UNIVERSITY OF JEDDAH

Sciences Faculty for Girls

Physics Department

Principles of the Experimental Physics

General Physics Lab-SCPH234

Student Name ________________ Student Number _____________

Prepared by
Dr. Alaa Yahya Imam Mahmoud
Wafa Abdullah Ahmed AL-Ghameeti

Revised by
Dr. Alaa Yahya Imam Mahmoud
 Table of Contents

Title Page

Experiment # 1: 3
Measurement

Experiment # 2: 9
Graphs

Experiment # 3: 14
Friction

Experiment # 4: 18
Free-Fall acceleration

Experiment # 5: 22
Work and kinetic energy relation for a vehicle on air track experiment

Experiment # 6: 27
Force Table

Experiment # 7: 31
Boyle’s Law

Experiment # 8: 34
Latent heat of fusion for ice

Experiment # 9: 38
Velocity of sound

Experiment # 10: 41
Hooke's Law

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 2

 Experiment # 1
Measurements

1. Aim of the experiment

The aim of this experiment is to learn how to use precision measurement tools such as
Vernier Calliper and Micrometer, to measure different lengths accurately.

2. Precision Measurement Tools

a. Vernier Caliper
The Vernier Caliper is a precision instrument that is used to measure internal and external
distances extremely accurately. The example shown below is for a manual calliper.
Measurements are interpreted from the scale by the user. Figure 1 shows the parts of the Vernier
Caliper.

Figure 1: Parts of the Vernier Caliper.

Steps to measure the diameter of a sphere using a Vernier caliper:

Figure 2: Example of measuring a diameter using the Vernier Caliper.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 3

 1. Put the sphere between the external jaws of the Vernier caliper as it is shown in the
above figure, and be sure that it is fixed.
2. Lock the screw to be sure that your reading will not change.
3. Read the main metric scale first (the measurements will be in mm). The zero of the
moving part of the external jaw should align with any line in the metric scale. We have
two cases:
a. If the zero of the moving jaw is aligned with any division in the metric scale,
take the reading and you are done.
b. If the zero of the moving jaw is not aligned with any division, the reading will
be taken by adding of two scales; one from the metric scale, and the second
from the moving scale.
i. First reading (from the metric scale): look at which adjacent division,
in the metric scale, the zero of the moving scale is stopped, then take the
reading of the metric scale (in mm).
ii. Second reading (from the moving scale): count the number of divisions
until you get to the division that lines up with the main metric scale and
take the reading.
4. In the figure above, the reading of the metric scale is 13 mm, the number of divisions
you counted until getting the division that lines up with the main metric scale is 21
divisions. This 21 is multiplied by 0.02 giving 0.42 as the answer (each division on the
hundredths scale is equivalent to 0.02mm).
5. The diameter = 13 + 0.42 = 13.42 mm.

Examples:

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 4

 b. THE MICROMETER

The micrometre is another precision measuring instrument. Figure 3 shows the parts of the
Micrometre. The object to be measured is placed between the anvil face and the spindle face.
The rachet is turned clockwise until the object is ‘trapped’ between these two surfaces and the
rachet makes a ‘clicking’ noise. This means that the rachet cannot be tightened anymore and
the measurement can be read. Each revolution of the rachet moves the spindle face 0.5mm
towards the anvil face.

Figure 3: The parts of the Micrometre.

Steps to measure the diameter of a sphere using a Micrometre:

1. Place an object between the anvil face and the spindle as in figure 3.
2. Turned the rachet clockwise until the object is ‘trapped’ between these two surfaces.
3. Read the scale on the sleeve (in mm). The example in figure 4 shows 12.5 mm divisions.
4. Finally, the thimble scale shows 16 full divisions (these are hundredths of a mm).
5. The final measurement is 12.5mm + 0.16mm = 12.66

Figure 4: Example of measuring a diameter using Micrometre.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 5

Examples:

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 6

 Measurements
Experiment report

1. Read the following:

a b

------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------

c d

------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------

e f

------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 7

 2. What is the aim of this experiment?
……………………………………………………………………………………..............……
……………………………………………………………………..……………………………
………………………………………………………
..............…………………………………………………………………………..

3. By using the Vernier caliper:

a. Calculate the length of the cube edge
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

b. Calculate the radius of the tube

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

4. By using the micrometer:

a. Calculate the diameter of the ball

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

b. Calculate the radius of the wire

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 8

 Experiment #2
Graphs

1. Aim of the experiment:

The aim of this experiment is to learn how to present data in a graph, and obtain the
information from that graph.

2. Theory:
Wherever possible, the results
CHAPTER 2 of anLaws
Basic experiment is presented in a graphical form. 31 A
graph gives a visual picture about the dependence of one variable on the other. In plotting the
results, the dependent variable should be plotted the yv axis and the independent variable as on
es of devices with nonlinear resistance are the lightbulb and the
the x axis.
Although all practical The data
resistors mayextracted from a graph
exhibit nonlinear is divided into two categories:
behavior
ertain conditions, we will- assume
Interpolated
in this data: the readings
book that all elements between experimental points.
designated as resistors -are Extrapolated
linear. data: the values outside the experimental range.
The
useful quantity in circuit relationisbetween
analysis the dependent
the reciprocal and independent variablesSlope
of resistance could= Rbe either linear or
wn as conductance and denoted by G:
nonlinear.
CHAPTER 2 -Basic Linear
Laws i relationship: the shape of the graph 31 will be a straight line.i See figure 5.
1
G-= Nonlinear
= relationship: the shape (2.7)of the graph will be a curve. See figure 5.
(a)
R v
yv
sistance are the lightbulb and the yv
hemay exhibit nonlinear
conductance behavior
is a measure of how well an element will conduct
me in this book that all elements
current. The unit of conductance is the mho (ohm spelled back-
rar.reciprocal ohm, with symbol , the inverted omega. Although
!
sisoften
is theuse
reciprocal of resistance Slope = R
rs the mhos, in this book we prefer to use the siemens
by unit
G: of conductance: Slope = R
SI
! xi xi
i 1S=1 = 1 A/V Linear relationship (2.8) Nonlinear
= (2.7)
(a) (b) relationship
v
v
Figure 2.7 The i-v characteristic of:
how well an element will conduct Figure 5: Linear and nonlinear relationships.
(a) a linear resistor,
ce is the mho (ohm spelled back- (b) a nonlinear resistor.
Conductance is the omega.
, the inverted ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is
Although
Since the linear relation is easier to extrapolated data, the nonlinear relationship
ook we prefermeasured in mhos ( ) or siemens (S).
!
to use the siemens
between two quantities could be plotted in=aRstraight line using some methods as following:
Slope
- For equation of the form y = a𝑥i" or y = b𝑥 # , if y is plotted against x, we will
he1 A/V
same resistance canabe
obtain
(2.8)
expressed
curve. in ohmsgraph
The resulting or
(b) siemens.
may be aFor straight line if y is plotted against 𝑥 " or 𝑥 # . For
, 10 ! is the same as 0.1 S. From Eq. (2.7), we may write
example, the period (time) of a simple pendulum is given by
Figure 2.7 The i-v characteristic of:
i = Gv T=2𝜋%𝑙/𝑔
(2.9)
(a) a linear resistor, .
(b) a nonlinear resistor.
to power
he If T by
conduct dissipated isitaplotted
electric current; is resistoragainst
can bel,expressed
a quadratic curveofisR.
in terms obtained. The equation can be converted to the
-
or
qs.siemens
(1.7) (S).
and (2.3),form 𝑇 " = 4𝜋 " . . . to give a straight line between l and 𝑇 " .

2 v2
p = vi
ressed in ohms or siemens. = i
- TheFor R =
relationship pV = k, where (2.10)
k is a constant, describe the relation between the
R
om Eq. (2.7), we pressure
may writep and the volume V of a given mass of gas at constant temperature. This relation is
wer dissipated by a resistor may also be expressed in terms of G
v plotted as a (2.9)
curve. But if the equation is written as
1
r can be expressed in terms of R. i2 𝑝 = 𝑘.
(2.11) 𝑉
2
p = vi = v G =
G
The graph of p, when plotted against 1/V, is a straight line.
v 2 two things from Eqs. (2.10) and (2.11):
uld note
R= (2.10)
TheRpower dissipated in a resistor
Dr. Alaa Mahmoudis a nonlinear function of 9
eitherbecurrent
also or voltage.
expressed in terms of G
Since R and G are positive quantities, the power dissipated in
Steps of Plotting a Graph:
I. Plotting the variables: to plot, for example, the relation S = kt, where k is a constant,
it is important to know the S is the dependent variable and t is the independent one.
- The independent variable: the quantity that is varied or changed. It is plotted on the
"x" or horizontal axis.
- The dependent variable: the quantity that changes by changing the independent
variable. it is plotted on the "y" or vertical axis.

II. Labeling the axes: The vertical and horizontal axes of the graph be labeled, which
mean the quantities and its unit should be written for each axis. In our previous example
the label on the y-axis would be S (m).

III. Choosing the scale: the scale for a variable is the number of centimeters of length of
the graph given to a unit of the variable being plotted. For example, one could consider
1 cm for each 10 seconds of time. Generally, the scales along the x and y axes may be
different.
Many things needed to be considered carefully before choosing the scales for a
graph:
- Range of the variable: suppose that the data for a variable S ranges from 5*×10-2
m to 125×10-2 m. The scale should be chosen to which allow plotting S values from
zero to values somewhat greater than 125×10-2 m. See figure 6.

Figure 6: Example for scaling and labeling axes.

- Do not suppress the zero and start the S scale from 5×10-2 m because later you
may need to use the graph to find values extrapolated (continued) to the origin.
- A space is needed for values greater than the largest value in the data set (in our
example, 125×10-2 m), because later some more data with larger values may be
acquired, or you might need to extrapolate the graph to larger values.
- The scale should be chosen to use the whole of the graph paper. See figure 7.
- Convenience in plotting: scales of 1, 2, 5 and 10 (and multiples of 10 of these) per
centimeter are easiest to use; a scale of 4 per centimeter is more difficult but can be
used. Scales of 3, 6, 7, 9, etc. per centimeter are very difficult to plot and read. Also,
sometimes you need to turn the paper so that the "x-axis" is either the long or short
dimension of the paper.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 10

 - Circling the data Points: plotting your point in a graph using a pencil. Use a dot
enclosed in a circle, or a cross.
- Drawing a Straight Line through the Data Points: when the data fall on a straight
line, a ruler may be used to draw a straight line through the points. The line is drawn
to match the data trend, and for data with some "scatter" balance some points above
and below the line. In general, the best straight line is the line that, on average, is
closest to all of the points. Finally, points which fall far outside the general data
trend should be double-checked for correct plotting, then, if found correctly plotted,
ignored in drawing the line.

Unsuitable scale for x- axes Unsuitable scale for y- axes

Unsuitable scale for both axes Suitable scale for both axes

Figure 7: Examples for plotting a graph.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 11

Graphical Analysis:
For data sets (x, y) obeying a linear relation y = mx + b, we can use a graph of the data
to determine the values of the slope m and the y-intercept b.
- Finding b: b is the value of y when x = 0 (called y-intercept).
- Finding m: m is the slope of the line. To find m choose any two arbitrary points on
∆8 8 ;8
the line, then find their values (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ), (𝑥" , 𝑦" ). The slope is m = ∆9 = 9: ;9< .
: <

Example: for the graph of figure 7, find the y-intercept and the slope.

b = 4×100 N/m2

(>;?)∗3BB EF
m= = 20
3B;B G:

Figure 7: Example for finding the y-intercept and the slope.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 12

 Graphs
Experiment report

1. In an experiment we studied the relation between the mass (m) and the weight (w)
for some objects. In each step we changed the mass and measured the weight
experimentally. The results of these measurements are shown in the following
table:

m (kg) 1 2 3 4 5 6
w (N) 10 20 30 40 50 60

Plot the above table and then use the graph to answer the following questions:

a. What is the weight of a 4.30 kg object?

..............…………………………………………………………………………..……………
………………………………………………………………………
..............…………………………………………………………………………..……………
………………………………………………………………………

b. What is the mass of a body that has a weight equal to 25 N?

..............…………………………………………………………………………..……………
………………………………………………………………………
..............…………………………………………………………………………..……………
………………………………………………………………………

c. Is the above table enough to find the accurate answers for questions a and b?
..............…………………………………………………………………………..……………
………………………………………………………………………
..............…………………………………………………………………………..

d. Calculate the slope.

..............…………………………………………………………………………..……………
………………………………………………………………………
..............…………………………………………………………………………..……………
………………………………………………………………………

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 13

 Experiment #3
Determine the Static and Kinetic Friction Coefficients

1. Aim of the experiment:

- To measure the static friction coefficient (µs) between a wooden block and a wooden
surface by measuring the surface inclination.
- To determine the kinetic friction coefficient (µk) between the wooden block and the table

2. Apparatus:
Incline surface, piece of wood, weights, spring scale for force measuring.

3. Theory:
Frictional force is unavoidable force, that opposes the motion of a body. Frictional force is
caused by the rough surfaces of all materials. There are two kinds of friction force:
- Static frictional force fs: friction force between a stationary object and the surface. Its
magnitude increases with increasing the applied force until it reaches a maximum.
If there is a static object, figure 8, the static frictional force on it is given by:

fs = µs FN (1)

since FN is the normal force, and µs is the static friction coefficient.

Figure 8: Diagram for calculating µs of a static frictional force.

To calculate µs, consider the forces those are affected on the object of figure 1.

fs = mg sinθ (2)

FN = mg cosθ (3)

fs = µs FN à mg sinθ = µs mg cosθ à µs = tanθ (4)

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 14

- Kinetic frictional force fk: which is the friction force between a moving object and the
surface. Its magnitude is constant. It is always true that fk < fs

If there is a moving object, figure 2, the kinetic frictional force on it is given by:

fk = µk FN (5)

where µk is the static friction coefficient. Friction coefficients are dimensionless.

Figure 9: Diagram for calculating µk of a kinetic frictional force.

4. Procedure:
Measuring the static friction coefficient:
1. Weight a wooden block then place it on a horizontal surface.
2. Raise the surface from one side slowly until a wooden block started to slide.
3. Measure the angle θ and repeat step 2 two times.
4. Evaluate the mean value of θ and use it to measure µs and fs. 

Measuring the kinetic friction coefficient:
1. Weight a wooden block then place it on a horizontal surface.
2. Pull the wooden block gradually using the spring scale (force measuring tool), until it starts
moving.
3. Write down the value of the force that caused the motion, in Newton.
4. Put a small weight (20gm), on the wooden block and repeat the step 3.
5. Continue putting weights on the wooden block and repeat step 3 every time.
6. Fill in the table below:

Mass of wooden block FN = mg Applied force F

(kg) (Newton) (Newton)

124.4 ´ 10-3
(124.4 + 20) ´ 10-3
(124.4 + 40) ´ 10-3
(124.4 + 60) ´ 10-3
(124.4 + 80) ´ 10-3

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 15

7. Plot the value of normal force FN on the x-axes, and the applied force F on the y-
axes.
8. The slope of the line (figure 10) gives the kinetic friction coefficient µk.

Figure 10: Determining the kinetic frictional force coefficient µk .

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 16

 Determine the Static and Kinetic Friction Coefficients
Experiment report

1. What is the unit of the friction coefficients?

……………………………………………………………………………………........………
……………………………………………………………………………........

2. Put the correct symbol in the figures (F, FN, mg, fk, fs):

3. Using the experiment tools, find the coefficient of static friction (µs) between the
surface and the block, and then evaluate friction force?
4. Using the experiment tools, fill in the table below, then plot the value of F and FN,
and evaluate the kinetic friction coefficient µk.

Number Mass of wood piece The normal force The applied µk = F/ mg

and its overload N = mg force
m (kg) (Newton) F
(Newton)
1

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 17

 Experiment # 4
Free-Fall acceleration
Determining the acceleration of gravity

1. The aim of experiment:

To determine the value of the acceleration of the gravity using a freely falling object.

2. Apparatus:
Ruler, metal ball, timer, holder

3. Theory:
If an object is dropped near the earth’s surface, it will accelerate downward at a certain
constant rate. That acceleration rate is called the free-fall acceleration. The magnitude of a free-
fall acceleration object is represented by g. This acceleration is independent of the object’s
characteristics such as mass, density, or shape; it is the same for all objects. The value of g
varies slightly with latitude and with elevation. At sea level in Earth’s midlatitudes, the value
is 9.8 m/s2
Because g is constant, the equations of motion for a constant acceleration are applicable.
Thus, we can write:
1
ΔS = vot − gt 2 (1)
2
where DS is the displacement in y direction, vo is the initial velocity, and t is the time.
The minus sign indicates that the direction of g is in the negative y direction (downward). For
a body dropped downward, vo = 0, and DS is negative, hence:

1 2 2ΔS
ΔS = gt ⇒ g = 2 (2)
2 t

Figure 11: Apparatus for determining the acceleration of gravity.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 18

 In this experiment, we will toss a ball downward, from different heights, and measure
the time it takes to reach the ground level (see figure 1). By drawing the relation between the
distance DS on the x axis and the t2 on the y axis, we obtain a straight line (see figure 2). The
slope of this line is used to calculate the gravity according to equation 2.

4. Procedure:
1. Initially we connect the circuit and plug it into the power supply, when the electric
current flows, the electronic magnet will hold the metal ball.
2. As the circuit-cut key is pressed, the circuit will be opened, no current flows, the ball
will be released.
3. Immediately before you cut the circuit, start the timer, as the ball hit the ground, stop
the timer.
4. First, adjust the height between the ball and the surface to 85cm, then go through steps
1, 2, 3 and record the time taken for the ball to hit the surface. Step (4) is repeated three
times, and t is recorded each time, then the average of t is calculated. This average is
the time the ball takes to hit the ground when the height is 85cm.
5. Reduce the heights to 75, 65, 55, 45, 35, 25, 15cm. For each height, release the ball 3
times and record the times, find the average of the time taken by the ball to hit the
surface at each height.
6. Plot the relation between t2 in the y-axis and DS in the x-axis. Figure 12.
7. Calculate the slope of the straight line, that is t2/Dy, and find the inverse of the slope.
The ideal value of the slope is 0.204.
8. Calculate the gravity according to equation 2
9. Find the percentage of the error in the calculated g using the relation:

STUVWXTY ZU[WT;\XWT ZU[WT

% percentage error = R \XWT ZU[WT
R × 100 (3)

5. Common Errors
The value for the acceleration of gravity g = 9.8 m/s2, however we could get lower or
higher value, due to several factors:
1. Time measurement is not accurate because it depends on how fast we start and stop the
timer.
2. The measurement of the height is not always accurate.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 19

 Figure 12: The relation between the distance and measured time for free-fall object

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 20

 Free fall acceleration
Experiment report

1. What is the aim of this experiment?

……………………………………………………………………………………........………
……………………………………………………………………………........

2. Choose the correct answer:

1. The free-fall body in the field of gravity moves in a ----- path
a. Circular
b. Projectile
c. Linear

2. The free-fall body will move under the effect of the ----force
a. Gravitational
b. Friction
c. Magnetic field

3. The acceleration of the free-fall body is:

a. 980m/s2
b. 9.8 cm/s2
c. 9.8 m/s2

4. The relation between Dy and t2 for the free-fall body is:

a. Straight line
b. Curved line

3. Fill up the table below. Plot a graph of distance DS in meters vs. time t2 in seconds, and
find the free fall acceleration and the error percentage.

∆ 𝑠 𝑡3 𝑡" 𝑡# t 𝒕𝟐

STUVWXTY ZU[WT;\XWT ZU[WT

% percentage error = R \XWT ZU[WT
R × 100 =

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 21

 Experiment # 5
Work and kinetic energy relation for a vehicle on
air track experiment

1. Aim of the experiment:

- To compare the total work done on an object with the change in the kinetic energy of the
object when the object moves on a frictionless surface.
- To calculate the loss percentage in the energy.

2. Apparatus:
Air track set, moving cart of mass M, Ruler, massless string, time tracker, several light masses
each of mass 1 gram.

3. Theory:
An air track is a scientific device used to study the motion in a low friction environment.
Its name comes from its structure: air is pumped through a hollow track with fine holes all
along the track that allows specially fitted air track glider (cart) to glide relatively friction-free.
As shown in figure 13, in air track set, there are two photogates that are connected to a time
tracker. When the glider passes through the first gate, the timer starts to count until the glider
passes through the second gate.

Figure 13: Air track experiment set-up.

In this experiment, a cart will be pulled along a level track by a mass hanging from a
string that passes over a pulley, as illustrated. The photogate is used to measure the time t taken
by the cart to travel s cm distance. By dividing s by t we calculate the velocity of the cart as it
is pulled by a hanging mass m. We use the velocity measurement to calculate the kinetic energy
K of the cart and of the hanging mass. The work done W is then compared to the change in
kinetic energy DK. The analysis explores the effects of dissipative forces.
If a force F is applied to an object of mass M, causing it to undergo a displacement s,
the work done is:
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑠 = 𝐹𝑠 cos 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑠 (1)
Hear, the force on the cart is the pull from the string (the tension force T of the string),
Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 22
thus: F = T. So, equation 1 becomes
W = Ts (2)

According to the Work-Energy Theorem, a change in kinetic energy is equal to the

work done. Thus:

1 2 1 2
ΔK = K − K o = mv − mvo = W = Ts (3)
2 2

The cart will accelerate, starting from rest, up to a final speed v after undergoing the
displacement s. Thus Ko = 0, assuming there is no friction, so
1
ΔK = K − 0 = mv 2 = W = Ts
2
⇒K =W
1 (4)
⇒ mv 2 = Ts
2

While the cart is moving horizontally on the track, the hanging mass is moving
vertically. Because the cart and the hanging mass are coupled by the same string, they have the
same speed and the same acceleration at any moment. They also undergo the same
displacement, and the tension that pulls both masses is the same.

Figure 14: The forces on masses M & m

Using the above figure, we analyze the forces on both masses M and m then apply
Newton’s 2nd law:
Fnet ,x = Ma ⇒ TT==Ma
-Ma
(5)
Fnet ,y = ma ⇒ T − mg = ma
By substituting a from the 1st equation above into the 2nd one (in Eq.5), and solving for T:
⎛ Mm ⎞
T =⎜ (6)
⎝ M + m ⎟⎠
g

Because M >> m, m in the denominator could be ignored:

T = mg (7)

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 23

Sub. Eq. 7 into Eq.2, the work done by gravity on the vertical motion of the hanging mass is:

W = mgs
(8)

The average velocity of the cart is:

vo + v 0 + v
v= =
2 2 (9)
Thus, the undergoes distance s in a time t is given by:
v
s = vt = t
2 (10)
Thus, the velocity is given by:
2s
v= (11)
t
and the kinetic energy of the cart is given by:
1
K= Mv 2 K =W
2
1
Mv 2 = mgs (12)
2

This is the work-kinetic energy theorem; in the absence of dissipative forces, the work
done on a system is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of that system.

4. Procedure:
1. Measure the mass of the cart with the extra mass M. Record the value in kilograms in
the data table as the ‘Mass of the Cart’.
2. Place the cart on the track, be sure that the cart is attached to a mass hunger with the
massless string that passes though the pulley. The small masses m are 1 gram each.
3. Using a ruler, measure the distance between the two photogate and recorded in meter
in the data table as the ‘Distance s’.
4. Pull the cart away from the Photogate so the hanging mass is just below the pulley.
5. As a start, place 3 gram mass on the hanger (3 peicies). Record the value in kilograms
in the data table as the ‘Hanging Mass m’.
6. Open the air pump by switching the 0-1 key to 1, and start the air track machine, by
switching the current key to the maximum. The cart will move through the track.
7. The timer will start once the cart passes by the first photogate, and stop once it passes
through the second photogate. Record the time taken by the cart to pass between the
two photogates in the data table as the “Time t” in second.
8. After recording the time, reduce the current to minimum, pull the cart away from the
photogates, reset the timer to zero, be sure that the string is passing though the pulley.
9. Put another mass on the mass hunger, now m = 4gram, and record the time taken by the
cart to undergo the distance s.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 24

6. Open the air pump by switching the 0-1 key to 1, and start the air track machine,
by witching the current key to the maximum. The cart will move through the
track.
7. The timer will start once the cart passes by the first photogate, and stop once it
10.passes
Increase the hanging
through mass photogate.
the second to (5, 6, 7, 8Record
gram),the
repeat
timethetaken
previous steps,
by the cartrecord t in the
to pass
data table.
between the two photogates in the data table as the “Time t” in second.
11. Complete
8. After recordingyourthe
calculations and the
time, reduce complete
currentthe
to data in the table.
minimum, pull the cart away from
12.the photogates,
Plot reset
the relation the timer
between to zero,
W on x-axisbeand
sure
K that the string
in y-axis, and is passingthe
calculate though theFigure
slope.
pulley.
15.
9. Put another mass on the mass hunger, now m = 4gram, and record the time taken
by the cart to undergo the distance s.
10. Increase the hanging mass to (5, 6, 7, 8 gram), repeat the previous steps, record t
in the data table.
11. Complete your calculations and complete the data in the table.
12. Plot the relation between W on x-axis and K in y-axis, and calculate the slope.

Figure 15: The plot of W and K for air-track experiment

Figure 3: The plot of W and K for air-track experiment

13. According to Eq.12, the work done must equal to the kinetic energy, however, the
13. According to Eq.12, the work done must equal to the kinetic energy, however, the
calculationsshows
calculations showssome
somedifferences.
differences. ThisThis means
means that
that there
there is
is some dissipation
dissipation in thein the
energy.We
energy. Wecan
cancalculate
calculatethe
thelost
lostininthe
theenergy
energypercentage
percentageby:
by:

energy lost = W ! K
K
W !K 1!
energy lost percentage = " 100 = W " 100 = (1! slope) " 100
W W
W

12

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 25

 Work and kinetic energy relation for a vehicle on air track experiment
Experiment report

1. On the figure below, indicate the forces that are exerted on both masses M & m

2. The work that is exerted on the vehicle that runs on a linear pathway is given
by………………., while the kinetic energy is given by………………….
3. The lost in energy percentage for the vehicle that runs on a linear pathway is
calculate by…………….
4. Fill up the table below using the apparatus for the vehicle on air tack, then plot
the relation between K.E and W
5. Calculate the lost in the energy percentage

Distance s =

Mass of the Cart M =

Hanging mass Work Time Velocity Kinetic energy

2
m W = mgs t v = 2s/t v ( ) K = ½ Mv2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Slope = ……………….
The lost in the energy percentage = …………………………………

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 26

 Experiment # 6
Force Table

1. Aim of the experiment:

- To calculate the resultant force of two forces graphically.
- To measure the resultant force of two force experimentally.

2. Apparatus:
Force Table, three pulleys and pulley clamps, three mass hangers, mass set, string, metric ruler,
protractor, and one sheet paper.

3. Theory:
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction such as velocity,
acceleration and force. A vector is expressed by an arrow pointing in the direction of the vector;
the length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the vector.
The sum or resultant of two vectors is a single vector that has the same effect of the
two vectors. The equilibrant is defined as the force equal and opposite to the resultant. Suppose
we have two vectors A and B with angle θ between them, as figure 16. there are two ways to
find there resultant practically:

I. Finding the resultant of two vectors graphically:

Two forces F1 and F2 (figure 16a) are added graphically by drawing them to scale
using a ruler and protractor. The second force (F2) is drawn with its tail to the head of the first
force (F1). The resultant (FR) is drawn from the tail of F1 to the head of F2 (figure 16b). Then
the magnitude of the resultant can be measured directly from the diagram and converted to the
proper force using the chosen scale. The angle can also be measured using the protractor.

(a) (b)

Figure 16: Finding the resultant of two vectors graphically.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 27

For example: if F1 =100g at 4500 and a F2 = 200g at 1300, to find FR graphically:

1. Choose the scale as 100g º 1cm

2. Draw an arrow that represents F1, the length of the arrow = 1cm, the angle is 450
from x-axes
3. At the head of F1 arrow, draw a line that is parallel to x-axes
4. From the head of F1, draw an arrow that represents F2, the length of the arrow = 2
cm, the angle is 1550 measured from the line that is parallel to x-axes
5. FR is the arrow that starts from the tail of F1 to the head of F2.
6. Measure the length of FR using ruler, and calculate the resultant.
7. To calculate the direction of FR, measure the angle that makes FR with x-axes

II. Finding the resultant of two vectors experimentally:

Two forces are applied on the force table by hanging masses over pulleys positioned at
certain angles. Then the angle and mass hung over a third pulley are adjusted until it balances
the other two forces. This third force is called the equilibrant (FE) since it is the force which
establishes equilibrium. The equilibrant is not the same as the resultant (FR). The resultant is
the addition of the two forces. While the equilibrant is equal in magnitude to the resultant, it is
in the opposite direction because it balances the resultant (see Figure 17). So the equilibrant is
the negative of the resultant.

Figure 17: Force table setup.

4. Procedure:
1. Set up the vectors to be added on the force table (Figure 2): F1 is 100g at 45°, and F2 is
150g at 130°. Note that the units of “force” are left in grams; this will simplify your
calculations and measurements. It is not necessary to convert to Newtons!
2. Attach two pulleys to represent the forces to be added, F1 and F2 with their direction as
indicated in Figure 2. The third pulley will represent the equilibrant, used to balance the
other two forces, so its position can be set approximately for now. Do not over tighten the
pulley clamps!

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 28

3. Place the ring with three strings over the center post, and pass each string over a pulley.
Attach a mass hanger to each string, and place additional mass on the two strings that will
represent the magnitudes of F1 and F2 (note that the hangers have a mass of 50 g).
4. Estimate the angle as follows: Grab the third string (representing the equilibrant), and
gently pull the string while moving it left and right with respect to the table. Do so until the
ring is centered on the post. Set the third pulley to the position you determined, and hang
the string representing the equilibrant over.
5. Now place additional mass on the third string representing the equilibrant. Recall that this
force will balance the resultant force of F1 and F2. Adjust qE and the amount of force as
necessary, making sure the strings pass straight over each pulley. Be sure to use the inner
circle for your angle measurements.
6. The system is balanced (in a state of static equilibrium) when the ring is centered on the
central post. Record your measurements of force and angle in the Measurement Table when
the system is balanced.
7. Calculate the ‘measured’ value of q R = qE – 180°

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 29

 Force Table
Experiment report

1. Graphical method:
F1 = F2 = FR =
q1= q2= q R=

2. Experimental method:
F1 = F2 = FE =
q1= q2= q E= FR =
q R=

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 30

 Experiment # 7
Boyel’s Law

1. The aim of experiment:

To study and apply Boyle’s law.

2. Apparatus:
Glass tube A closed at its upper end and connected from its lower end with another glass
tube B of bigger diameter. Tube B is opened at its upper end and could move. A rubber tube C
connect the tubes A and B. The mercury is poured in tube B and pass through C to reach A. A
measure meter is needed to read the mercury level. See figure 18.

x x

Figure 18: Boyle’s law experiment set up.

3. Theory:
Boyle’s law is an experimental gas law which describes the inversely relation between
the pressure of a confined gas and its volume at a constant temperature. Boyle found that when
more mercury was poured into a tube B of the figure 18, the pressure on the trapped air is
increased, and the volume of the air will be halved when the total pressure, including that from
the atmosphere, was doubled. To prove that, if the temperature remains constant, the volume
V occupied by a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure P to which it is
subjected:

PV = nRT à V ∝ 1/P
or V = C × 1/P à PV = C (1)
where C is a constant under given conditions.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 31

 A common use of this law is to predict how a change in a pressure will alter the volume
of the gas and vis versa. Such a problem can be regarded as a two states problem; the initial
state and the final one. If a sample of a gas is initially at a pressure Pi and a volume Vi is
subjected to a change that does not change the amount of gas or the temperature, the final
pressure Pf and a volume Vf are related to the initial values as: P1V1 = P2V2 (2)

4. Procedure:
1. Lower the tube B in such a way that the mercury level in both A and B becomes the
same.
2. The pressure of the confined air in this situation will be equal to the atmosphere pressure
P. Measure the length (l) of the confined air in tube A and write it down.
3. Raise the tube B to up and write down the mercury reading for both tube A and B
4. Calculate the difference (h) between the mercury levels in A and B, and the length l.
5. The pressure (P’) of the confined air is given by:
h + P = P’ (3)
and the volume (V) of the confined air is given by:
la=V (4)
since a = p r2 is the area of the inner surface of tube A. From Eqs. 2,3 and 4:
P’V =C’ à C’=(h+P)(l a)
3
à -
= 𝐷(ℎ + 𝑃) (D is another constant) (5)
6. Fill in the table below.

A x y ℎ = y − x 𝐿 = 𝐴 − 𝑥 3
(𝑐𝑚;3 )k
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm of hg) (cm)

3
7. Plot the relation between (h) on the x axis and ( - ) on the y axis then calculate the
pressure (P).

Figure 19: The relation between the increase (and decrease) in the pressure h
and the inverse of air length 1/l

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 32

 Boyel’s Law
Experiment report

I. Choose the correct answer:

1. Which law explains the inverse relationship between the fixed mass of an ideal gas
at fixed temperature, and pressure of the gas:
a. Charles' law
b. Dalton's law
c. Boyle's law

2. The relationship between the (V) and (P) of a gas is:

a. Inverse
b. Direct

3. In the Boyle's law:

a. 𝑃𝑉 ≠ 𝐶
b. 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶
c. 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶 "

II. Use the experiment tools to apply Boyel’s law and fill in the table below.

3
A x y ℎ = y − x 𝐿 = 𝐴 − 𝑥 (𝑐𝑚;3 )k
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm of hg) (cm)

III. Plot the relation between the increase (and decrease) in pressure h and the inverse
of air length 1/l, then calculate the pressure P.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 33

 Experiment # 8
Latent heat of fusion for ice

1. Aim of the experiment:

To calculate the latent heat of fusion for ice.

2. Apparatus:
Aluminum calorimeter, thermometer, ice, water, digital balance, 50ml graduated
cylinders, paper tissues.

3. Theory:
If two objects with different temperature are brought together, heat will flow from
the warmer object to the colder one until the equilibrium is reached. “heat” is the form of
transforming energy. The amount of energy is usually represented as Q, and its unit is
Joules, or calorie, 1 calorie = 4.186 Joules.

The process of melting an ice cube (from the solid state to the liquid one) requires
energy to free the molecules of the solid ice from their rigid structure. When the ice has
reached its melting point, additional heating will melt the solid without changing in the
temperature. The temperature will remain constant at the melting point until ALL of the
ice has melted. The amount of energy per unit mass that must be transferred as heat when
a sample completely undergoes a phase change (from solid to liquid and vice versa) is
called the latent heat of transformation L. See figure 20.

Figure 20: The relation between temperature and time in the phase change of water.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 34

 Thus, when a sample of mass m completely undergoes a phase change, the total
energy transferred is
Q = Lm (1)

When the phase changes from solid to liquid (then the sample must absorb
heat) or from liquid to solid (then the sample must release heat), the heat of
transformation is called the latent heat of fusion LF. For water at its normal freezing
or melting temperature, LF = 79.5 cal/g = 333 kJ/kg.

In this experiment, ice will be added to a calorimeter containing water. The

heat energy lost by the water and calorimeter does two things: melts the ice; and
warms the water formed by the melting ice from zero to the final temperature. In a
heat exchange process, heat lost by the warmer object is equal to the gained heat
by the colder one:

Heat lost = Heat gained

Heat lost by water + Heat lost by calorimeter =

Heat needed to melt ice + Heat needed to warm water which was once ice

The amount of gained (or lost) heat to a body of mass m is the product of its mass m with its
specific heat c and with the difference in temperature ∆T
Thus:
𝑚u 𝑐u v𝑇w – 𝑇y z + 𝑚{ 𝑐{ v𝑇w – 𝑇y z = 𝑚w{| 𝑐u v𝑇y − 𝑇w{| z + 𝑚w{| 𝐿y
Since:
𝑚u : mass of water
𝑚{ : mass of calorimeter
𝑚w{| : mass of ice
𝑐u : specific heat of water
𝑐{ : specific heat of calorimeter metal
𝑇w : initial temperature of water and calorimeter
𝑇y : final temperature of water and calorimeter after adding ice
𝑇w{| : ice temperature (zero)
𝐿y : latent heat of fusion for ice

So from the above equation,

G} {} v~• –~€ z•G‚ {‚ v~• –~€ z;G•‚ƒ {} v~€ ; ~•‚ƒ z
𝐿y = G•‚ƒ
(2)

Given the specific heat of water 𝑐u and aluminum 𝑐{ as:

𝑐u = 1.0 cal/gm.K
𝑐{ = 0.22 cal/gm.K

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 35

 4. Procedures:

1. Using the digital scale, determine the mass of the empty calorimeter 𝑚{ .
2. Fill the calorimeter cup to about 100 ml with warm water.
3. Using the thermometer, measure the water/calorimeter temperature 𝑇w .
4. Using the digital scale, determine the mass of the calorimeter and water 𝑚{•u .
5. Calculate the mass water, 𝑚u = 𝑚{•u - 𝑚{ .
6. Dry a few crashed pieces of ice with paper tissues to remove any adhering water, since
want to add ice and not the liquid water on the ice.
7. Add the pieces of ice to the calorimeter, mix them, watch the lowering in the temperature
carefully and keep adding ice until the temperature of the mixture lower to 5-7oC
below the room temperature (𝑇w ) The temperaturei of the mixture is.
8. When the ice has completely melted, record the equilibrium temperature 𝑇y .
9. Measure the mass of the calorimeter and the cold water, which now includes water
from the melted ice 𝑚{•u•w{| .
10. Calculate the mass of the ice, 𝑚w{| = 𝑚{•u•w{| - 𝑚{•u .
11. Calculate the latent heat of fusion of ice 𝐿y from equation 2
12. Find the percentage of the error in the calculated 𝐿y using the relation:

G|„…†‡|ˆ ‰„-†|;Š‡†| ‰„-†|

% percentage error = R Š‡†| ‰„-†|
R × 100 Eq.3

5. Common Errors
1. The value for the Latent Heat of Fusion of ice is LF = 79.5 cal/g, however we could get
lower or higher value, due to several factors:
2. STIRRING: It is important to stir the water and ice mixture to ensure that the temperature
through out the water is uniform. Not stirring the ice and water mixture causes the final
temperature to be too warm and gives an experimental value of the Latent Heat of
Fusion that is too low.
3. THERMOMETER: The thermometer is not a digital one. This affects the reading
accuracy.
4. DRYING THE ICE: If the ice is not dried, there will be water at 0oC on the ice. The
added water will contribute to the final mass of liquid but it will not gain the amount of
heat that an equivalent amount of ice would gain. The initial temperature of the water
in the calorimeter will not have to drop as far. Hence the final temperature will be too
high. The result will be an experimental value of the Latent Heat of Fusion that is too
low.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 36

 Latent heat of fusion for ice
Experiment report

1. Choose the correct answer:

I. The energy required to change a gram of a substance from solid sate to liquid state
without changing its temperature is called:
a. Heat of fusion
b. Heat of melting

II. The ice in the experiment of heat of fusion is considered as:

a. The heat gainer
b. The heat looser

III. In the experiment of heat fusion Tf of ice, is:

a. Lager than Ti
b. Lesser than Ti

3. Use the experiment tool to fill in the table below, and then calculate Lf.

Mass of calorimeter (g) mc =

Mass of calorimeter and water (g) mc+w =

Mass of water (g) mw = mc+w - mc =

Mass of ice, calorimeter and water (g) mc+w+ice =

Mass of ice (g) mice = mc+w+ice - mc+w =

Initial temperature of water and calorimeter (oC) Ti =

Final temperature of water and calorimeter after adding ice (oC) Tf =

Ice temperature (oC) Tice = zero

[G} {} •G‚ {‚ ]v~• ;~€ z;G•‚ƒ {} v~€ ;Bz

𝐿y = G•‚ƒ
=

STUVWXTY ZU[WT;\XWT ZU[WT

% percentage error = R \XWT ZU[WT
R × 100 =

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 37

 Experiment # 9
Velocity of Sound

1. The aim of experiment:

-To illustrate resonance in an open-ended pipe at the two ends.
-To determine the velocity of sound

2. Theory:
The velocity (V) of sound travels in any medium could be determined if the frequency
(f) and the wavelength (λ) are known. The relationship between these quantities is
V=f λ (1)

In this experiment, the velocity of sound in air is to be found by using tuning forks of
known frequency. The wavelength of the sound will be determined by making use of the
resonance of an air column.
The shortest length of tube that make resonance in the open-ended pipe will follow the
following equation:
L1 +2 x = λ /2
à λ= 2 ( L1 +2x ) (2)

where L1 is the length of the air tube for the first resonance (see figure 21), f is the frequency
of the tuning fork, x is the end correction, x = 0.6 R, and R: the radius of the tube.
From Eqs. 1 and 2, V = f = 2 ( L1 +2x ) (3)

Figure 21: The length L of open-ended pipes.

3. Apparatus:
5 different tuning forks, plastic tube with clamp stand, 2 pipes open at two ends, meter stick
attached to the tube.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 38

 4. Experimental Procedure:

1. Measure the radius R of the pipe.

2. Strike one of the tuning forks with the rubber mallet supplied and hold it above the air
tube. Do not touch the tube with the tuning fork.
3. Lower the length the air tube slowly, listening for amplification of the tone. When a
resonance is found, a pronounced reinforcement of the sound will be heard. Move the
air tube up and down several times to locate the point of maximum sound intensity and
record the reading of L1.
4. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the other forks.
5. Write down the data in the table below, then calculate V using Eq.3

The radius of the tube R =

f L1 L1+2x λ = 2 ( L1 +2 x ) V=f λ
(Hz) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm/S)

6. The sound velocity will be the average of the obtained velocity

S•
V= ?
(Cm/S) (4)

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 39

 Velocity of Sound
Experiment report

I. Chose the correct answer:

1. The shortest length of tube that make resonance in the open–ended pipe will follow
the following which equation?
a. L1 + x = λ /4
b. L1 +2 x = λ /2
c. L1 + x = λ /2
2. The Velocity of Sound is calculated using:
a. V = 𝑓 " λ
b. V = f λ
c. V = f λ"
3. The end correction at open-ended pipes:
a. x
b. 2x
c. x +2

II. Using the experiment tools fill in the table below then calculate the velocity of
sound.
The radius of the tube R =
f L1 L1+2x λ = 2 ( L1 +2 x ) V=f λ
(Hz) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm/S)

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 40

 Experiment # 10
Hook’s Law

1. The aim of experiment:

The main objective of this experiment is to apply Hooke’s Law of a spring and calculate
the spring constant numerically and experimentally.

2. Theory of experiment:
When a spring is stretched by an applied force, a restoring force is produced. Due to
the restoring force, simple harmonic motion is caused in a straight line in which the acceleration
and the restoring force (𝐹) are directly proportional to the displacement of the vibrating load
from the equilibrium position (𝑥). The relation between the force and displacement is called
Hook’s law:
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 (1)
The force is opposite in direction to the displacement. The negative sign in Eq. 1
indicates that the direction of F is always opposite the direction of the displacement x. This
implies that the spring force is a restoring force. The constant 𝑘 is known as the force constant
or the spring constant. The spring constant is an indication of the spring's stiffness. A large
value for k indicates that the spring is stiff, while its low value means the spring is soft.
If the spring is stretched or compressed a small distance from its equilibrium position,
the spring will exert a force on the mass given by Hooke's Law, see figure 22.

Figure 22: Forces act on a Mass hanging on a spring.

Thus, the spring force always acts to restore, or return, the body to the equilibrium
position regardless of the direction of the displacement. If a mass (m) is suspended from a
spring and the system is allowed to reach equilibrium, as in figure 1, the force on m could be
given from the Newton's Second Law
F=mg (2)
where g is the gravitational acceleration. When the mass undergoes an arbitrary displacement
from some initial position, xi, to final position, xf, Eq.1 can be written as:
F = - k ∆x (3)
where ∆x is the displacement. From Eqs. 2 and 3, the force constant k is:
k = (m/∆x) g
If we draw the linear relation between ∆x and m, the spring constant k is evaluated as:
k = g/(slope) (4)

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 41

 EXPERIMENT 4
HOOKE’S LAW

Figure 4.1 Experimental set up

Figure 23: Hook’s Law experiment set up.

2

3. Apparatus:
A common helical spring, support stand, hook, mass pan, various slotted masses, and metric
ruler. Figure 23.

4. Experimental Procedure:
1. Determine the initial value of distant x0 .
2. Hung the helical spring on the support stand with a hook, and read the displacement.
3. Add the masses to the hook gradually. Begin from 20g and increase it continuously.
4. Take the read of the change of displacement ∆x.
5. Fill in the result in the table below.

Initial value of distant x0 = cm

m F = mg = m × 980 xf Dx = xf - x0 k = F/Dx
(g) (dyne) (cm) (cm)

Average k = ∑’‘

6. Plot ∆x on the x axis versus m on the y axis, a linear relationship will be resulted as seen in
figure 23.
7. Find the slope of the resulting line, figure 24, the slope value gives the constant of spring.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 42

 Figure 24: The relation between the displacement and the weight.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 43

 Hook’s Law
Experiment report

I. What is the aim of this experiment?

……………………………………………………………………………………..........
....…………………………………………………………………………..

II. Chose the correct answer:

1. The relation between force and displacement:
a. Curve
b. Direct
c. Inverse

2. The force constant k equal:

a. k = g/(slope)
b. k = 1/g(slope)
c. k = (slope)

III. Use the experiment tools to fine the displacement for the mass, then fill in the table.

Initial value of distant x0 = cm

m F = mg = m × 980 xf Dx = xf - x0 k = F/Dx
(g) (dyne) (cm) (cm)

Average k = ∑’‘

IV. Plot the relation between the displacement and the weight and find the spring
constant.

Dr. Alaa Mahmoud 44