LESSON 3: THE SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropology

A field of the social sciences that focuses on the study of man. It is also a systematic study of
humanity, with understanding our evolutionary origins as a goal.
Pertains to the totality of what it means to be human
• It is divided into 4 subfields—Biological (Physical) Anthropology, Cultural (Ethnology)
Anthropology, Archaeology, Linguistic Anthropology
Defined as the comparative study of humans, their society and their cultural worlds.
Simultaneously explores human diversity and what it is that human beings have in common

Anthropology

Biological Cultural Linguistic Archaeology

Anthropology Anthropology Anthropology

Genetics and Culture as Descriptive Prehistoric

Evolution species trait Linguistics Archaeology

Fossil record Variation in Historic

Language
cultural systems Archaeology
Biodiversity Evolution
Processes of Cultural
Primatology Ethnosemantics
cultural change Resource

Biological Anthropology

Also known as Physical Anthropology

• Study on how humans adapts to earth’s different environments.
A scientific discipline concerned with the biological and behavioral aspects of the human being.
Divided into 8 branches:
a. Paleoanthropology – study of fossil evidence that came from extinct hominin and other
primates to determine morphological and behavioral changes in the human lineage.
b. Human biology – concerns international population-level perspective on health,
evolution, anatomy, physiology, molecular biology, neuroscience and genetics.
 c. Primatology – study of non-human primate behavior, morphology, and genetics. In here,
primatologist use phylogenetic methods to identify which traits humans share with other
primates.
d. Human behavioral ecology – study of behavioral adaptations from the evolutionary and
ecologic perspectives. Focuses on human adaptive responses; physiological,
developmental, genetic, to environmental stresses.
e. Bioarchaeology – study of past human cultures through examination of human remains.
f. Paleopathology – study of disease in antiquity. Focuses not only on pathogenic
conditions but also nutritional disorders.
g. Evolutionary Psychology – seeks to identify which human psychological traits are
evolved adaptations; natural selection or sexual selection in human evolution.
h. Evolutionary Biology – study of the evolutionary processes that include the diversity of
life on Earth.

Cultural Anthropology

Also known as sociocultural anthropology, social anthropology, or ethnology

The study of human cultures, their beliefs, practices, values, ideas, technologies, economies and
other domains of social and cognitive organization

Theory of Cultural Determinism—human nature is determined by the ideas, meanings, beliefs and values
learned as members of a society.

➢ Positive—suggests that human beings can be shaped/formed to have the kind of life they prefer.
➢ Negative—human beings don’t have control on what they learn.

Ways on How Culture may Manifest Itself in People;

➢ Symbols—words, gestures, pictures or objects that have a recognized/accepted meaning in a

particular culture.
➢ Heroes—persons from the past or present who have characteristics that are important in a culture.
➢ Rituals—activities (religious or social) participated in by a group of people for the fulfillment of
desired objectives.
➢ Values—the core of every culture. It is unconscious and can neither be discussed nor be directly
observed. Involves human tendencies/preferences towards good or bad, right or wrong.

Linguistic Anthropology

• Using language as a means to discover a group’s manner of social interaction and his worldview.
Study on how language and modes of communication change over time
Archaeology

Focuses on the past and how it may have contributed to the present ways of how people conduct
their daily lives.

*Homo sapiens did not extinct because of their ability to think, use tools and learn from experience.
They have adapted and gained dominance over all earth’s creatures.

*Survival is the most important aspect of human nature

Lesson 4: The Self from the Perspective of Psychology

William James

• January 11, 1842 – August 27, 1910

American philosopher and psychologist at Harvard University and known for being one of the
great pragmatist
Leading thinker of the late nineteenth century
• “Father of American Psychology”
Founder of Functionalism

*He is known for the Theory of Self which was mentioned on his book that he published on 1890—
“Principles of Psychology”.

*Functionalism—human use perception to function in our environment, sought casual relationships

between internal states and external behaviors

The “Me and I”

Thoughts have five characteristics

- All human thoughts are owned by some personal self.

- All thoughts are always changing or are never static
- There is a continuity of thoughts as it shifts from one object to another
- Thoughts deal with objects that are different from and independent of consciousness itself
- Consciousness can focus on particular objects and not others

The composition of what makes the Self

- “I” and “Me”. The “Me” corresponds to the self as an object of experience (self as object),
while the latter “I” reflects the self as a subject of experience (self as subject).

The “Me” is a component of the self that is broken down into the Material, Social and Spiritual. Each of
these is broken down into Self-Seeking and Self-Estimation.

The material aspect encompasses every material thing that a person values and desires which can help
someone build up their self-image. The body is the core of the material self and everything that is
attached/associated to it identifies a person. The more attached and identified a person is to his material
things, the more affected he will be if any of them changes (eg. death)

The social component is important as it highlights a person’s position in society, though this aspect is one
that is often underestimated. James believed that there are different social selves in a person due to the
different situations they find themselves in, resulting in a change of behaviour. The person chooses the self
that would smoothly to the social situation to fit in.
James refers to the “I” as the self is called Pure Ego.

➢ It is what provides the thread of continuity between our past, present and future selves.
➢ The pure ego’s perception of consistent individual identity arises from a continual stream of
consciousness.
➢ James believed that the pure ego was similar to what we think of as the soul, or the mind. The pure
ego is not a substance and therefore could not be examined by science.

Material. Social. Spiritual.

Self-Seeking. Bodily Appetites and Desire to please, be Intellectual, Moral and Reli
Instincts noticed, -
Love of Adornment, admired, etc. gious Aspiration,
Foppery, Sociability, Emulation, Conscientiousness
Acquisitiveness, Envy,
Constructiveness Love, Pursuit of Honor,
Love of Home, etc. Ambition, etc.

Self- Personal Vanity, Modesty, Social and Family Pride, Sense of Moral or Mental
Estimation etc. Vainglory, Snobbery, Superiority, Purity, etc.
Pride of Wealth, Fear of Humility, Shame, etc. Sense of Inferiority or of
Poverty Guilt

Ø Other Selves in Psychology

The field of psychology is rich in concepts and ideas about human behaviour. The concept that is the self
has been studied quite intensively. As such, psychologists and other scientists in the social sciences
presented their versions and ideas about the self.

Ø Global and Differentiated Self Models

The global self represents the overall value that a person places upon himself, which affects his views and
feelings towards himself. The groups of people that he interacts with daily strongly influence him as they
are the ones he turns to for advice, support and approval in the journey of finding himself. His global self
is the product of all the experiences he had in society which is responsible for his present personality.

Murray Bowen (1913-1990), an American psychiatrist and professor, is among those who developed the
Family Therapy and Systemic Therapy. He came up with the concept of a differentiated self after observing
his family, and he observed that there are 2 forces affecting a person: i) togetherness ii) individuality.
Though still affected by the presence of others, a differentiated self is able to separate feelings and thoughts
as he recognizes his uniqueness from the rest of the group.
Ø The real and ideal self-concepts

Carl rogers (1902-1987) was an american psychologist who proposed the personality theory
known as person centered theory.
He stated that there would be congruence (sameness, equality) between the real self and ideal self
in order for the person to be happy and satisfied with his/her life.
There are two types of self-concept the real self-concept and the ideal self-concept.
The real self and the ideal self are terms used to describe personality domains.
The real self is who we actually are. It is how we think, how we feel, look, and act. The real self
can be seen by others, but because we have no way of truly knowing how others view us, the real
self is our self-image.
The ideal self, on the other hand, is how we want to be. It is an idealized image that we have
developed over time, based on what we have learned and experienced.
The Self-discrepancy Theory of higgins (1987) stated that the people use internalized standards to
which they compare themselves.
Self-discrepancy may cause emotional discomfort to the individual and can be manifested as guilt
or worst as indifference.
Ø Multiple and unified selves

The multiple Selves theory suggest that there exists in the individual different aspects of the self.
It makes sense that the self is a whole made up of parts.
A unified being is essentially connected to consciousness, awareness and agency. To be considered
a well- adjusted person, success and failures should be accepted and understood. This is a person
who is able to deal with and accept the complexities and the perceived unfairness that exist in life.
They manifest content with the present state of affairs and continue to adjust, adapt, evolve and
survive as an individual with an integrated, unified multiple selves

Ø True and false selves

The true self in individuals is one which the self-seen as creative, spontaneously experiencing
each day of their lives, appreciating being alive, real, integrated and connected to the whole
existence.
The true self is the individual who recognizes his strengths and accepts his limitations, enjoys
winning and success and learns from mistakes and failures. Never afraid to try all over again.
A false self may be manifested as a form of defense. It lacks spontaneity, is dead and empty. It is
a mask that hides the true person for the fear of the pain of rejection and failure.
False selves usually surface when the person is forced to comply with existing social norms and
standards.

According to Winnicott, true and false selves are present in all individuals. For the two exist in a healthy
individual, they should be functional for the advantage of both the person himself and his society. A person
that struggles to fit but still experiences the feeling of being forced to comply rather than adapting graceful
to the situation is a person whose self is maladjusted and unhealthy.
Ø The self as proactive and agentic

Albert Bandura- (1925 - present) is the proponent of the personality theory known as The Social Cognitive
Theory. In his theory, the person is seen as proactive and agentic which means that he has the capacity to
exercise control over is mind. According to Bandura the human agency is the essence of being a human.

Human nature as described by Bandura is plastic and flexible.

The social cognitive theory suggested that human beings are proactive, self-regulating, self-
reflective and self organizing.

Ø Features of Human Agency

Agency refers to the human capability to influence one's functioning and the course of events by one's
actions.
Bandura (2001, 2004) discusses four core features of human agency: intentionality, forethought, self-
reactiveness, and self-reflectiveness.
Intentionality refers to acts a person performs intentionally. An intention includes planning, but
it also involves actions.
People also possess forethought to set goals, to anticipate likely outcomes of their actions, and to
select behaviors that will produce desired outcomes and avoid undesirable ones.
People do more than plan and contemplate future behaviors.
People have self-reflectiveness.

Ø Self-Regulation
Self-control or Self-Regulation is the ability to subdue one's impulses, emotions, and behaviors to
achieve long-term goals. Self-control is primarily rooted in the pre-frontal cortex, which is significantly
larger in humans than in other mammals with similar brains.
Research consistently shows that self-regulation skill is necessary for reliable emotional well-being.
Behaviorally, self-regulation is the ability to act in your long-term best interest, consistent with your
deepest values.
How do problems with self-regulation develop? It could start early; as an infant being neglected. A
child who does not feel safe and secure, or who is unsure whether his or her needs will be met, may have
trouble soothing and self-regulating.
Later, a child, teen, or adult may struggle with self-regulation, either because this ability was not
developed during childhood, or because of a lack of strategies for managing difficult feelings. When left
unchecked, over time this could lead to more serious issues such as mental health disorders and risky
behaviors such as substance abuse.
Ø Mindfulness
Mindfulness involves the cultivation of moment-to-moment awareness through practical exercises such
as deep breathing. This helps with self-regulation by allowing you to delay gratification and manage
emotions.
Ø Cognitive Reappraisal
Cognitive reappraisal is another strategy that can be used to improve self-regulation abilities. This
strategy involves changing your thought patterns.
Specifically, cognitive reappraisal means thinking about a situation in an adaptive way, rather than one
that is likely to increase negative emotions. For example, imagine a friend did not return your calls or
texts for several days. Rather than thinking that this reflected something about yourself, such as "my
friend hates me," you might instead think, "my friend must be really busy."
Ø Qualities of Self-Regulators
The benefits of self-regulation are numerous. In general, people who are adept at self-regulating tend to
see the good in others, view challenges as opportunities, maintain open communication, are clear about
their intentions, act in accordance with their values, put forth their best effort, keep going through difficult
times, remain flexible and adapt to situations, take control of situations when necessary, and can calm
themselves when upset and cheer themselves when feeling down.
Ø Collective Self
❖ The collective self consists of those aspects of the self that are based on memberships in social
groups or categories.
❖ It refers to a perception of self as an interchangeable exemplar of some social category rather than a
perception of self as a unique person.
❖ The collective self is based on impersonal bonds to others that are derived from the shared
identification with a social group.
❖ The collective self-concept is composed of attributes that one shares with members of the group to
which one belongs (the ingroup).

Ø The Self in Western Thought

Western philosophy of the self had originated from among the ancient Greeks to most of the present day
countries in the western hemisphere . In western thought the "problem of self’ might be traced back to
Descartes (identity as a thinking substance) and Locke (identity as bound up with memory).
Cogito ergo sum. (I think; therefore I am.) – Rene Descartes
In Cartesian philosophy, the self is formed by the individual's duty to use his/her judgment to determine
who and what he/she is. In judging, the individual experiences herself.
No man's knowledge here can go beyond his experience. – John Locke
John Locke is among the most influential political philosophers of the modern period. In the Two
Treatises of Government, he defended the claim that men are by nature free and equal against claims that
God had made all people naturally subject to a monarch. He argued that people have rights, such as the
right to life, liberty, and property, that have a foundation independent of the laws of any particular
society.

Ø The Self in Confucian Thought

In Confucian thought, the ultimate purpose of life is self-realization. Self-cultivation is essential to
fulfilling this purpose and thus occupies a central position in the Confucian conception of selfhood.
In Confucianism the quest for the human self, the search for what it is to be human in terms of substance
or no-substance, in terms of spirit or body, does not exist.
A. Jen (wren): human heartedness; goodness; benevolence, man-to-man-ness; what makes man
distinctively human (that which gives human beings their humanity).
B. Li (lee): principle of gain, benefit, order, propriety; concrete guide to human action.
C. Yi (yee); righteousness; the moral disposition to do good (also a necessary condition for jen or for the
superior man).
D. Hsiao (showe): filial piety; reverence
E. Chih (chee): moral wisdom; the source of this virtue is knowledge of right and wrong. Chih is added
to Confucianism by Mencius (muhn shoos) who believed that people are basically born good.
G. Te (day): power by which men are ruled; the power of moral example (the whole art of government
consists in the art of being honest).
In this, Jen, Yi, Li and Chih, are the perfection of the virtues that exist in the human heart from the
beginning as potentials. A self as such would develop out of these, and develop through practice of the
corresponding virtues. Personality, in the Confucian perception, is an achieved state of moral excellence
rather than a given human condition. However, such achieved personality, or self, is not to be understood
as primarily an individual entity, as would be the tendency in western thinking. As with the Maori, the
Confucian concept of self also is deeply embedded within the family and society, and it is only in that
context that the self comes to be what it is.
Ø Self as a Potential for Selfishness
The human nature already seems predisposed toward the becoming of Jen, in that we begin with a heart
that is already aimed at it by its nature. The same holds true for the other three virtues Yi, Li, and Chih.
The human adult self, in Confucianism, has above been defined as an ‘achieved state of moral excellence
rather than a given human condition’, and there are several implications to such an understanding. First,
strictly speaking, one may speak of a human being in Confucianism only as such with regard to the
human potential to become an human being. In other words, at birth, being human is no different from
being an animal. The true human condition is achieved in life, if indeed it is being achieved, through the
practice of the virtues. While these virtues are almost impossible to be achieved in anyone’s lifetime,
being human refers to making the effort of achieving them. To be on the way, to follow the Tao toward
perfection, is the as close to perfection one is likely to come. In this, the concept of ‘self’ in Confucianism
is closely linked with all those areas that the virtues stand for. To become a person of Jen, one aims to
become a person of love.