2

Qu = kAsi ( σ ′i tan δ )

Qu = 1.5 × 14.13 × 40.5 × tan 24 = 382.18 kN

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 Pile Foundations 273

2. Compute the depth of penetration of the pile.

First, let us try for 3.0 m penetration of the pile for N = 38, Φ = 38° (Figure 4.7b):

3 3
δ= φ = × 38 = 28.5° and k = 2.0
4 4

Skin friction resistance in dense gravel at 9.0 m depth:

Qu1 = 2.0 × 40.5 tan 28.5 × π × 0.5 × 3.0 = 207.2 kN

Effective overburden pressure at 12.0 m depth:

10 × 3.0
σ ′i = 40.5 + = 55.5 kN/m 2
2

Skin friction resistance in dense gravel at 12.0 m depth:

Qu2 = 2.0 × 55.5 tan 28.5 × π × 0.5 × 3.0 = 283.97 kN

Skin friction resistance in dense gravel:

Qu = Qu1 + Qu2 = 207.2 + 283.97 = 491.16 kN

Total skin friction resistance = 382.18 + 491.16 = 873.34 kN

3. Point bearing resistance.
For Φ = 38° and D/B = 12/0.5 = 24, Nq = 100

Qp = Ap σ ′N q
π
= × 0.52 × 108 × 100 = 2120.5 kN
4

4. Total capacity of the pile = 873.34 + 2120.5 = 2993.84 kN

Safe capacity of pile in compression:

2993.84
= = 997.94 kN(> 500 kn, safe)
3

Ultimate uplift capacity of pile = ultimate skin friction resistance = 873.34 kN

873.34
Safe uplift capacity of pile = = 291.12 kN(> 250 kN, safe)
3

Example 10.3
Design a 5.0 m-long pile in cohesionless soil to carry a vertical load of 510 kN and an
uplift load of 150 kN. Assume pile diameter as 500 mm.

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 274 Advanced Foundation Engineering

Solution
i. A pile is designed as a column. The effective length of the pile is taken as 4.0 m.

4.0
Slenderness ratio = = 8(< 12)
0.5

Therefore, the pile may be designed as a short column:

Le B 4000 500
emin = + = + = 24.66 mm(< 0.05 × 500 = 25 mm)
500 30 500 30

Hence, the eccentricity may be neglected:

 pAg  pAg
Pu = 0.4 f ck  Ag −  + 0.67 f y
 100  100

π
Ag = × 5002 = 196350 mm 2
4

 p × 196350  p × 196350
510 × 1.5 × 1000 = 0.4 × 20  196350 −  + 0.67 × 415 ×
 100 100

Or 765 = 15708 – 15.708p + 546p

Or p = –1.51%
ii. For an uplift load of 150 kN.
623.18
Area of steel required = p = × 100 = 0.317%, as per IS:2911, Pt 1
196350
Minimum value of reinforcement in driven piles = 1.25% > 0.317%
Therefore, provide 1.25% reinforcement.

1.25
Ast = × 196350 = 2454.375 mm 2
100

Provide nine bars of 20-mm diameter.

π
Total area of longitudinal reinforcement = 9 × × 202 = 2826 mm 2
Provide 10 mm-diameter lateral ties 4
Pitch < 500 mm
16ΦL or 320 mm
48ΦT or 480 mm
Provide pitch as 250 mm.
Percentage of lateral reinforcement:

π
4(370 × π + 100) × × 102
= 4 × 100
196350 × 1000
= 0.201(> 0.2%, ok )

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 Pile Foundations 275

Example 10.4
Calculate the capacity of the group of 16 piles driven into a soft clay extending to a large
depth. The diameter of the pile is 400 mm and the length of the pile is 10 m. If the uncon-
fined compressive strength of clay is 40 kN/m2 and the pile spacing is 1.5 m center-to-
center (given the factor of safety = 2.5 and the adhesion factor = 0.7).

Solution
qu 40
Cu = = = 20 kN/m 2
2 2

Figure Ex 10.4. Spacing of the piles.

i. Piles acting individually:

Qu = Ap N c Cu + αAsCu

π
Ap = × 0.42 = 0.125 m 2
4

As = πdL = π × 0.4 × 10 = 12.56 m 2

Qu = 0.125 × 9 × 20 + 0.7 × 12.56 × 20 = 198.34 kN

Qun = nQu = 16 × 198.34 = 3173.44 kN

400 mm
1.5 m

4.9 m
Please check if
figure caption for
Figures Ex 10.4– FIGURE EX 10.4
10.6 were cap-
tured correctly. Spacing of the piles.

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 276 Advanced Foundation Engineering

ii. Piles acting in a group:

Qug = Cu N c Ab + Cu Ap

Ab = 4BL = 4 × 4.9 × 10 = 196 m 2

Ap = B2 = 4.92 = 24.01 m 2

Qug = 20 × 9 × 196 + 20 × 24.01 = 35, 760 kN

Lesser of the two = 3173.44 kN
3173.44 kN
Load capacity = = 1269.4 kN
2.5

Example 10.5
A group of nine piles of 9.0 m long and 500-mm diameter is arranged in a square pat-
tern with center-to-center spacing of 1.0 m and embedded in a soft clay with unconfined
compressive strength of 60 kN/m2. Determine the efficiency of the pile group.

Solution
Since the length of the pile is less than 20 dia, the adhesion factor (α) can be taken as 0.4:

qu 60
Cu = = = 30 kN/m 2
2 2

Citation of Figure
Ex 10.5 here are
Figure Ex 10.5. Spacing of the piles.
correct?

i. Piles acting individually:

Qu = Ap N c Cu + αAsCu

π
Ap = × 0.52 = 0.196 m 2
4

500 mm
1.0 m

2.5 m

FIGURE EX 10.5
Spacing of the piles.

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 Pile Foundations 277

As = πdL = π × 0.5 × 10 = 15.7 m 2

Qu = 0.196 × 9 × 30 + 0.4 × 15.7 × 30 = 241.32 kN

Qun = nQu = 9 × 241.32 = 2171.88 kN

ii. Piles acting in a group:

Qug = Cu N c Ab + Cu Ap

Ab = 4BL = 4 × 2.5 × 9 = 90 m 2

Ap = B2 = 2.52 = 6.25 m 2

Qug = 30 × 9 × 90 + 30 × 6.25 = 24, 487.5 kN

Qug 24487.5
Therefore, efficiency of the pile group ηg = = = 11.27
Qun 2171.88

Example 10.6
A group of 12 piles of 300-mm diameter is spaced 90 cm center-to-center, as shown in
the figure. Compute the efficiency of the group using the converse Labarre formulae.
They are embedded in granular soil.
Figure Ex 10.6. Spacing of the piles.

Solution
According to converse Labarre the efficiency of the pile group is given as below:

θ  (n − 1)m + (m − 1)n 
ηg = 1 −
90  mn 


300 mm

0.9 m

FIGURE EX 10.6
Spacing of the piles.

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 278 Advanced Foundation Engineering

By inspection, m = 3 and n = 4

d 0.3
θ = tan −1 = tan −1 = 18.43°
s 0.9

18.43  ( 4 − 1)3 + (3 − 1)4 

Therefore, the efficiency of the pile group ηg = 1 −  = 0.709 or
70.9%. 90  12 

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