The Germanic Invasion (410-1066)

BRITISH CUL After Romans left Britain in 410, England was settled
by waves of Germanic people. Jutes together with An
gles and Saxons known as Anglo-Saxons began to in

TURE vade Britain in the 5th century. The new settlers a mi

" H I S T O R Y "
Prehistory: The story of prehistoric Britain began with
the first human who lived in Britain and it ended wh
en Cesar conquered in there. First humans survived b
y haunting animals and founding their food in nature.
Then, very gradually, they started to learn new skills.
They learned herd animal and grow crops. Later, they
discovered the secret of bronze and iron. 2000 year
s ago there was an Iron Age celtic culture.
Stonehenge: Southwest England, built in Salisbury. I
t is one of the most famous archeological sites in the
world.
Salisbury is the largest burial mound in Europe.
xture of people from North Germany, Denmark and N
orthern Holland. They were germanic tribes.
Britain under the command of the legendary King Arth
ur. He led the defence of Britain against Saxons inva
ders.
Anglo-Saxons were pagan when they come to Britain
but as time passed, they gradually converted to christi
anity
Anglo-Saxons had little use for towns and cities. But t
hey had a great effect on the countryside. They introd
uced new farming methods.
֍ Britain experienced another germanic invasions in t
he 8th century. These invaders known as Vikings and
Danes come from Scandinavia.
King Alfred was king of Wessex. He fought the Viking
s and then made a peace so that English and Viking
settled down to live together.

The Roman Period (43-410) ֍ Anglo-Saxons and Danes have little cultural differe
nces between them. That's made political unification e
Julius Cesar conquered Britain in 55 BC because
asier and by the end of the 10th century, England wa
he wanted to make Britain a part of the Rome Empir
s united kingdom with a germanic culture thoughout.
e. Romans stayed there four hundered years. Throug
Most of Scotland was united by this time, at least in
hout this time, Romans effect them culturaly. They ch
name, in a Gaelic kingdom.
anged the British culture like teaching them about lan
guage, law and legal system. They introduced new id
eas and way of living in Britain. They built roads and
military camps. Romans introduced the idea of living i 973- Edgar became king of nearly all present day En
n big towns and cities. Roman's language was Latin gland and for the first time the name England is used
and people in Britain started to use it, too. If a place .
name has 'cester, chester, caster' in it, it's almost cert
ainly Roman. London was Roman city and called Lon
dinium. Hadrian' s Wall built by Roman Empire for pr
otect themselves from attacks.
Emperor Cladius send an army to invade Britain.
Boudicca was a celtic queen who led a revolt agains
t Rome.
410- Romans left Britain because they were attacked
by different Germanic tribes.
597- St. Augustine arrives in Britain and introduced c
hristianity.
Romans lost a great deal of their empire to different
German tribes.
"THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD (1066-1458)"
End of the old English time period and beginning of t
he Middle English time period. Throughout this period,
the English kings were often at war with French king
s. Normans (were Vikings settled in southwest France
) invaded Britain. Black death killed off almost half of
the population.
The succesful Norman invasion of England brought Br
itain European culture. William Conqueror was the kin
g of Normandy. He took the position of king William t
he first and became the king of England for 21 years.
During this time, William and his followers became th
e most powerful force in England. William organised h
is English Kingdom according to the feudal system. T
he feudal system was a kind of cast system, there is
no moving from between the ranks. Within the feudal
system, only kings, lords, dukes or wealthy upper clas
s owned the land. If you were a peasent or serf, you
would actually owned owned by the land owner.
Church was the publisher, librarian and the teacher of
society. The lives of the people in middle ages was
dominated by the church. The Catholic church was a
very powerful institution which had its own lands and
laws. Also was able to influence the kings. Great cast
les, cathedrals and monastries were built.
Feudalism, in England, as each new area of land wa
s captured, William gave part of it as a reward to his
captains.
The Battle of Hasting: Beginning of the Norman con
quest of England. It took place in 1066 between the
Norman-French army of William, the Duke of Norman
dy and English army under the Anglo-Saxon king Har
old Godwinson. This battle started with King Edward
had died leaving English throne without an heir. Willia
m won the battle because his army was better than
Harold's. At the end of the war, Harold died.
֍Wales was never settled in great numbers by Saxo
ns or Normans. As a result, the (celtic) Welsh langua
ge and culture remained strong.
֍Magna Carta: Which means 'The Great Charter' w
as a document signed by King John. The king agrees
to follow certain rules of government. Magna Carta is
the first monarch agreed in writing to abide by forma
l procedures.
"THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY"
(Shakespeare appeared in that period.)
Tudor Dynasty: was a series of kings and queens of
England. This line of rulers started in 1485 and lasted
until 1603.
Dynasty- a sequence of powerful leaders in the same
family. Tudor- a member of the dynasty that ruled En
gland.
The 16th century was a bit chaotic in terms of religio
us beliefs, creating fear and anxiety in many people.
The social and economic order of the medieval period
was beginning to break down. More and more peopl
e were rejecting the authority of kings and the Catholi
c church. This was the period of the English Renaiss
ance, and the growth of a new form of christianity wh
ich rejected the authority of the roman catholic church
: Protestantism.
The two most famous English monarch in this period
were Henry VIII and Elizabeth I.
HENRY VIII (1509-1547): is one of the most well-kno
wn English king due to his peculiar affinity for marryin
g, divorcing and killing his wives. When he was 36, h
e still had no son and became tired of his wife. He lo
ved Anne Boleyn and asked the pope permission to d
ivorce his first wife so he could marry with Anne. The
pope said no and Henry broke with Rome. There wa
s a lot of anti-catholic feelings in England so Parliame
nt and the people supported Henry against the pope.
Henry broke with the church and appointed himself a
s the supreme head of the church of England. He too
k church lands and buildings, he gave much of the w
ealth to his friends. He ordered that church services s
hould be in English instead of Latin and that each ch
urch should have an English bible
QUEEN ELIZABETH (1558-1603): She came to be q
ueen at age 25. When she came to power, England
had no army or police and a weak bureaucracy. Whe
n she died in 1603, She left England as one of the
most powerful nation on the earth. Her rule was char
acterized by a protestant restoration and religious tole
rance. She made protestantism as the national religio
n by having parliament pass the Act of Supremacy: th
is law made the king or queen the supreme head of t
he church of England. Elizabeth's death marked the e
nd of of Tudor Dynasty.
The Wars of Roses: Were a series of English Civil
Wars for control of the throne of England between th
e house of Lancaster, associated with a red rose and
the house of York whose symbol was a white rose.
Protestant ideas were spreading in England. Calvinis
m is a major branch of protestantism. Protestantism b
ecame the majority religion in England by the end of
the century.

1605-The Gunpowder Plot: A group of catholic attemp
t to blow up the parliament.
"THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY"
Under Elizabeth, the power of parliament was growing
. After she died, in 1603, King James VI of Scotland,
became King James I of England. This was the end
of Tudor Dynasty and the beginning of the House of
Stuart. At this time, there were religious reformers wh
o thought the Anglican Church (church of England) w
as not strict enough and they wanted to reform it. Th
ese group of religious reformers were called puritans
because they wanted to purify the church. There was
a lot of hostility towards these puritans.
After King James I died, his son King Charles I beca
me king (1625). Charles I believed in the divine powe
r of kings and tried to rule without parliament. He trie
d to arrest members of parliament. Parliament fought
back. Thus began the English Civil War.
Civil War started in 1640 with Oliver Cromwell as the
leader of parliament. The main issues of this war wer
e religious toleration (for puritans and other protestant
groups) and more power for parliament (less power f
or kings). Puritans supported parliament against the ki
ng. King Charles I was defeated by Cromwell's army
and executed on 1649.
Cavaliers- supporters of king
Roundheads- supporters of parliament
ENGLAND WITHOUT A KING: "COMMONWEALTH"
(1649-1660)
England now had no king. It was ruled by Oliver Cro
mwell as a commonwealth rather than kingdom. Engla
nd became a military dictatorship under puritan rule.
There were strict religious laws (the theatres were all
closed)
The Restoration (1660-1713): Eventually people got
rid of this puritan form of government and wanted a k
ing. King Charles II was invited back to England. And
a period of great artistic and cultural achivement beg
an.
The Stuarts were restored to the throne and ruled fro
m 1660-1688. Again, religion helped end the Stuart's
reign in power. King James II was widely believed to
be a catholic. James tried to give full right to catholic
s. The idea of catholicism taking over as the main reli
gion sparked the Glorious Revolution (1688), where p
arliament helped protestant King William of Orange an
d queen Mary to takeover the throne.
Battle of Boyne: was a battle in 1690 between the k
ing James II of England and Dutch Prince William of
Orange.
"THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY"
In 1707 The Act of Union was passed. Under this agreeme
nt, the Scottish Parliament was dissolved and some of its
members joined the English and Welsh parliament in Londo
n and the former two kingdoms became one "United Kingdo
m of Britain.
Politically, 18th century was stable. Monarch and parliament
got on quite well together.
Enlightenment was a philosophical, intellectual and cultural
movement during the 17th and 18th centuries, which stress
ed reason, logic and freedom of thought over dogma and bl
ind faith.
18th century was the beginning of the party system in Britai
n. Millions moved from rural areas into new towns and citie
s.
In 1782, James Watt invents the first stream engine.
In the late 18th century, the industrial revolution began to tr
ansform life in Britain. At the beginning of the century, most
people lived in the countryside and made their living from f
arming. By the mid 19th century, most people in Britain live
d in towns and made their living from manufacturing industri
es.
Impacts of Industrial Revolution: Cities began to grow an
d people left the countryside to work in factories in the big
cities. Immigration caused pollution. The population was gro
wing wildly. Cities were dirty, noisy and overcrowded. Peopl
e who immigrate to work lived in very bad, dirty and unheal
thy conditions. There were too many workers and not enou
gh houses. Many people to be fired because the machines
doing their jobs. The rich getting richer and poor, poorer. C
hildrens worked to support their families. They often worked
long hours in dangerous jobs and in difficult situations. Fas
hion was important for upper society. Tea drinking became
popular in the 1700s among both the rich and the poor. It
was a difficult life for poor people. Many had trouble finding
their next meal or warm place to sleep.
Charity Schools- started to provide an education for lower-
class children.
Industrial Revolution: It was the transition to new manufac
turing processes began in Great Britain. It began 18th centu
ry when agricultural societies became more industrialized an
d urban.
Agricultural Revolutions: The first Agricultural Revolution
was the transition from hunting to planting. The second Agri
cultural Revolution increased the productivity of farming thro
ugh mechanization. Started in Great Britain in the early 18t
h century. This was a period of significant agricultural devel
opment marked by new farming techniques and inventions t
hat led to a massive increase in food production.
American Revoluntionary War: Also known as American
War of Independence , was an 18th century war between
Great Britain and its 13 colonies which declared independen
ce as the United States of America.
"THE NINETEENTH CENTURY"
Britain losts its most important colonies in war of inde
pendent. The 19th century also referred to as the Vict
orian Era. Queen Victoria reigned from 1837-1901. Sh
e became an increasingly popular symbol of Britain's
success in the world. Britain, in the 19th century was
at its most powerful and self-confident. After the indus
trial revolution, Britain was the "workshop" of the worl
d.
Middle Class religious conviction, together with a belie
f that reform was better than revolution, allowed refor
ms in public life. These included not only political refo
rms, but also reforms which recognised some human
rights.
Whigs- Political party in parliaments of UK. Suceeded
in the 19th century by the Liberal Party.
Tories- The Conservative Party, is a centre right politi
cal party in the UK.
Second Industrial Revolution: It was said to be bet
ween 1870 and 1914, after the civil war I. The main
causes of the second evolution were due to natural r
esources, abundant labor supply, strong government p
olicy, new sources of power, railroads and American i
nventions.
While the first Industrial Revolution caused the growth
of industries such as coal, iron, railroads and textiles
; the second revolution witnessed the expansion of el
ectricity, petroleum and steel.
Prince Albert- was the husband of Queen Victoria.
1800 Act of Supremacy, Kingdom of Ireland united
with Great Britain.
The Great Exhibition: was the world's first world exp
osition that took place in Hyde Park, London. It was
mainly focused on the world's cultural and industrial t
echnology. It was organized by Henry Cole and Princ
e Albert. The aim of this activities was to celebrate th
e new trend of modern industrial technology and des
ign. The Crystal Palace was very important for the Gr
eat Exhibition.
The White Man's Burden: British novelist and poet
Rudyard Kipling wrote about the white man's burden.
It is a poem about the philippine-american war, which
exhorts the U.S to assume colonial control of the Filip
ine people and their country.
"THE TWENTEENTH CENTURY" "THE RISE OF BRITISH EMPIRE"

Womens demanding the right to vote. Britain was no l
onger a superpower in the world after the WW II. Am
erica took this position from Britain. It was from the st
art of the 20th century that the urban working class fi
nally began to make its voice heard. In the parliament
, the Labour party gradually replaced the Liberal as th
e main opposition to the Conservatives.
19th and 20th centuries, Britain's colonies became mo
re and more independent.
Membership of EU: Britain joined the EU as a way t
o avoid its economic decline.
Suffragette: Suffragettes were members of militant w
omen's organization in the early 20th century, fought f
or the right to vote in public elections.
1914- Beginning of the WWI. Britain and Belgium had
a treaty to support each other if they were attacked.
In 1914, Germany attacked France by moving through
Belgium. So Britain attended the war.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, the British saile
d across the seas with the purpose of increasing Briti
sh power and wealth. Competing mostly with France f
or colonies around the world. Emigration was a soluti
on to the over population problem in Britain. Little by
little, people looking for freedom or wealth settled in t
hese for away places. By the late 19th century, under
queen Victoria, England rules about 1/4 of the world'
s land and population. During this period, England als
o became the leading industrial nation in Europe. In f
act, England was the birthplace of the Industrial Revol
ution. In 1834, Britain stopped slavery in all its coloni
es. In the 19th and 20th centuries, her colonies beca
me more and more independent. And the big compan
ies were not allowed to monopolized trade. It became
too difficult to maintain such a huge empire, and so i
t gradually disapeared; today, there is only a linguistic
and cultural connection with Great Britain. Major colo
nies in the British Empire: America, Canada, India, Au
stralia, Hong Kong and New Zeland.

Treaty of Versailles- was the most important of the

peace treaties that brought WW I to an end.

Decolonization and the Collapse- Britain started to l

ost its colonies.

1939- Britain and France declare war on Germany. Br

itain and France are at war with Germany folllowing t
he invasion of Poland two days ago.

Ireland was split in two after people living there went

to war against their British rulers. The south became
a seperate state, now calles Republic of Ireland but N
orthern Ireland remained part of the UK. Irish War of
Independence (1919-1921) between the Irish Republic
an Army and the British security forces in Ireland.
 "Country and People"
"EXTRA NOTES"
1536- Anne Boleyn is executed.
Patriotism- or national pride is the feeling of love, de
votion and sense of attachement to a homeland.
Walter Raleigh- was an English adventurer and write
r who became a favorite of Queen Elizabeth.
Francis Drake- was an English sea captain and expl
orer of the Elizabethan Era. He returned to England
with a large amount of Spanish treasure.
Spanish Armada- was a Spanish fleet of 130 ships
under command of the duke of Medina Sidonia with t
he purpose of escorting an army from Flanders to in
vade England.
Harold Godwinson- often called Harold II, was the la
st anglo-saxon king of England. He died at the battle
of Hasting fighting the Norman invaders led by the Wi
lliam the Conqueror.
Domesday Book- is a manuscript record of the "Gre
at Survey" of much of England and part of Wales by
order of king William Conqueror.
Dissenters: English Dissenters were Protestant Christ
ians who seperated from the church of England in the
16th, 17th and 18th centuries. A dissenter is one wh
o disagrees in opinion, belief and other matters.
Presbyterianism- was influenced by the French theol
ogian John Calvin, who is credited with development
of Reformed theology. The presbyterian church in Irel
and is the largest presbyterian denomination in Irelan
d. "The Presbyterian Church is a branch of reformed
protestant christianity originated in British Isles."
1666- The Great London Fire of september 1660 was
one of the moat famous incidents in Stuart England.
1284- The conquest of Wales by Edward I.
Thomas Beckett- The murder of Thomas Beckett, th
e archbishop of canterbury, by soldiers og king Henry
II. Beckett becomes a popolar martyr and his grave i
s visited by pligrims for hundreds of years. The Cante
rbury Tales, written by Chaucer in the 14th century, r
ecounts the stories told by fictional group of pligrims
on their way to canterbury.
ALBION: is the oldest known name of the island of
Great Britain used by poets and songwriters.
BRITANNIA: is the name that the romans gave to th
eir southern British province.
Coledonia, Cambria, Hibernia were the Roman nam
es for Scotland, Wales and Ireland. These words are
used today only scholarly classifications.
Erin is a poetic name for Ireland.
The Emerald Isle is another way of referring to Irela
nd.
Surnames; Mac/Mc are Scottish or Irish
'O' is Irish
Evans/Jones/Morgan/Williams are England
Importance of England;
1- The main language for four nation is English and t
his language comes from England.
2- The capital of UK is in England.
3- England contains about %84 population of the UK
4- The Royal Family live in England
5- England is the biggest country in the UK
Geographically; Lying off the north-west coast of Eur
ope. There are two large islands and hundreds of mu
ch smaller ones. The largest island is called Great Bri
tain, and the other large one is called Ireland.
֍ Channel Island and the Isle of Man are not officiall
y part of UK.
The Four Nations; People often refer to Britain by a
nother name. They call it England but England is the
part of UK like Scotland, Wales and Ireland. In 1707,
Act of Union, Scottish Parliament joined with English
and Welsh Parliament in England. It was completed i
n 1800, when Irish Parliament joined with the Parliam
ent of Scotland, Wales and England in Westminister;
so that, the whole areas became a single state. How
ever, in 1922, most of Ireland became a seperate stat
e.
Each nation has its own culture, lifestyle and als
o economic, social and legal system. The dominant c
ulture of Highland Scotland, Wales and Ireland was c
eltic, people in England and Lowland Scotland was g
ermanic. This difference was reflected in the language
s. People in the germanic areas spoke germanic diale
cts and people in the celtic areas spoke celtic langua
ges.
Union Jack is the national flag of the UK.
ENGLAND= St. George Cross/ 23 April/ Rose/ Londo
n During foggy conditions, pollution levels escalated an
SCOTLAND=St. Andrew Cross (Lion Pampant Flag)/
30 November/ Thistle/ Edinburg
WALES=Dragon of Codwallader/ St. David/ 1 March/
Leek/ Cardiff
N. IRELAND=St. Patrick Cross/ 17 March/ Shamrock/
Belfast
Republic Ireland= Dublin
Characteristic; There are certain stereotypes of natio
nal character which are well-known in Britain. For inst
ance, the Irish are supposed to be great talkers, the
Scots have reputation for being careful with money an
d the Welsh are known for their singing ability.
National Loyalties; The dominance of the term Engl
and in the language have some negative consequenc
es for Britain. Welsh, Scottish and Irish people have v
ery strong identities and would never describe themse
lves as English so that use of the term England inste
ad of Britain contributes a feeling of division between
the nations.
These divisions are most obvious in sporting activities
. An English football fan may support Scotland when
Scotland plays against a foreign team. But a Scottish
football fan normally support Scotland when playing a
gainst England. Britain is a multicultural nation. There
is a million of British citiens whose family origins lie o
utside in Britain or Ireland. They do not mind being d
escribed as British but many of them would not like t
o be called English.
Climate; The weather in Britain changes from day to
day and season to season. Temperatures can go bel
ow 0°C in winters and up to 30°C in summers, but th
ese are extremes. In general, they have warm summ
ers and cold winters. The average high temperature i
n London is 21°C and the average low is 12°C. The
popular belief that it rains all the time in Britain is not
simply true. The amount of rain that falls on a town
depends on where it is. The further you go, the more
rain you get. This bad reputation about climate comes
from British people. They always talk about weather.
The main influence on their climate is Atlantic Ocean
and Gulf Stream.
The Environment and Pollution; In the UK, the Ind
ustrial Revolution during the 18th and 19th centuries
was based on the use of coal. Industries were often l
ocated in big towns and cities. Because of that, cities
began to grow and people left countryside to work in
factories in the big cities. Immigration caused pollution
. The pollution was growing widely, cities were dirty,
noisy and overcrowded. Because of the burning coal i
n homes, urban air pollution reached very high levels.
d urban smogs (smoke and fog) were formed. These
often brought cities to a halt, disrupting traffic but mor
e dangerously causing death rates dramatically rise.
Then, during the 196
0s and 1970s, laws were passed which forbade the h
eating of homes with open coal fires and which stopp
ed much of the pollution from factories. These industri
al controls lead to a reduction in smog pollution in ur
ban areas. The Great London Smog of 1952, which r
esulted in around 4000 extra deaths in the city, led to
the introduction of the Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1
968. These introduced smokeless zones in urban are
as, to help disperse industrial air pollutions away from
areas into the atmosphere. Secondly, UK introduced
itss Public Health Act for London in 1981. This put in
creasing pressure on business to shift towards better
and cleaner industry practice. Various attempts at usi
ng green energy sources are being made, one of the
se is solar power, others are tidal power and even w
ave power. Wind farms are common feature of the Br
itish landscape. Also, using energy wisely, divesting fr
om fossil fuels, putting a price on pollution will be hel
p to stop climate change and pollution in Britain.
"The main reason of climate change is air pollution.
"
Affects of Climate Change: Rising sea levels, Heath
waves and bigger storms. These are the headline of
climate change. The average temperature in Britain is
now 10C higher than it was 100 years ago, and 0.50
C warmer than it was in the 1970s. And this temperat
ure rise is accelerating. The effects of this warming ar
e seen more strongly in the winter. Winters are milder
and less snowfall than in the past. The growing seas
on for crops has got longer and spring starts earlier.
Heathwaves are another aspect of rising temperatures
. In 2003, more than 2000 people in Britain died due
to the high temperatures. Sea levels are rising in the
south east of England and its contribute to increased
flood risks.

Reduce Climate Change: If everyone in Britain were
to follow official guidelines for healthy eating, the amo
unt of fruit and vegetables produced for the country w
ould have to increase. In this way, rural areas can ga
in significant for employment. Maybe people begin ton
immigrate from cities to rural areas. This could be a
solution for pollution and overcrowd in the cities. The
drivers can be encouraged to choose less-polluting el
ectric cars and using public transportation vehicles.
"ENGLAND"
England is the most populated country in the UK. En
gland is bordered by Wales to the west and Scotland
to the north. England contains about %84 population
of UK. The capital city is London, other major cities i
nclude Birmingham, Manchester, Sheffield, Liverpool,
Newcastle and Leeds. England includes many small i
slands such as the Isle of Wight and Hayling Island. I
t was the first industrialized nation after the Industrial
Revolution that began around 1760. The official Lond
on home of the British monarch is Buckingham Palac
e. The longest river in England is the river of Thames
, the largest lake is Windmere and the highest mount
ain is Scafell Pike. English food has traditionally been
based on beef., lamb, chicken, fish and most commo
n and typical foods are sandwich, fish and chips. Eng
lish people like drinking tea more than anybody else i
n the world. Famous musicians/bands are the Beatles
, Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, Queen, Led Zeppelin, Th
e Clash, Black Sabbath... Famous English Scientists
are Charles Darwin, Isaac Newton and Stephen Hawk
ing. There have been a number of influential authors
but perhaps the most well-known is Shakespeare. As
part of the UK, the basic political system in England i
s a constituonal monarchy and parliamentary system.
There has not been a government of England since a
ct of union 1707. Before the union, England was rule
d by its monarch and the parliament of England. Tod
ay, England is governed by the Parliament of the UK.
England famous for its pubs. English pubs are a part
of everyday life. It's educational institues such as Oxf
ord and Cambridge are most famous universities of th
e world.
LONDON: London, England, the capital of UK, on the
Rriver Thames in southeastern England. It is among
the oldest of the world's great cities and one of the
most cosmopolitan. By far, Britain's largest metropolis,
it is also the country's economic, transportation and
cultural center. It is the coumtry's business and banki
ng centre and the centre of its transport network. It is
home to the country's parliament, its major legal insit
utions and the monarch. London was founded in the f
irst century CE by Romans, who called the are Londi
nium, it grew in importance over the centuries, and b
y the early middle ages was the most important city i
n all of Britain. Two well known areas of London are
the West End and the East End. The former is know
n for its mant theatres,cinemas and expensive shops.
The latter is known as the poorer residential area of
central London. It is the traditional home of cockney.
More than 300 languages are spoken there, its restau
rant offer cuisine from more than 70 different countrie
s. London has the most richest and the poorest areas
in Britain. The Thames cut London in half. One of L
ondon's most popular features is the Elizabeth Tower,
more popularly known as the Big Ben. London has s
everal royal parks such as The Green Park, Hyde Pa
rk, Greenwich Park, etc.
"WALES"
Wales is one of the four parts of the UK. Technically,
Wales is a principality. This means that it is ruled by
a prince. Traditionally, the prince of Wales is the eld
est son of the English monarch. Wales has not been
politically independent since 1282 when it was conque
red by king Edward I of England. Wales does not iss
ue its own currency and is not in control of any arme
d forces. These are the powers of the national govern
ment of the UK. The national game of Wales is Rugb
y. Snowdon, Conwy Castle, Cardiff Castle and Pembr
okeshire Coast National Park are most famous places
in Wales. Longest River is Towy, longest lake is Barl
a. Cardiff -the capital- Swansea, Pembrokeshire, New
port, St. Davids are famous cities. Wales is known fpr
its great actors: Richard Burton, Anthony Hopkins etc
.
Writers: David Jones, Dylan Th
omas, Dick Francis etc.
Musicians/Bands: Tom
Jones, Catatonia, Super Furry Animals.
Main religion: Anglicanism,
Methodism.
"SCOTLAND"
Its capital city is Edinburg. It is second largest countr
y in the UK, after England. Scotland has 3 officially r
ecognised languages: English, Scots and Scottish Ga
elic. Edinburg has a medieval old town and an elegan
t Georgian New Town with gardens and neoclassical
buildings. The largest city is Glasgow and other major
cities include Aberdeen and Dundee. Scotland includ
es approximately 790 islands. Ben Nevis is the highe
st mountain in Scotland. The offical animal of Scotlan
d is unicorn. The modern game of golf originated in S
cotland. Scotland reputed for its whisky. Scotland fam
ous for its castles, there are over 300 castles and the
Edinburg Castle is the most important castle. Famou
s Scots are Walter Scott, Arthur Canon Doyle etc.
Main religion is the church of Scotland (Presbyt
erian), Roman Catholicism and Episcopal church.
"NORTHERN IRELAND"
Protestans and Roman catholics in N. Ireland is
becoming increasingly delicate. Titanic ship was built i
n Belfast, the capital of N. Ireland. Major cities are B
elfast, Lisburn, Londonderry, Bangar. Its longest river i
s River Bann and longest lake is Lough Neagh. Engli
sh is spoken by almost everyone in N. Ireland. Other
important languages are Irish and Ulster Scots. Dunlu
ce Castle, Titanic Belfast and Giant's Causeway are f
amous places. Famous Irish: Van Morrison, George B
est, William Burke, etc.
"CLASS"
The class system is alive in the UK but it doesn'
have the same status as it once did. Working class p
eople can became middle and uppuer class by gainin
g a good education.
Middle Class: The vast majority of British people
fall into this categor, such as shop owners, teachers,
journalists, nurses, etc.
Upper Class: People who were born into families
which have traditionally passessed high incomes.
Working Class: Basic low level unskilled or semi-
skilled workers. This includes occupations such as fac
tory wokers and labourers.
Lower Class: This is a controversial term to descr
ibe the long term unemployed, homeless, etc.
"BEING BRITISH"
Britishness is the state or quality of being British. The
main British values are democracy, the rule of law, i
ndividual liberty and mutual respect for different faiths
or beliefs. Only English think of themselves as British.
Most Scots think of themselves as Scottish, most of
the Welsh as Welsh. The English, on the other hand,
are more likely to describe themselves as British than
English. British people do not like to feel that they ar
e personally representing their country. Maybe the rea
son of that is Britain doesn't have any national day. B
ritain is a multicultural nation so its hard to creat a co
omon British identity.
The definition of Britishness change from people to p
eople. To Nelson McCausland, Britishness is a sense
of belonging to the UK and all the things it has achie
ved. It is that a common sense of belonging to all of
that history and culture. For another person, it means
showing respect and knowledge for the royal family, d
rinking tea and having British citizenship. People can
develop a strong sense of British identity by learning
about Britain's culture and traditions.
"EXTRA NOTES"
1- The sun was always shining on at least one part o
f their terriortiy or colonies that was in daylight.
2- The Great Charter was a document signed by King
John. The king agrees to follow certain rules of gove
rnment. Magna Charta is the first a monarch agreeme
nt in writing to abide by formal procedures.
3- Act of Diplomacy: This law made the king or quee
n the supreme head of the church of England.
4-Revolution is mainly started by people, the middle c
las. They want to have a better live and change the
political system. It always happen in violence. Reform
is always started by government. Reform means rebui
ld, make changes in specially in order to improvement
5- Margaret Thatcher also known as iron lady becam
e Britain's Conservative Party leader and in 1979 was
elected prime minister, the first women to hold the p
osition.
"IRISH CONFLICT"
Ireland had been conquered by Normans in 1169. Th
ey had little difficulty in defeating the Irish kings and t
ribes. England and Ireland had cultural differences but
there were not any conflict at that time. 16th century
was the beginning of the religious conflicts. Henry VIII
broke with the catholic church and appointed himself
as the supreme head of the church of England. This
was the growth of a new form of christianity: Protesta
ntism. Most people were not happy with the new relig
ion, especially, the Irish Catholics. Henry VIII wanted
to bring Ireland under his authority. He persuaded the
Irish parliament to recognise him as king of Ireland.
However, Henry also tried to make the Irish accept hi
s English church reformation. He failed to get what h
e wanted in Ireland. In fact, he made things worse by
bringing Irish nationalism and catholicism together ag
ainst English rule. Elizabeth I continued her father's le
gacy in Ireland. Tudors fought four wars during the p
eriod to make the Irish accept their authority and their
religion. In the end, Ireland became England's first i
mportant colony. This colonisation did not make Engla
nd richer, but it destroyed much of Ireland's society a
nd economy. In the 17th century, Oliver Cromwell co
mmited an ethnic cleansing against the Irish catholic
people and killed more than 600.000 Irish people. Ja
mes II' defeat by William of Orange in 1690 had seve
re and long-term effects on the Irish people. Over the
next half century, the protestant parliament in Dublin
passed penal laws to prevent the catholics from takin
g any part in national life. Catholics could not become
members of the Dublin Parliament and could not vot
e in parliamentary elections. Also, they could not bec
ome lawyer and go to university. Families couldn't se
nd their childrens to the catholic schools. Hatred betw
een the ruling Protestant settlers and the ruled catholi
c Irish was unavoidable. By the 1770s, life had beco
me easier and some of the worst laws against catholi
cs were removed. In order to increase British control,
Ireland was united with Britain in 1801 and the Dublin
parliament closed. In the 19th century, Irish freedom
from English rule became a struggle between catholic
and protestant. For three years 1845,1846 and 1847,
the potato crop, which was the main food for the poo
r people, failed. In these three years, 1.5 million peop
le died from hunger and many Irish left their country.
The Irish who went to the USA did not forgive Britain.
They were rich, powerful and were able to support t
he Irish freedom movement. Before the WWI, the Briti
sh government had agreed to home rule for Ireland.
When war began, the government called on Irishmen
to join the army. Many thousand did. And many thous
and did not see why they should die for the Britain, t
hey met in their own parliament in Dublin and announ
ced that Ireland was now a republic. Irishmen joined t
he republic's army -IRA- and guerilla fighting against
the British began. As a result, the British government
decided to make a peace. In 1921 most of Ireland be
came a seperate state and Northern Ireland remain w
ith Britain.
! The plantation of Ulster was the organised colonisati
on of Ulster by people from Great Britain during the r
eign of King James VI.
! The Belfast Agreement is also known as the Good
Friday Agreement, because it was reached on Goo
d Friday, 10 April 1998. It was a peace agreement
between the British and Irish governments, and most
of the political parties in Northern Ireland, on how Nor
thern Ireland should be governed.
"SEVENTEENTH CENTURY"
After Elizabeth's death, her cousin became King Jame
s I of England in 1603. This was the end of Tudor dy
nasty and beginning of the house of Stuart. At this ti
me, there were religious reformers who thought the A
nglican church was not strict enough and they wanted
to reform it. These groups of religious reformers wer
e called as puritans because they wanted to purify th
e church. After king James I died, his son Charles I
became the king of England. Charles I had pursued p
olicies in religion and finance which had disagreed by
many country gentleman including Cromwell. Some m
embers of parliament were also concerned by king's
proximity to catholicism, they weren't happy with his
marriage because his wife Henrietta Maria was catholi
c. Charles I believed in the divine power of kings and
ruled without parliament. He tried to arrest members
of parliament, parliament fought back. These conflicts
led directly English Civil War. The main issues of war
were religious toleration for puritans and more power
for parliament. The civil war was divided into the first
, the second and the third civil war. The supporters of
king were known as cavaliers and the supporters of
parliament were called as roundheads. Choosing side
was not easy because the civil war tore friends and f
amilies apart. Religion was the main determinant in pi
cking sides. Civil war started in 1640, with Oliver Cro
mwell as the leader of parliament. At the end of the
war, King Charles I was defeated and Cromwell's arm
y and executed on 1649. England now had no king. I
t was ruled by Cromwell as a commonwealth rather t
han kingdom. England became a military dictatorship
under puriyan rule. There were strict religious laws. E
ventually people got rid of this puritan form of govern
ment and wanted a king. King Charles II was invited
back to England and a period of great artistic and cul
tural achivement began. The stuarts were restored to
the throne and ruled 1660-1688. Again, religion helpe
d end the stuart's reign in power. King James II was
widely believed to be catholic and tried to give full rig
hts to catholics. The idea of catholicism taking over a
s the main religion sparked the Glorious Revolution (1
688), where parliament helped protestant King William
of Orange and Queen Mary to takeover the throne.
Parliament accepted William of Orange as king and M
ary as queen. The king and the queen both signed th
e decloration of rights, known as Bill of Rights. Glorio
us revolution was one of the most important events le
ading to Britain's transformation from an absolute mon
archy to constituonal monarchy. After this event, the
monarchy in England would never hold absolute powe
r again.
! The Bill of Right lays down limits on the powers of t
he monarchy and sets out the rights of parliament.
"BREXIT"
Brexit is derived from the combination of Britain and
exit words. It means the UK is leaving from the EU.
David Cameron has promised the Brexit referendum i
n the election campaign. When he won the elections,
referendum was held on Thursday 23 June 2016, to
decide whether the UK should leave or remain in the
EU. Leave won by %51.9 and this result was unexpe
cted. England and Wales voted for Brexit, and N. Irel
and and Scotland voted for staying in the EU. Camer
on did not want to undertake the task of realizing Bre
xit and left the seat to Teresa May. But May herself
was an anti-brexit. So the parliament still unable to so
lve this crisis. If the Britain leaves from the EU , Tere
sa May will resign. Europe is Brtain's most important
export market and its biggest source of foreign invest
ment. Britain had two reason to leave the EU. The fir
st one is the sceptical view of the Conservative party
in power towards the EU and the second one is the
crisis in the euro area. England refused to use euro a
nd continued to use sterling. If there is no agreement
between the two parties, EU rules will continue to be
valid in the UK by 31 december 2020. If the agreeme
nt is not, the border controls could lead to significant
delays on roads and ports which means that the UK
will become a third country in trade and significant de
cline in market integration. The only thing parliamenta
ry majority able to agree on is that it doesn't want to
crash out of the EU without a deal.
Leaving from the EU led to divisions and tensions wit
hin the UK. People who supported Brexit wanted to s
ee a reduction in immigration. They care that the cou
ntry puts its interests on culture and economy first. T
o them, brexit is good. The dissenting voters want Bri
tain to be an active and vibrant participant in the Eur
opean and global comunity. The vote split along lines
of age, education, class and geography. Brexit has oft
en been attributed to nationalism but it is not the voic
e of nationalism. Brexit is a face-statement of anti-glo
balization. Brexit grew out of a deep divide between t
hose that fear globalization and those that embrace
it. Nationalism in any country is simple: us first! Britis
h people need a new vision, a vision of more tolerant
, inclusive globalization. It brings cooperation, peace, f
ree trade and the movement of people across borders
. ligious and political history. He ordered that church se
"SCOTTISH REFERENDUM"
In 2011, the Scottish Nationalist party won a majority
in the Scottish parliament and declared his intention t
o call a referendum on the issue. On 18 September 2
014, people in Scotland voted in referendum to the fu
ture of their country. It is a vote that could end Scotla
nd's union with England and Wales as Great Britain.
Scots had chance to vote either "yes" for an indepen
dent Scotland or "no" to remain a part of the UK. Th
e final results of the referendum is the Scottish peopl
e choose to remain as a part of the union. People
voted for "no" because many scots were afraid of ho
w an independent Scotland might change their day to
day lives. The "no" campaign's slogan "why take the r
isk?" Another reason was the 'yes' camp had wished
to seek scottish membership of the EU. But key EU l
eaders suggested they would block Scotland's entry.
Also the UK government said that scots would be fina
ncially worse off after independence. "No" voters has
said that the oil would not last forever. And it had wis
hed to spend most of its defense budget on health, e
ducation and other public service. People voted for "
yes" because democracy always getting the governme
nt that Scotland votes for. It means the decision of S
cotland can be made by the people of Scotland, not t
he people of Westminister in London. Another reason
is Independence presents Scotland with a once in a li
fetime opportunity to creat a fairer and more equal so
ciety. Also the Scottish people will have closer contac
t with their politicians instead of from London. Indepe
ndence ensured Scotland will no longer be used by t
he UK as a ground for nuclear power. Money could b
e better used to improve important areas to the peopl
e of Scotland such as health, job and education. An i
ndependent Scotland would gain control of oil and ga
s revenue which now goes to the British Treasury. Sc
otland already runs its own health, education and leg
al systems. But other governmentary concerns -defen
se, employment, oil and gas industry- are decided by
the central government in London.
"CHURCH OF ENGLAND"
Henry VIII is best known for his six marriages. Henry
asked the pope's permission to divorce his first wife s
o he could marry with Anne Boleyn. But pope said no
and Henry broke with the church and appointed hims
elf as the head of the church of England. This event
marked a very important time in history, specifically re
rvices should be in English instead of Latin and that
each church should have an English bible. This was t
he period of the English Renaissance and the growth
of a new form of christianity which rejected the author
ity of the Roman catholic church:Potestantism. Henry'
s son Edward VI was England's first monarch to be r
aised as a Protestant. In the 17th century, tensions w
ithin the church of England led to the English Civil W
ar, the church was associated with royalists. As well
as being the established church in England, it becam
e the mother church of the Anglican communion.
"BLACK DEATH"
Black death is an epidemic illness killed off almost ha
lf of the population in the medieval period. The epide
mic illness arrived in England in 1348 and over the n
ext two years the disase spread like wild fire. Whole t
owns and villages were laid waste. Not only one was
England's population being destroyed also other Euro
pean countries were affected from the black death. T
he dramatic population reduction had a number of sid
e effects. The first was to dramatically decrease the
working population, the cost of labour increased. Anti-
semitism intensified throughout Europe as Jews were
blamed for the spread of the black death.
The plague started in Asia and traveled westward alo
ng the Silk Road. The disase was carried by fleas th
at lived on rats, eventually bringing it to Europe. Man
y people were sure it was the end of the world. They
locked their house and tried to hide but rats and flea
s were everywhere. They also burned down houses e
ven entire villages to stop the disase. People thought
that the Black Death was punishment from God.
A bacteria called Yersinia pestis that caused the disa
se in Britain.
"20TH CENTURY WORLD POLITIC"
World War I was a major confict fought between 191
4 and 1918. WWI was fought between the Allied Pow
ers and the Central Powers. The main members of th
e Allied Powers were France, Russia and Britain. The
United States also fought on the side of the Allies af
ter 1917. The main members of the Central Powers
were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire and
Bulgaria. The major cause for the war was the asso
ssination of Ferdinand. Other causes are raw material
and colonial quest, the armament race, the nationalis
t ideas and the economic competition between Englan
d and Germany. England had a great power in the 1
8th and 19th centuries with her industrial revolution. B
ritain was the most powerful state in the early 19th c
entury and saw the German Empire as a major threat
. Treaty of Versailles brought WWI to an end. The re
sult of WWI was Britain and France gained profit from
the war, empires such as Ottoman, Austria-Hungary
were destroyed and oppressive regimes emerged in R
ussia such as communism, Fascism in Italy and Nazi
sm in Germany.
The harsh conditions of the Treaty of Versailles rise o
f power of Adolf Hitler. He was the founder of Nazi P
arty. He manipulated people with the use of nationalis
m. His regime is an example of aggresive nationalism
. World War II was fought between the Axis Powers (
Germany, Italy, Japan) and the Allied Powers (Britain,
USA, Soviet Union, France) It was the deadliest war
in all of human history with around 70 million people
killed. WWII started in 1939 when Germany invaded
Poland. After this event, Britain and France declared
war on Germany. During the war, Elizabeth II trained
in London as a mechanic and military truck driver. Th
e queen remains the only female member of the royal
family to have entered the armed forces and is the o
nly living head of state who served in WWII. In 1941,
US enters the war because Japan bombs Pearl Harb
or. German Nazis committed genocide against Jews.
Nuclear powers were used for the first time. Hiroshim
a destroyed by an atomic bomb during the war , use
d by America. The war ended with the total victory of
the Allies over Germany and Japan in 1945. Britain w
as no longer a superpower in the world after the war,
the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as
rival superpowers. The European union is set up with
the aim of ending the frequent and bloody wars betw
een neighbours which culminated in the WWII. The E
U plays an important role in diplomacy and works to f
oster stabilty, security and prosperity, democracy, fund
amental freedoms and the rule of law at international
level.
There was a cold war between the United States and
Soviet Union after the end of the second world war.
The cold war came to end with the collapse of the so
viet union. At the end of WWII, the Allied powers divi
ded Germany into four zones. Berlin wall seperated B
erlin as East and West. The wall stood as a symbol
of the cold war. 'Tear down this wall' was a speech
made by United States president Ronald Reagan to s
oviet union. His speech led to the wall's demolition. A
fter the collapse of soviet union, in 1989, the borders
were opened and people could freely move between
Eastern and Western Germany.
! The Commonwealth of nations is a group of countri
es. Originally, it was called the commonwealth which
was founded in 1926. Canada and Australia are two
of the largest realms.
Elizabeth II has ruled longer than any other king or
queen in history of the UK. The countries of which sh
e is queen are known as commonwealth realms. Whe
n she became queen in 1952, she was officially quee
n of the UK, Canada, Australia, New Zeland and Sout
h Africa. These were the commonwealth countries. Th
ere were many countries that she ruled because they
belonged to the British Empire. One by one, many of
the countries became independent.
* Britain changed hugely during the 20th century.
* Life for ordinary people was transformed and becam
e much more comfortable.
* At the start of the 20th century, British society was
divided into classes: aristocracy, middle class and wor
king class.
* World wars changed the role of women, they dema
nd for vote.
"NATIONALISM"
Nationalism is a great love of your country. It say
s that every ethnic group of humans should be free t
o rule itself. Nationalists think that the best way to m
ake this happen is every ethnic group should have its
own nation or society that they can rule without bein
g controlled by anybody else. Nationalism have a lot
of negative and positive effects. The first negative eff
ect is nationalism was responsible for the death of mil
lions. It contributed to causing WWI and WWII. It cau
sed the collapse of empires and led to Italian and Ge
rman unification. Extreme nationalism was a driving e
ngine behind the slaugher of millions by the Nazis. Hi
tler preached the view that Germans were a pure Ary
an race. He encouraged them to believe that German
y was defeated in WWI only because Jews and Com
munists. The killing of Jews and Communists was all
done in the name of purifying German blood. So we
can say that the second world war caused by the nati
onalist ideas. One could argue that the first world war
was coused by nationalism, too. The slogans and po
sters of the period portrayed each side as monster. E
ven the patriotic songs of the era such as 'Yanks are
Coming' shows the effects of nationalism. Nationalism
made people blind and selfish, their principle was 'just
follow the orders' Nationalist movements have used
other types of violence to reach their goals. such as t
errorism and guerilla warfare. The biggest problem for
nationalism: its appropriation by Fascist ideology. Fas
cism is the maximum expression of nationalism. Natio
nalism and Fascism give political leaders and elites a
potential to manipulate and control the public, giving ri
se to an authoritan state. Mussolini and Hitler used th
ese tactics during their dictatorships. Another bad feat
ure of nationalism is the belief of the superiority amon
g other nations. Nationalism can bring political instabili
ty into states by different nations. For example; ethnic
groups who lived in Ottoman Empire, wanted to be f
ree and established their own country. Their idea of n
ationalism caused the collapse of the Ottoman Empire
. mic and foreign policy should be planned in an intern
Nationalism has had positive effects as well. After
the WWII, both the German and Japanese rebuilt the
ir economies and became peaceful economic power h
ouses. Across the globe, colonised people rose again
st their colonial masters inspired by a collective desire
to be free, nationalism has been a force for good. A
society with positive nationalism means to be tolerant
and open toward the rest of the world because peopl
e have learned the habits of good citizenship and soc
ial justice. Nationalism has had an important role in e
nding the colonial rule. Nationalism made people in m
etropolitan states accept the desire of other people to
rule themselves. Nationalism has exposed its importan
t role in the recognition of minorities. It has exposed t
he positive outcomes of anticolonial nationalism. Thro
ughout the 20th century, nationalism has been the ca
use of a large number of political and social conflicts,
as well as the seed of authoritarian regimes.
Last positive characteristics of nationalism are its ele
ments of social and political cohesion which can help
bringing stability into society.
Patriotism: It means loyalty of person to his/her own nati
on or the leaders of nation. It is different from nationalism.
A patriot may be a loyal to imperialist nations but nationalis
m is opposed to imperialism or colonialism.
1- CIVIC NATIONALISM: This gives membership to a
ll those born in a country.
2- ETHNIC NATIONALISM: This argues that it is not
the state that creats the nation, but the people who c
reat the state. It made people desire independence. F
or example, Ghana was the first African country to ga
in independence from Britain. This event caused the
growth of African nationalism and it became a model
for others to follow.
Integrative Nationalism (1815-1871): This served as u
nfying force, leading the creation of nation such as Ita
ly and Germany.
Discruptive Nationalism (1871-1890): Minority groups
wanted to be independence from Austria Hungary and
Ottoman Empire.
Agressive Nationalism (1900-1945): Opposing national
forces collided causes of wars.
Contemporary Nationalism (1945 to present): Collapse
of soviet union, reaction to American global suprema
cy, retreat from colonialism.
Globalism: The idea that events in one country cann
ot be seperated from those in another and that econo
ational way.
Imperialism is a policy in which large or powerful co
untries seeks to extend their authority beyond their o
wn borders. The policy of imperialism aims at the cre
ation of an empire.
Sphere of Influence: This involves one society havin
g some ability to control the behaviour of another. Th
e influence of USA over latin american countries is a
n example.
Protectorate or Dependency: One country controls a
nother counrty in terms of protection.
Internationalism: The ultimate loyalty is not to the na
tion but to the human race. United Nations is an imp
ortant international organization.
"DOMINANT POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES IN THE 20TH CENTURY"
Rascism: Rascism is the belief that one race is the superit
ory over another race. It result discrimination towards peopl
e based on their race.
Totalitarianism: If the government has complete and absol
ute power over the people, that's totalitarianism. This is the
unfree type of society. Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin is
a good example. Totalitarianism associated with the cold wa
r, it is the most extreme modern dictatorship.
Authoritarianism: It is characterised by absolute and blind
obedience to authority, as against individual freedom and re
lated to the expectation of unquestioning obedience. China
is a good example. of a communist form of government, as
well as authoritarian one.
Autocracy: An autocracy is a system of government in whi
ch a single person excersises lordship over a polity. Nazi G
ermany is a good example of an autocracy, run primarly by
a single leader.
Democracy: Democracy, literally, rule by the people. It see
ks maximum freedom and mutual respect.
Communism: Economic and political doctrine that aims to r
eplace private property and a profit-based economy with pu
blic ownership and communal control of at least the major
means of production and the natural resources of a society.
Economic and social system in which all proper
ty and resources are collectively owned by a classless soci
ety and not by individual citizens. In such a society, social r
elations were to be regulated on the fairest of all principles.
The most common variation of communism is Marxism.
Socialism: Socialism is an economic and political system w
here the ways of making a living are owned by the workers
who run them and the people who depend on them, meani
ng the value made belongs to the people who make it, inst
ead of a group of private owners. The common feature is t
he perception of society which regards the private property
as a source of unhappiness and for this reason tries to nati
onalize it. All the social classes should work together and
have a common goals that aims for the good of everyone.
Liberalism: Liberalism is a philosophical, economic and poli
tical ideology which aims at establishing individual freedom
as a basic principle of economic and social order. Accordin
g to liberal thinking, the individual freedom is the essential
standard and the surface of a human community which serv
es as a source to the constitution of the state and its politic
al and economic order.
Conservatism: It is a political ideology that emphasizes the
importance of tradition, preserves and affirms the dominant
political order and protects the given distribution of power
and influence. Their three major principles are: identity, sec
urity and continuity.
Fascism: It is the political movement created by Mussolini i
n 1919 and dominated Italy from 1922 to 1945. Fascism ca
n be defined as a political system characterised by unparlia
mentary, totalitarian and very often anti-semitic tendencies,
using a socio-revolutionary communication. It characterised
by a broad power base, controlled by the mass organization
s under strict central control.
! Democracy cannot guarantee of good government or even
that human rights will be respected. Hitler was elected by
people.
"WHY COMMUNISM?"
In a communist society, everybody is equal and no o
ne is left alone. That is, no social class, is better tha
n the other, there is no social class at all. All resourc
es of a country are under the control of the state. As
such, citizens have the peace of mind that all people
are equal. Another significant advantage of communis
m is the attending school and given medical attention.
Even the poorest can attend the school and provided
with health care. It also minimizes unemployment be
cause everybody gets equal opportunities. Governmen
ts controls and owns companies. In this way, prices a
re regulated and made affordable for the people. Busi
ness owners cannot demand high prices for their goo
ds.
"GLOBALIZATION OR NATIONALISM"
Globalization is the connection of different parts of the
world. Globalization results in the expansion of intern
ational, cultural, economic and political activities. As p
eople; ideas, knowledge and goods move more easily
around the globe, the experiences of people around
the world become more similar. Globalization was acc
elerated in the 19th century with the Industrial Revolut
ion, as mechanical mills and factories became more a
nd more common. Globalization sped up dramatically
in the 20th century with the idea of nationalism. Glob
alization can bring people together and make everyon
e richer without getting rid of local culture. People wh
o support globalization also believe that it makes war
less likely because it is bad for business. Globalizatio
n would eventually lead to a system of world governa
nce which would cause wars to end.
Nationalism is a strong attachment to a particular cou
ntry, or nation. It is also called patriotism. In the mod
ern world, many citizens are very loyal to their countr
y or to their ethnic group. Many historians consider n
ationalism to be one of the most important forces in s
haping modern history. Nationalism can have a positiv
e influence by giving people a sense of belonging to
a national community. Sometimes, however, nationalis
t feelings can make people ignore problems in their c
ountry or group. It also can make people think that th
eir country or groups is better than any other. This fe
eling led to the creation of nation-states, or countries
populated mostly by a single ethnic group. During the
time, the modern countries of Germany and Italy took
shape. Nationalists feelings also led to successful rev
olt against the ottoman empire which ruled over many
different peoples. Nationalist feeling led to the break
up of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Gandhi's power
ful strategy, involved nonviolent, noncooperation, boyc
otts of all thing British. His methods use for Indian in
dependence have been adopted by protest movement
s throughout the world. He inspired movements for ci
vil rights and freedom across the world.
"20TH CENTURY LIFE"
Britain changed hugely during the 20th century. Life f
or ordinary people was transformed and became muc
h more comfortable. At the start of the 20th century,
British society was divided into classes: aristocracy, m
iddle class and working class. World Wars changed t
he role of women, they demand and gained the right
for vote. Throughout the 20th century, nationalism has
been the cause of a large number of political and so
cial conflicts, as well as the seed of authoritarian regi
mes. Society impacted by technology. It impacts how
cities grow, where people live and who owns what. T
he world population passed 6 billion just before the e
nd of the 20th century. More people means more tec
hnology. 20th century technologies altered the lives of
ordinary people and the structure of their socities. Pu
blic transportation changed when the automobile beca
me part of everyday life. Transportation became inexp
ensive, dependable and fast. The horse and buggy re
placed by trains automobiles and planes, enabling lar
ge migrations of peoples around the globe from agric
ultural regions to urban centers. Streetcars and subwa
ys and later complex highway systems allowed people
to commute long distances. Newspaper and radios w
ere supplemented by television. People saw man walk
on the moon and horrors of war in the televisions. T
he realization that not all people share the same inter
pretation of events led to the understand multiple pers
pectives. In the war, armies were equipped with the n
ewest technology in warfare: The machine gun. Techn
ology mechanized agriculture. It improved communicat
ion. Einstein changed the political and scientific balan
ce of power in the 20th century. Science really did ki
nd of change the world. People were slowly coming t
o terms with reality. They began to experience the ne
w social changes and lost their religious beliefs. In m
any ways, 20th century belongs to America. American
s developed, exploited and marketed worlwide new te
chnologies such as automobile, telephone and comput
er. 20th century science investigated both the internal
world of the mind and the external world of physics.

"MIDDLE EAST AND BRITAIN"

WWI transformed the Middle East in ways it had not

seen for centuries.The Europeans who had colonized
much of the ottoman empire in the 20th century, com
pleted to takeover with the territories of Arabia, Iraq,
Syria, Lebanon and Palestine. The modern boundarie
s of the middle east emerged from the war. So did m
odern Arab nationalists movements and Islamic move
ments. With the onset of WWI, the French and The B
ritish sent armies and agents into the middle east, to
foment revolts in the Arabia peninsula and to seize Ir
aq, Syria and Palestine. In 1916, French and British d
iplomats secretly reached the Sykes-Picot agreement.
That agreement established a mandate system of Fre
nch and British control over the middle east. Under th
e mandate system, Syria and Lebanon went to the Fr
ench. The British took over Palestine and three ottom
an provinces pf Mesopotamia and created modern da
y Iraq. Lawrence was British officer credited with leadi
ng the Arab revolt against the Turks during WWI. La
wrence helped to change the map of the middle east.
Zionism emerged as the political movement to create
a Jewish state. Herzl brought his followers together i
n the first zionist congress to formulate the movement
s goal and strategies. 20 years after the first zionist c
ongress, in 1917, Britain declared itself in favor of est
ablishing a jewish homeland in Palestine. That was th
e beginning of the Israelis and Palestians fighting ove
r control of the same piece of land.