Introduction

Since the introduction of Portland cements for the

construction of oil and gas wells in 1920s, cementing has
become one of the essential phases in the drilling
operations and in the maintenance of production wells.
The cementing process involves mixing powder cement
with water and some additives to prepare cement slurry
and placing the slurry into the annular space between the
casing and the wellbore. Th e objective is to fill the void
space between the wellbore and the casing string, by
doing so, it acts as a sealant between the wellbore and the
casing. It also supports and protects the casing string
which has been run in the wellbore prior to cementing. It
will help if properly implemented. Finally cementing allows
completing the drilling process safely and economically.
The cementing job is performed by deploying the cement
slurry into the well using pumps, displacing the drilling
fluids still existing within the well, and replacing them with
cement. The cement slurry flows to the bottom of the
wellbore inside the casing, and then flows up in the space
between the casing and the wellbore to the surface or the
target depth, as shown in Figure 9.1. Th e wells are drilled
in stages since it is extremely diffi cult and almost
impossible to drill a well from surface to the oil or gas pay
zone in one run without encountering problems that could
lead to complete failure of the drilling operation, or to
catastrophic consequences and consequently abandoning
the well. There are four main cementing stages in the
drilling operations which include cementing the conductor,
the surface, the intermediate and the production casings.
The cementing process is performed after the casing
strings have been run in the wellbore after a certain depth
has been reached where each drilling stage serves an
important purpose toward the safe conclusion of this risk
prone process. Cementing is the first part of the
completion process for a production well. During the
production phase, cementing is used most commonly to
permanently shut off water influx into the well. At the end
of the well life when production is not economical,
cementing prepares the well for abandonment. Oil well
cement (OWC) is a powdery substance made of limestone
and clay. Most cement used in the oil industry is a type of
Portland cement. In the construction industry, cements are
mixed with sand, gravel, and water to form concrete. In the
oil industry, cements are mixed with water and special
additives to form slurry, which is then pumped into the
well. The slurry solidifies when it reaches the targeted
place. The drilling engineer designs the cementing job. He
determines the number of casing strings and their setting
depths and calculates the volume of the void space that
needs to be filled with the slurry, the quantities of cement
powder, water and additives, and the placement technique
for the application desired. The appropriate cement slurry
design for well cementing is a function of many
parameters, including the well bore geometry, casing
equipment, formation integrity, and drilling mud
properties. The depth of the well, the nature of geology,
the geothermal profile, the pressure gradient, abnormal
pressure formations and corrosive fluid also affect well
design.
Manufacture and composition of cements
Cement is made up from calcareous and argillaceous rocks
such as limestone, clay and shale and any other material
containing high percentage of calcium carbonate. The dry
material is finely ground and mixed thoroughly in correct
proportions. The chemical composition is determined and
adjusted if necessary. This mix is called the kiln feed.The
kiln feed is then heated to temperatures of around 2600-
2800 F. The resulting material is called the clinker. The
clinker is then cooled, ground and mixed with a controlled
amount of gypsum and other products to form a new
product called portland cement. gypsum is added to
control the setting and hardening properties of the cement
slurry and to prevent the flash setting cement.
General properties of oil well cements.
The cement properties determine the success or failure of
the cementing job from the blending of the cement slurry
components at the surface, to the pumping through the
surface lines, and inside the casing and in the annulus until
the hydration and setting phase in the desired place. The
most important properties during the slurry pumping are
density, thickening rate, filtration rate, and rheology. After
the cement hardens, the most important properties are
permeability, compressive strength, soundness and
fineness.
Density
Th e density of neat cement slurry, i.e., mixture of water
and cement, varies from 1773 kg/m3 (110lbm/ft 3) to 1965
kg/m3 (123lbm/ft 3) depending on the API Class of the
cement and the water/cement ratio (w/c). Increased or
decreased variation of the density is dependent on the
bottom-hole environment. If cement density is high, the
pressure generated by the cement column will be high and
might be higher than the fracture pressure of weak
formations and if so it could result in fracturing the
formations or cause lost circulation. On the other hand if
the cement density is low, the pressure in the over
pressured formations could be higher than the cement
column pressure and lead to influx from the formation to
the latter into blowout. Prior knowledge of the wellbore
environment is imperative to alleviate such challenges.
Based on the information available the density of the
slurry can be adjusted to ensure fl awless cement job. This
can be accomplished by adding either weight reducing
material, or weight increasing material.The slurry density is
calculated by adding the masses of all components and
divided by the total of absolute volumes of all.
Fluid Loss
Fluid loss is a complex process related to drilling fluids as
well as cement slurries during drilling operations. It occurs
when the water in the cement slurry leaves it and invades
the permeable formation due to the pressure differential
between them. Analogous to drilling fluids, fluid loss
creates similar problems for cement slurries during the
cementing operations. When large volumes of liquid are
lost it will degrade the cement properties leading to a poor
cement sheath. As a result of cement filtrate influx into the
formation, the formation face pores are sealed and
impedes the flow of liquid. Properly designed cement
should have the ability to seal the formation face and to
minimize the fluid loss.Many kinds of fl uid loss control
additives are available for example bentonite, latex,
Attapulgite, and many other cellulose derivatives such as
CMHEC.
Thickening Time
Thickening time is the time duration in which cement
slurry remains pumpable. The upper limit of pumpability is
reached when the cement consistency reaches 100 Bc. The
thickening time of cement slurry is a function of several
parameters which includes downhole pressure and
temperature. When the cement reaches its desired
location it hardens and develops strong sheath to seal off
any fluid movement behind the casing and to support it.
Prior to presuming drilling, time must be spent waiting for
cement to harden. The waiting time can be controlled by
adding materials to the cement slurry to reduce it based
on the temperature, pressure and depth.
Viscosity and Yield Point
Viscosity stands for the liquid resistance to shear forces
which occurs during cement slurry flow, and the yield point
is the liquid initial resistance to flow. Both properties are
important during pumping and placement of the cement.
Pumping high viscosity cement through the casing and the
annulus at high rate generates high frictional loss that can
result in formation fractures. Rheological flow properties
of cement slurry include plastic viscosity (μp), yield point
(τy), frictional properties, gel strength, etc.
compressive strength
Th e compressive strength of cement is the force that must
be exerted to crush a mass of cement divided by the cross
sectional area of the mass. Th e compressive strength
properties determine the integrity of cement and its ability
to bear long term imposed stresses (Bourgoyne et al.,
1986). Th e tensile strength is a lot weaker than the
compressive strength, about 12 times lower. Cement
sheath is subjected to deterioration under extreme
conditions. Th e extreme temperature cycling of the well
bore results in severe mechanical damage and ultimate
failure of the cement sheath, potentially leading to micro-
annulus. Th e rate of deterioration is generally intensifi ed
at high temperature and pressure such as in the case of oil
and gas deep wells. Control of cement reactivity and
mechanical properties during the life cycle of the well is
crucial. Th e oil well cement should meet a wide range of
short-term criteria such as free water, thickening time, fi
ltrate loss, development of strength, shrinkage, etc., in
addition to various long-term requirements including
resistance to chemical attack, thermal stability and
mechanical integrity of the cement sheath. Th e
mechanical properties of hardened OWC slurry are aff
ected by a number of factors and depend on the chemical
composition of its constituents, temperature, curing
regime etc.
Cement additives
Accelerators shorten slurry’s set time and allow the slurry
to develop necessary early compressive strength in a
practical time frame (Santra et al., 2012). Accelerators are
used for shallow low temperature and pressure cement
jobs where long thickening time is not necessary. Th e
most common accelerators used are calcium chloride,
sodium chloride and gypsum.
9.7.2 Retarders Retarders delay slurry’s set time. Th is
delay allows the cement to be placed before hardening
occurs. Th ese additives counter the eff ects of increased
temperature on cement slurry. Th e most commonly used
retarders are calcium lignosulfate and borax.
9.7.3 Fluid Loss Agent Excessive losses of water to the
formation can prevent cement from hardening correctly.
Fluid-loss control additives are used to reduce excessive
losses of water to the formation. In addition, these
additives increase viscosity, retard the set time, and
control free water in the slurry. Th e most common fl uid
loss agents used are the organic polymers and cellulose
derivatives.
9.7.4 Extenders Extenders lighten the density of the slurry
for cementing across weak formations. Lighter slurry
lowers the hydrostatic pressure and helps prevent
formation damage. Mostly used extenders are fl y ash and
sodium silicate.
9.7.5 Anti-foaming Agent Cement foaming is one of the
problems associated with cement slurry while mixing. Th e
entrapped air in the cement slurry could cause damage to
the pumps in the fi eld and also could cause incorrect
density readings and consequently mixing incorrect
cement slurry density. Defoamers are used to minimize
foaming problems and are normally used with every
cement system. Defoamers are special additives developed
by diff erent companies and are available in powder or
liquid for convenient use.
9.7.6 Free Water Control Additives Free-water control
additives tie up water in light weight or extended slurries.
If this water were not controlled, the slurry properties
would change as water was absorbed into the surrounding
formations. Th is absorption aff ects slurry fl ow and
placement. Aluminum chlorohydrate is mostly used to
prevent free water.
9.7.7 Lost Circulation Control Agents Controlling lost
circulation is an important issue to be considered when
cementing across highly permeable and vuggy formations
as well as formations having natural or induced fractures.
Lost circulation might be controlled by reducing cement
slurry density and by adding additives to act as a plugging
bridge on the opening area of the high permeability zone
or the fracture. Th ere are diff erent types of lost
circulation control agents, granular type (e.g. Gilsonite), fl
ake type (e.g. cellophane), and fi brous agents (e.g. nylon).
9.7.8 Weighing Agent Weighting materials can be used to
increase the density of the cement or slag and help control
formation pressures. Barite and hematite are most used
weighing materials.
9.7.9 Dispersants Dispersants reduce slurry viscosity, which
is very important for placement and cohesion. Proper
dispersion of a slurry results in enhanced early
compressive strength, improved fl uid-loss control and
improved free-water control. Naphthalene sulfonate and
broxin are commonly used as dispersants.
9.7.10 Strength Retrogression Agents Cement slurries that
remain at temperatures above 200°F (94°C) exhibit a
reduction of compressive strength over time. Th is
phenomenon, called strength retrogression, can be
minimized or prevented by adding another source of silica,
such as silica fl our or silica sand, to the slurry (Iverson
et al., 2010).
9.8.1 Planning Cement Job Th e planning of the cement job
includes determining the type and volume of cement and
cement additives. It also plans the procedures for mixing
the cement, water and additives. Th e prefl ushing as well
as cement placement and displacement should be properly
planned. Th e cement system design takes into
consideration chemical environment, mix water, wellbore fl
uids bottom hole static temperature, bottom hole
circulating temperature, pore pressure, formation
permeability, formation integrity, and hole geometry.
9.8.2 Factors Aff ecting Cement Job Design Th e behavior
of OWC slurries must be adjusted to achieve eff ective well
cementing jobs. Th e mechanical properties and durability
of solid cement during the life of the well are important
criteria, especially under harsh pressure and temperature
environments. Th e design of cement slurry is very critical
in deeper wells. High temperature and pressure expose the
cement to extreme stresses and aff ect its quality. In such
situations, the properties of cement should ensure its long
term integrity. Improper oil and gas well design and well
cementing can jeopardize oil production. Oil wells could
leak and lead to environmental disasters particularly in
marine habitats, and result in huge economic losses. Th e
oil industry realizes the value of spending more money on
research and development of materials and equipment to
improve oil fi elds exploration and production and to
prevent potential oil and gas leakage.
9.6.1 Primary Cementing Th e purpose of a primary
cement job is to inject the cement slurry in the annulus
behind the casing. In most cases this is done in a single
operation by pumping cement down the casing and up into
the annulus (Figure 9.11). In which, fi rst mud circulation is
performed to condition the well. Th e bottom plug is
released which helps in cleaning the inside of casing as
well as helps in avoiding the cement contamination by
separating both fl uids. Spacer and cement is pumped
down aft er bottom plug. Th en cement is displaced by the
top plug with the help of displacing fl uid aft er top plug.
When top plug bumps on the bottom plug, this is the
indication of cement displacement around the casing in
annulus. Th e single stage procedure is described as
follows:
1. Circulation of Mud for well conditioning 2. Releasing
bottom wiper plug 3. Pumping of spacer 4. Pumping of
cement slurry 5. Releasing top wiper plug 6. Displacing
with displacement fl uid (generally mud) until the top plug
lands on the fl oat collar 7. Pressure testing of the casing
Sometimes a longer casing string is to be cemented in
particular where the formations are weak and may not be
able to support the hydrostatic pressure generated by a
very long column of cement slurry. In this case cement job
is performed in two stages (Figure 9.12). Th e fi rst stage is
completed as the primary single stage cementing. Th e
second stage is performed by dropping a special tool in the
casing string which is used to open ports of multi stage,
allowing cement to be pumped from the casing and into
the annulus. When the second stage slurry is ready to be
pumped the multi stage tool is opened and the second
stage slurry is pumped down the casing, through the stage
cementing tool and into the annulus, as in the fi rst stage.
When the required amount of slurry has been pumped,
the multi stage tool is closed. Th is is called multistage
cementing.
9.6.2 Squeeze Cementing Squeeze cementing is the
process in which cement slurry is pumped with force
through holes in the casing and into the annulus and/or
the formation. Squeeze cementing is oft en used to carry
out remedial operations during a work-over on the well
(Figure 9.13). Th e main objectives of squeeze cementing
are:
1. To repair casing failures 2. To shut off lost circulation
zones 3. To carry out remedial work on a poor primary
cement job (e.g. to fi ll up the annulus) 4. To seal off gas or
water producing zones to maximize oil production from
the completion interval 5. To prevent fl uids escaping from
abandoned zones.
In squeeze cementing the pores in the rock rarely allow all
the cement slurry to get into the formation since a very
high permeability would be required for this to occur. Th
ere are two processes by which cement can be squeezed:
• High pressure squeeze - Th is technique requires the
formation to be fractured and then allows the cement
slurry to be pumped into the fractured zone. • Low
pressure squeeze – During this technique the fracture
gradient of the formation is not exceeded. Cement slurry is
placed against the formation, and when pressure is applied
the fl uid content (fi ltrate) of the cement is squeezed into
the rock, while the solid cement material (fi lter cake)
builds up on the face of the formation.