+Ans 1 cave architecture of the Buddhist period.

Caves or grottoes are the oldest form of the Buddhist architecture. They are also known as the rock-cut
monasteries, which were hewn from the cliffs and rock walls of the valleys. The Buddhist caves traces
back their beginning around 100 BCE. In India, the most significant cave is Ajanta caves, near modern
Aurangabad, Maharashtra. The Indian Buddhist monks carried this art of cave hewing to China, where
the earliest cave temples were built in the 4th century in Dunhuang or Tun-Huang, which were further
decorated with relief carvings, paintings and stone images of the Buddha or the Bodhisattvas.

The cave architecture in India is believed to have begun in the third century BC. These caves were used
by Buddhist and Jain monks as places of worship and residence. Initially the caves were excavated in the
western India. Some examples of this type of cave structure are Chaityas and Viharas of Buddhists. The
great cave at Karle is one such example, where great Chaityas and Viharas were excavated by hewing
out rocks. The Karle caves are big in size and the interior is lighted up by great windows.

Twenty-five of the rock-cut caves of Ajanta are viharas and are the finest of monasteries. Four of the
viharas belong to the 2nd century BC. Later, other caves were excavated during the reign of the
Vakataka rulers who were the contemporaries of the Gupta Rulers. Some of the most beautiful viharas
belong to this period. The finest of them. Cave 1, of the Mahayana type consists of a verandah, a hall,
groups of cells and a sanctuary. It has a decorated facade. The portico is supported by exquisitely carved
pillars. The columns have a square base with figures of dwarfs and elaborately carved brackets and
capitals. Below the capital is a square abacus with finely carved makara motifs. The walls and the ceilings
of the cave contain the most exquisite paintings.ome of the most beautiful rock-cut caves are those at
Ajanta, ElIora, Bhaja, Karle, Bagh, Nasik and Kanheri.The caves were first discovered in the beginning of
the 19th century. The caves are excavated from a semi-circular steep rock with a stream flowing below,
and were meant for the use of the monks who spent the rainy season there in meditation.

The caves are at different levels and have stairs leading down to the stream. Five of the thirty caves arc
chaityas or sanctuaries. The earlier group of two caved dated 2nd century BC belong to the style of
Kondan and Nasik caves.Although free standing structural temples were being built by the 5th century,
rock-cut cave temples continued to be built in parallel. Later rock-cut cave architecture became more
sophisticated as in the Ellora Caves, culminating ultimately the monolithic Kailash Temple.

Ans 2 architecture of the Gupta period

The Gupta Period (4th-7th c AD) is often described as "the Golden Age of art and architecture in India".
During the Gupta period a firm foundation of temple architecture was laid when the basic elements of
the Indian temple consisting of a square sanctum and pillared porch emerged. Earlier temples of the
period had a flat slab-roof, often monolithic, but the later temples in brick and stone developed a
shikhara. The gradual evolution of the Gupta style is traceable through development of the plan and the
ornamentation on the pillars and door-frame, the later introducing new decorative motifs like goblins,
couples, flying angels, door-keepers and a figure relief in the centre of the lintel emblematic of the deity
consecrated in the temple. Sculptures of deities their consorts, celestial beings, couples, directional
deities, composite animals and decorative motifs formed the mass of images that adorned the walls of
the temples and their interiors.

The Gupta Age heralded a new epoch in the history of temple architecture. Free standing sculptural
temple were the chief features of temple architecture during the Gupta period. For the first time the
Guptas had initiated permanent materials like brick and stone, instead of perishable materials like
bamboo, wood etc. Structural temples, instead of cave temples were erected during this period for the
convenience of idol worship. The artistic brilliance of the Gupta era found its expression in different
forms and shapes in temple architecture. The Gupta architects had invented an artistic standard, which
became the general rule of temple construction in the successive ages. The stone temple in Deogarh of
Dasavatara with its excellent carvings and panels on the walls is extant remains of Gupta architecture.

Ans 3 architecture of the Pallava period

The Pallavas were instrumental in the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone temples. The
earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610–690 CE and structural
temples between 690–900 CE. A number of rock-cut cave temples bear the inscription of the Pallava
king, Mahendravarman I and his successors.[11]

The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram.
There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as rathas in Mahabalipuram. Early
temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram and the Shore Temple
built by Narasimhavarman II, rock cut temple in Mahendravadi by Mahendravarman are fine examples
of the Pallava style temples.[12] The temple of Nalanda Gedige in Kandy, Sri Lanka is another. The
famous Tondeswaram temple of Tenavarai and the ancient Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee were
patronized and structurally developed by the Pallavas in the 7th century.

The monolithic seven Pagodas or rathas named after Pandavas are architectural wonders, though
sea-erosion has taken its toll. They are copies of Viharas and Chaityas. The vihara type or pyramidal
shape is seen in Dharmaraja Ratha. Bhima, Sahadeva and Ganesha Rathas are of Chaitya type. Lion motif
appeared in these shore temples of later period. Kailasanatha and Vaikuntha Perumal temples are
typical of Pallava architecture. Mandapa, Vimana and Gopuram constructions appeared during this
period.

The principal architectural monuments of this period consist of some temples that are free standing
sculptural replicas of contemporary structural temples or raths carved from the granolithic outcrops on
the shore. These monuments are of the great importance for the later development of Dravidian
architecture because they reveal the dependence of the later Hindu style on pre-existing types of
Buddhist architecture. Especially revealing for this latter aspect of the style is the Dharmaraja rath which
has a square ground-storey with open verandahs that forms the base of the terraced pyramidal sikhara
above. It has been rightly suggested that this typical Dravidian form is an adaptation of a Buddhist
vihara, in which successive storeys were added for the accommodation of the monks. The terminal
member of the structure is a bulbous sikhara, which is repeated in smaller scale on each of the lower
levels of the terraced superstructure.

Ans 4

architecture of the Chola period

The Chola dynasty was a prominent Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in the south of India until the
13th century. The Chola dynasty was a prominent Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in the south of
India until the 13th century tamil literature along with art and architecture. They built temples not
only for religious activities but also economic purposes. The Cholas continued with the legacy of the
Pallavas, which have an impression in their art and architecture. Lofty temples and sculpture in stone
and bronze acquired heights in excellence like never before, during the Chola domination. The Cholas
were great pioneers in temple building; they incorporated characteristics of the Pallava temple- building
traditions. A large number of temples were built al through their kingdom, which carried the significance
of the Dravidian temple design. Architectural trend that followed during the Chola rule, consisted mostly
of the temple architecture. Most of the features of the early chola architecture can be spotted in the
later architectural monuments which were the temples only. Improvements were made on the styles of
these temples later on like, the torus moulding in the basement, which was rounded and then had a
smooth surface, though in a few cases it is ornamented with vertical grooves or ribs.

Other features like the kumbhapanjaras were also developed and carried on top over the abacus, the
structure of a panjara. The phalaka also transformed to thinner types and the padma below it, which
was inverted and smooth in earlier, later had petals.

The stylistic uniqueness detach itself from the structural temples of the Pallavas. The torus moulding in
the basement, which is chamfered, is found in the earlier Chola temples later it got rounded. The cornice
was of a flexed shape, and the exterior of the shrine walls had no extravagant sculptural decoration. Sub
shrines for attendant divinities (parivara-devatas) were another feature that helped in the development
of the temple complex.

Ans 5

architecture of the Pandayas period

Pandya architecture includes both rock-cut and structural temples. The early rock-cut temples have
monolithic vimanas. The structural ones are small stone temples and have all the features of bigger
temples i.e. vimana, mandapa and sikhara. Groups of small temples are to be seen at Tiruchirapalli
district of Tamil Nadu. The Shiva temples have a Nandi in front of the maha mandapa.

The Pandyas contributed more for the development of architecture. Gopuras, Prakaras, Vimanas,
Garbagrahas are the special features of the Pandya temple architecture. Temples at Madurai,
Chidambaram, Kumbakonam, Thiruvannamalai, Srirangam are good examples for the development of
Pandya architecture.

The period of the latter Pandya rulers saw the development of elegant vimanas with finely sculptured
idols and the gopurams or portals of the temples. The rectangular entrance or portals of the temple are
called the gopurams. The portions above the entrance is pyramidal in shape. Gradually the gopurams
were given more importance than the sikharas. While the former were higher and more imposing, the
latter declined in height. Lofty gopurams of great proportions with lavish decoration were constructed
by succeeding dynasties.

Rock-cut Temples

We have studied the rock cut cave temples of the Pallava period. The Pandyan kings had also carved
several rock cut cave temples in their kingdom. More than fifty cave temples have been found in
different parts of the Pandyan Empire. The most important of them are found in Malaiyadikkurichi,
Anaimalai, Thirupparankundram and Tiruchi. These caves were dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Brabma.

Stone Temples

These temples were built of Stones and bricks. They are very simple in their style. Each temple consists
of a Garbagraha, Ardhamandapa and Mahamandapa. The stone temples of the Pandyas were found at
Kovilpatti, Thiruppathur and Madurai.

Ans 6

architecture of the Central group

Central India encompasses the states of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. The most famous group of
Hindu and Jain temples belonging to the Middle Ages is also located at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh.
Architectural creations of the Rajputs are concentrated in the region of Gwalior where there are also
specimen Jain and Islamic architecture. Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh is noteworthy of its Buddhist
monasteries and Stupas. The city of Mandu in Madhya Pradesh is flooded with Islamic architectural
creations. The ancient deposits of Chhattisgarh, the state in central India are found at Malhar, Sirpur,
Maheshpur and Arang. Countless monuments, delicately engraved temple, viharas, forts and majestic
palaces give the impression of dynasties and kingdoms of great warriors and builders, of saints and
philosophers, of poets and musicians, of Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam.

The Hindu temples of Madhya Pradesh are located in Khajuraho. The architectural style of these
temples, the Khajuraho style, is a sub-classification of the Orissa type and the West Indian type, which
again is a sub-classification of the overall North Indian type. Many temples were built shaped like
mountains, because of a belief in mountain worship.There is a fence around the main temple groups.
The main temples in the western group in Khajuraho are mostly Hindu temples such as the
Matangeshwara temple and the Vishwanatha temple. The eastern group has Jain temples like
Parshvanatha Temple and the Adinatha temple. The architectural styles of the statues of Jain temples
are not different from the Hindu style and it is the thirthankara statues in various places that tell us this
is a Jain temple.

Islamic architecture in Mandu in Madhya Pradesh were done under the reign of the Mughals. In
comparison with other Islamic structures in India, the architecture of Mandu is simple and down to
earth. The style of these buildings, with their moderate decorations is the functional style of the 15th
century.The brackets of the mosques are in the Hindu architectural style. Another distinguishing feature
of the mosque is the cubical entrance hall on the eastern side. It has a flight of stairs leading up to the
entrance and a magnificent dome crowning it.

In Chhattisgarh, the town of Malhar is renowned for its archeological importance. Many ancient temples
such as Devri temple, Pataleshwar temple and Danteshwari temple have been found.The temple has
four parts namely the Garbhagriha the mukhya mandapa, maha mandapa and the sabha mandapa. The
Ratanpur fort and the Badal fort are the main forts of Chhattisgarh.

Thus, in Central India there is a wide array of architectural creations that are available. Chhattisgarh is a
store house of ancient temples and monuments but Madhya Pradesh offers a wider vista of
architectural variety. Central India, hence, can be referred to as the home to Hindu, Islamic, Jain and
Buddhist architecture and is a major segment in the panorama of Indian architecture.

Ans 7

architecture of the Nagara temple

Nagara temples have two distinct features - in the planning and in the elevation. In plan, the temple is a
square with a number of graduated projections in the middle of each side giving a cruciform shape with
a number of re-entrant angles on each side. In elevation, a Sikhara i.e. tower gradually incline inwards in
a convex curve. The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the Sikhara, and thus
there is strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation, called Rekha Sikhara.

The Nagara style which developed for the fifth century is characterized by a beehive shaped tower
(called a shikhara, in northern terminology) made up of layer upon layer of architectural elements such
as kapotas and gavaksas, all topped by a large round cushion-like element called an amalaka.
eg Sun temple at konark

The culmination of the style was reached in the Sun temple at Konarak, which marks even in its ruined
state. This is the grandest achievement of the artistic and architectural genius of Orissa. The colossal
temple originally consisted of a sanctum with a lofty curvilinear Sikhara, a Jagamohana and a detached
elaborately carved square platform. The sanctum and the Jagamohana together stand on a common
lofty platform. The sanctum has lost its super structure including the towering sikhara but shows three
super images of the Sun God in the three cardinal niches. The battered wall of Jagamohana consists of
horizontal tiers grouped in three stages with life-size female sculptures of great charm adoring each
stage. This Jagamohana is unparalleled for its grandeur and structural propriety in the country; Majestic
in conception and rich imagery, the temple not only marks the final fulfillment of Orissan architecture
but is one of the sublimest monuments of India.

The Nagara style is widely distributed over a greater part of India, exhibiting distinct verities and
ramifications in different lines of evolution and elaboration according to each locality. An example of
Nagara architecture is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple, the largest and loftiest temple of Khajuraho,
with its mature planning, designing and dimensions. It has superb sculptural embellishment and
architectural elaboration and is amongst the most evolved and finished.

Ans 8

Islamic thoughts rituals symbolisms and associations got manifested in their early
architecture

The Islamic faith believes:

•Circles symbolize: infinity

•A square represents the material world: human experience

•The triangle represents human consciousness: harmony

•The hexagon: heaven

•The star radiates equally from its every point. Within the star, is contained: the

circle. The star came to signify: the expansion of Islam and its unity

The architecture of the Muslim world, highly diverse but unified by climate, culture, and a love of
geometric and arabesque ornament, as well as by the mobility of ideas, artisans, and architects
throughout the region. The central public buildings are mosques, often with a dome and minaret;
domestic houses face an inner courtyard and are grouped together, with vaulted streets linking the
blocks. The mosque is designed so as the desciples face the ka’ba in Mecca when they pray. There is no
local altar in a masjid, although there is a mihrab – usually centrally located in the qibla wall – with
associated minbar to its right when faced by the congregation, where the person leading the prayers will
sit to lead the prayers and lecture them on issues of importance.

The elements of the mosque are essentially functional rather than symbolic. There is no division
between the sacred and secular.

The tomb architecture is also another feature of the Islamic architecture as the practice of the burial of
the dead is adopted. The general pattern of the tomb architecture is consisted of a domed chamber
(hujra), a cenotaph in its centre with a mihrab on the western wall and the real grave in the
underground chamber.

Ans 9-10

Mosque in Islamic architecture

It was around 610 AD that the prophet Muhammad (c. 570 -632) heard God's message for the first time
in Arabia, in the city of Makka. His teachings disseminated rapidly as Islam grew into a world religion
ruling from Spain to the Central Asia by the 8th century. Its essence is the ideal that God is one and
every person is equal before God.

The earliest examples of Islamic architecture to survive in the subcontinent were built at Delhi in the late
12th century. These include the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque, a simple structure consisting of cloisters
around a courtyard. The pillars of the cloister were constructed with material from demolished Jaina
temples and although a massive arched façade was later built in front to give the building an Islamic
aspect, its rich floral decoration arches remained Indian in character.

Muslims worshipped with prostrations before God five times a day obligatorily, the Islamic Empire
needed mosques for the congregational worshipping at each area they subjugated. The first mosque
was the Muhammad's house in Madina, to which he moved from Makka in Arabia. However, since the
earliest monumental buildings were built in Damascus, Syria and Jerusalem, they were much influenced
by Byzantine architecture that had been flourishing there. When they got to Persia (now Iran), Egypt,
and Spain, they developed architecture suitable for each region under the influence of each tradition.A
mosque (masjid in Arabic) is a place for worship in Islam. Although prayers can be done privately, either
indoors or outdoors, nearly every community of Muslims dedicates a space or building for
congregational prayer.

components of a mosque

A mosque (masjid in Arabic) is a place for worship in Islam. Although prayers can be done privately,
either indoors or outdoors, nearly every community of Muslims dedicates a space or building for
congregational prayer.

1. Minaret

A minaret is a slim tower rising from a mosque. They vary in height, style, and number. Minarets may be
square, round, or octagonal and are usually covered with a pointed roof. Originally used as a high point
from which to make the call to prayer (adhan), minarets remain a traditionally decorative feature of
most mosques.

2 Prayer Hall

The central area for prayer is called a musalla (literally, "place for prayer"). It is deliberately quite bare.
No furniture is needed, as worshippers sit, kneel, and bow directly on the floor. There may be a few
chairs or benches to assist elderly or disabled worshippers who have difficulty with mobility. Along the
walls and pillars of the prayer hall, there are usually bookshelves to hold copies of the Qur'an, wooden
book stands (rihal), other religious reading material, and individual prayer rugs. Beyond this, the prayer
hall is otherwise a large, open space.

3 Mihrab

The mihrab is an ornamental indentation in the wall of a mosque, which marks the direction of the
qiblah. Mihrabs vary in size and color, but are usually shaped like a doorway and decorated with tiles
and calligraphy to make the space stand out.

4. Minbar

The minbar is a raised platform in the front area of a mosque, from which sermons or speeches are
given. The minbar is usually made of carved wood, stone, or brick. It includes a short staircase leading to
the top platform, which is sometimes covered by a small dome.

5 Dome

Many mosques are decorated with a dome rooftop, particularly in the Middle East. This architectural
element holds no spiritual or symbolic significance, and is purely aesthetic. The interior of a dome is
usually highly decorated with floral, geometric and other patterns.

Ans 11

architecture of the Slave dynasty

The concept of equality in Islam and Muslim traditions reached its climax in the history of South Asia
when slaves were raised to the status of Sultan. The Slave Dynasty ruled the Sub-continent for about 84
years. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Shams-ud-din Iltutmush and Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, the three great Sultans of
the era, were themselves sold and purchased during their early lives. The Slave Dynasty was the first
Muslim dynasty that ruled India.

The architectural legacy of the dynasty includes the Qutb Minar, Mehrauli by Qutb-ud-din Aybak, Sultan
Ghari near Vasant Kunj, the first Islamic Mausoleum (tomb) built in 1231 AD for Prince Nasir ud din
Mahmud, eldest son of Iltumish, and Balban's tomb

The Sultanate period brought to India new styles of art and architecture which were soon absorbed into
the existing set up. A number of factors were responsible for events to move in such a direction. The
existing Indian styles and the new ideas had many common features, which allowed them to adapt to
one another. For instance both the temple and mosque had large open courtyards. Also many temples
were converted in mosques by the foreign invaders, and this created a blend of Indian as well as foreign
styles. The Sultanate introduced two new architectural ideas, the dome and the pointed arch. The dome
was an important decorative structure in Islamic buildings, and soon was implemented in other
structures as well. The pointed or true arch that was introduced during this period, was completely
different from the type of arches that were being constructed within the country earlier.

The concept of the dome was also introduced. This was gradually perfected and one of the most
stunning examples is the dome on top of the Taj Mahal. The dome effect was achieved by an
interesting method. A square base was first constructed and then at varying angles more of these
squares were added to the base. This eventually create a rough dome effect. This was plastered to
make it completely round and then the squares were removed.

The use of concrete was also on the increase, opening up new avenues. Concrete enabled builders to
build larger structures covering more area. Local Indian craftsmen were soon trained in Persian styles
of art which they used to decorate the structures. They also implemented some of their own ideas,
and soon traditional Hindu motifs like the lotus found their way into Islamic buildings.

Ans 12

architecture of the Tughlaq dynasty

The Indo-Islamic style dominated the pattern of architecture during Tughlaq dynasty. The Indo-Islamic
style of architecture was the amalgamation of Islamic architecture as well as Hindu style of architecture.
They used to build their mosques with the ruined materials of the Hindu or Jain temples and few
temples itself were modified into mosques. The fusion created the new Indo-Islamic style of architecture
in India that gradually developed into a great architectural significance during the Tughlaq dynasty.

Architecture during Tughlaq dynasty was flourished in the hands of three rulers. They were the founder
of the dynasty, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq who ruled from 1320 to 1325, his son, Mohammed Shah Tughlaq,
ruled from 1325 to 1351, and the most creative of all in his building projects, Firoz Shah Tughlaq who
ruled Delhi from 1351 to 1388. Feroz Shah Tughlaq was a great patron of Islamic architecture. He built
the fifth city of Delhi, named as Ferozshah Kotla. Apart from Ferozshah Kotla, several building arts like
Tughlaqabad the third city of Delhi, the Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-Din and Khirki Masjid represents the major
development of architectures during the Tughlaq dynasty. Tughlaqabad depicts the saga of the glorious
days of architectural developments of the Tughlaq dynasty. The great palace was made of golden
bricks. The architecture of the Tughlaqabad city was based on Roman fashion and was divided into two
parts, one part consisted of the fortress corresponding to the castle of the Occident and the other part
was the city, which extended out for the residential and military requirements of the times. The walls
were made up of sun-dried bricks. The huge outer walls had sloping, extended to the large area of the
southern Delhi ridge. Semi-circular bastions with eyelets were present at regular intervals to look down
at the enemies.

three other fortress cities named as Jaunpur, Fathabad, and Hissar, Khirki Masjid and the Begum-puri
mosque at Jahanpanah, Kali Masjid, another mosque in the Dargah of Shah Alam at Timurpuri and the
Kalan Masjid at Shahjahanabad. From the architectural point of view, Khirki Masjid is immense and is a
great example of Islamic architecture while showcasing the immense architectural development during
Tughlaq dynasty. It is closed on top which makes it unique and different from others. It is a small
quadrangle-shaped mosque and is covered entirely by a roof, which is an unusual thing for building of
mosques. The presence of several domes on the roof along with the wonderful latticework or jali on the
windows represents the typical Islamic style of architecture.

The colossal structures of the Tughlaq dynasty, the sheer finesse of the lattice work, the grandeur of the
colorful marbles and stones which were abundantly used in the architectures not only reflect the
architectural developments during Tughlaq dynasty, but also whispers the saga of the glorious Islamic
architecture in India.

Ans 13

architecture of the Sayyid and Lodi dynasty

The construction of Islamic architecture practiced during the Tughlaq dynasty was relaxed under the
Sayyid and Lodi rule. Due to the inheritance of greatly weakened state treasury, both the dynasties were
not able to construct monumental buildings. So their desire for architectural constructions were
projected in small tombs and mausoleum built throughout Delhi. The pattern of architecture during
Sayyid and Lodi dynasty was therefore restricted to tombs and sepulcher only.

The architectures during Sayyid and Lodi dynasty made smaller influence to the cities where they ruled.
Whatever they constructed mirrored the broken spirit of the rulers of both the dynasties. No famous
building arts, capital cities, imperial palaces and fortresses were created during their regime at Delhi.
They were also not credited for any mosques or colleges. During the entire regime of the Sayyid and
Lodhi, they constructed several monuments as memorials to the dead.

Architecture during Sayyid and Lodi dynasty developed a new form of Islamic architecture which was
later followed by the Mughals. Sayyids and Lodis constructed the tombs in two different forms; one
pattern was based on octagonal plan surrounded by arched walkway with one storey in height and the
other one was based on square plan without walkway with two or three storey in height. In both the
cases, the building had a dome with pillars on each side of the octagonal and the square variety. An
important feature of the architecture during Sayyid and Lodi dynasty is the amazing measurements of
height and width to match with the structure of the basements. The central opening of the octagonal
face is slightly broader than the two other openings. The tomb chamber inside is octagonal in plan along
with an "arch and beam" opening in each face. The square type tomb structure and also the octagonal
type tomb structure marks the pattern of architecture during Sayyid and Lodi dynasty. The next
architectural development of Sayyid and Lodi dynasty was the tomb of Sikandar Lodi, built in A.D. 1517.
It reproduced the design of the tomb of Mohammed Sayyid.

The character and treatment of the monuments and tombs and the over all pattern of architecture
during Sayyid and Lodi dynasty indicate the fact that Delhi and its surrounding area during that time
attained a separate style of expressiveness through the etching, cutting and structuring of the stones
which was later redefined by the Mughals.

Ans 14

architecture during the time of Shershah Suri

He was the emperor of northern India from the period of 1540–1545 and ruled from Delhi, India. He
further developed Humayun's Dina-panah city and named it Shergarh and revived the historical city of
Pataliputra as Patna which had been in decline since the 7th century AD.

Indian Architecture during the rule of Sher Shah Suri can be segregated into two distinct periods, with
the first phase starting from the capital of Sher Shah Suri at Sasaram, in the Indian state of Bihar,
between 1530 and 1540 and the second phase was between 1540 and 1545. During the first phase
which runs from 1530 to 1540, a group of tombs were constructed taking the Lodi style to its ultimate
expression. During the second phase from 1540 to 1545, when Sher Shah Suri wrested control from
Humayun During the first phase which runs from 1530 to 1540, a group of tombs were constructed
taking the Lodi style to its ultimate expression. During the second phase from 1540 to 1545, when Sher
Shah Suri wrested control from Mughal architecture. The declared ambition of Sher Shah Suri was to
construct such an architectural embellishment that foe and friend might render their tribute of
applause, and that his name might remain honoured on the earth until the day of resurrection. The
product of his strange egotism was the chief advance in the development of an architectural style which
reached its apex under the rule of his successors.

Eg: Sher Mandal -

The Sher Mandal is an intriguing structure since the purpose why it was built is not clear. It is located in
the precincts of the Purana Quila or the Old Fort. The Sher Mandal has a touch of sadness attached to it,
as it was here that the second Mughal emperor Humayun fell to his death.

Sher Shah Suri Masjid

Built in Afghani architectural style, it is one of the many historic mosques in India and a landmark in
Patna. There is a tomb inside the complex of the mosque which is covered by an octagonal stone slab.
But the star attraction of the Sher Shah Suri Masjid is its central dome which lies in the middle of the
roof and is surrounded by Four small domes. The unique part of thist design is that if you view from any
angle there appears to be only three domes.

Ans 15

architecture of the Buddhist period

Afghanistan contains striking architectural remnants of all ages, including Greek and Buddhist stupas
(shrines or reliquaries) and monasteries, arches, monuments, intricate Islamic minarets (the tall, slender
towers on mosques), temples and forts. Among the most famous sites are the great mosques of Herat
and Mazar-e Sharif; the minaret of a mosque at Jam in the west central highlands; the 1000-year-old
Great Arch of Qal'eh-ye Bost; the Chel Zina (Forty Steps) and rock inscriptions made by Mughal emperor
Babur in Kandahar; the Great Buddha of Bamian (55 m/180 ft tall); the "Towers of Victory" in Ghazni;
and Emperor Babur's tomb and the great Bala Hissar fort in Kabul.

In the smaller arts, magnificent light blue-green fired tile work is famous in Herat, along with other fine
work in book illumination, illustration, bronze, stone, and wood.

One of the most spectacular sites is that of Takth i Raustam, near Samangan (Haybak), north of Hindu
Kush passes. It includes a complex of stupa with monastery, hewn out of the rock.The Buddhist in Takth i
Raustam here in the form of a mound, located on the hilltop, represents the earliest link to the
evolution of Buddhist architecture in Afghanistan
Ans 16

Sassanid rule in Persia and its influence on the Architectural Style

In many ways the Sassanid dynastic period (224-651 CE) witnessed the highest achievement of Persian
civilization, and constituted the last great Persian Empire before the Muslim conquest.

The unique characteristic of Sassanid architecture, was its distinctive use of space. The Sassanid
architect conceived his building in terms of masses and surfaces; hence the use of massive walls of brick
decorated with molded or carved stucco. Stucco wall decorations appear at Bishapur, but better
examples are preserved from Chal Tarkhan near Rayy (late Sassanid or early Islamic in date), and from
Ctesiphon and Kish in Mesopotamia. The panels show animal figures set in roundels, human busts, and
geometric and floral motifs.

The Persians solved the problem of constructing a circular dome on a square building by the squinch.
This is an arch built across each corner of the square, thereby converting it into an octagon on which it is
simple to place the dome. The dome chamber in the palace of Firouzabad is the earliest surviving
example of the use of the squinch and so there is good reason for regarding Persia as its place of
invention.

The influence of Sassanid architecture reached far beyond their borders, it had a distinctive influence
on Byzantine architecture and Islamic architecture. Islamic architecture in fact borrowed heavily from
Persian architecture. Baghdad, for example, was based on Persian precedents such as Firouzabad in
Persia. The Great Mosque of Samarra is another example, where the spiral edifice was based on Persian
architecture, such as the spiral tower in the middle of Firouzabad, a former Sassanid capital.

Ans 18

architectural features of Ottoman style

Ottoman architecture or Turkish architecture is the architecture of the Ottoman Empire which emerged
in Bursa and Edirne in 14th and 15th centuries. The architecture of the empire developed from the
earlier Seljuk architecture and was influenced by the Byzantine architecture, Iranian as well as Islamic
Mamluk traditions after the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans. The Ottomans achieved the
highest level architecture in their lands hence or since. They mastered the technique of building vast
inner spaces confined by seemingly weightless yet massive domes, and achieving perfect harmony
between inner and outer spaces, as well as articulated light and shadow.

The Hacı Özbek Mosque (1333) in İznik, the first important center of Ottoman art, is the first example of
an Ottoman single-domed mosque.
The domed architectural style evolved from Bursa and Edirne. The Holy Mosque in Bursa was the first
Seljuk mosque to be converted into a domed one. Edirne was the last Ottoman capital before Istanbul,
and it is here that we witness the final stages in the architectural development that culminated in the
construction of the great mosques of Istanbul. The Ottomans integrated mosques into the community
and added soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs.

The Classical period of Ottoman architecture is to a large degree a development of the prior approaches
as they evolved over the 15th and early 16th centuries and the start of the Classical period is strongly
associated with the works of Mimar Sinan. Classical Ottoman architecture was, ultimately a syncretic
blend of numerous influences and adaptations for Ottoman needs.

Ans 19

a)

Buddhism in China and its influence on art and architecture.

The architectural styles of Buddhist temples in China were mainly formed in three periods: Han Dynasty
(206BC-220), Northern and Southern Dynasties (386-589), and Tang Dynasty (618-907). The first period
sees the retention of Indian styles. In the second period, wooden framework was added to the original
styles. In the third period, the styles of Buddhist temples were totally Sinicized and the pavilion-like
pagoda, which is unique to China, became popular.

Buddhist architecture follow the imperial style. A large Buddhist monastery normally has a front hall,
housing the statue of a Bodhisattva, followed by a great hall, housing the statues of the Buddhas.
Accommodations for the monks and the nuns are located at the two sides. Some of the greatest
examples of this come from the 18th century temples of the Puning Temple and the Putuo Zongcheng
Temple. Buddhist monasteries sometimes also have pagodas, which may house the relics of the
Gautama Buddha; older pagodas tend to be four-sided, while later pagodas usually have eight-sides.

Eg. Gaomin Temple,Foguang Temple,Jade Buddha Temple, Longxing Monastery, etc

b)

Nara civilization in Japan.

Heijō-kyō, modern day Nara, was founded in 708 as the first permanent capital of state.

During the Nara period various changes took place in Buddhist temple architecture, mainly under
Chinese influence. Compared to the architecture of the earlier period, the temple complexes of Nara
were grander in scale. Both the pagoda and the main hall now became larger, but the pagoda was
increasingly moved to a more peripheral location and relegated to a secondary, ornamental role, while
the main hall became the centre of the compound.

eg: Todai-ji :

Todai-ji was founded by Emperor Shomu in 745 to protect against the horrible epidemics which were
commonplace at that time, and to consolidate the power of the Imperial throne. The temple took more
than 15 years to build. The main hall is still the worlds largest wooden building, even though it was
rebuilt in 1790 at only two-thirds of the original size.

c)

Angkor wat in Cambodia.

Angkor Wat, is a unique combination of the temple mountain, the standard design for the empire's state
temples, the later plan of concentric galleries, and influences from Orissa and the Chola of Tamil Nadu,
India. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods. Angkor Wat is the prime
example of the classical style of Khmer architecture—the Angkor Wat style—to which it has given its
name.

Most of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and for
hidden structural parts.

Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like
lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the
cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple.

d) -
Ans 20

development of Byzantine architecture

Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire. The empire gradually emerged as a
distinct artistic and cultural entity from what is today referred to as the Roman Empire after AD 330,
when the Roman Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire east from Rome to
Byzantium.

Early Byzantine architecture was built as a continuation of Roman architecture. Stylistic drift,
technological advancement, and political and territorial changes meant that a distinct style gradually
emerged which imbued certain influences from the Near East and used the Greek cross plan in church
architecture. Buildings increased in geometric complexity, brick and plaster were used in addition to
stone in the decoration of important public structures, classical orders were used more freely, mosaics
replaced carved decoration, complex domes rested upon massive piers, and windows filtered light
through thin sheets of alabaster to softly illuminate interiors.

Prime examples of early Byzantine architecture date from Justinian I's reign and survive in Ravenna and
Istanbul, as well as in Sofia (the Church of St Sophia). One of the great breakthroughs in the history of
Western architecture occurred when Justinian's architects invented a complex system providing for a
smooth transition from a square plan of the church to a circular dome (or domes) by means of squinches
or pendentives.

Secular structures include the ruins of the Great Palace of Constantinople, the innovative walls of
Constantinople (with 192 towers) and Basilica Cistern (with hundreds of recycled classical columns). A
frieze in the Ostrogothic palace in Ravenna depicts an early Byzantine palace.

Ans 21

development of Romanesque Architecture

Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of Medieval Europe characterised by semi-circular

arches. There is no consensus for the beginning date of the Romanesque architecture, with proposals
ranging from the 6th to the 10th century.

The development of Romanesque architecture owes much to the primacy accorded to vaulting. Masonry
vaulting since the beginning of Christian architecture had been confined to buildings of relatively small
scale and to crypts. Large basilican structures, in a continuation of a tradition inaugurated by the early
Christian basilica, were topped by wooden roofs.

Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe since the Roman
Empire. Despite the impression of 19th century Art Historians that Romanesque architecture was a
continuation of the Roman, in fact, Roman building techniques in brick and stone were largely lost in
most parts of Europe, and in the more northern countries had never been adopted except for official
buildings,

Architecture of a Romanesque style also developed simultaneously in the north of Italy, parts of France
and in the Iberian Peninsula in the 10th century and prior to the later influence of the Abbey of Cluny.
The style, sometimes called "First Romanesque" or "Lombard Romanesque", is characterised by thick
walls, lack of sculpture and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band.

It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style, which is characterised by pointed arches.
Romanesque architecture is known by its massive quality, its thick walls, round arches, sturdy piers,
groin vaults, large towers and decorative arcading. Each building has clearly defined forms and they are
frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan so that the overall appearance is one of simplicity when
compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow.

Ans 22

development of Gothic Architecture

Originating in 12th century France and lasting into the 16th century, Gothic architecture was known
during the period as "the French Style," (Opus Francigenum), with the term Gothic first appearing during
the latter part of the Renaissance. Its characteristic features include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault
and the flying buttress.

Gothic sculpture is linked to the rise in Gothic architecture, which began at the Abbey Church of
Saint-Denis, Gothic architecture and sculpture had become fully developed in the cathedrals of Amiens
and Reims, and spread to major towns in Britain, Iberia, and Germany.

From the mid-12th century to the 16th century northern European architecture was characterized by
the use of flying buttresses, pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and traceried windows. The thin walls,
slender columns, and the very large areas of glass in Gothic buildings gave an impression of lightness
that contrasted markedly with the Romanesque. Gothic architecture originated at the royal abbey
church of St. Denis, built by Abbot Suger between 1137 and 1144.

Gothic architecture was most fully developed in France and England, where the style spread in the late
12th century. The spread of Gothic to Germany was delayed until the mid-13th century, and in this
country only a few cathedrals, such as the one in Cologne (begun 1248), approached the size and quality
of the northern French prototypes.

The greatest concentration of Gothic secular buildings is in Belgium, in what was then the most
prosperous part of northwest Europe.
Ans 23

development of Medieval Architecture

Architecture played a very important role for the church in Medieval England. The more splendid the
architecture, the more the church believed it was praising God. Medieval churches and cathedrals were
superbly built.

Norman architecture tends to be dominated by a round shape style. In Medieval England, the Normans
used barely skilled Saxons as labourers and the tools they used were limited. The churches and
cathedrals built by the Normans tended to use large stones.

Norman walls and pillars had faced stone on the outer surfaces but rubble was put into the hollow
between the cut stone. Hence, the effect would be wall, rubble and wall. Pillars were effectively hollow
until the central core was filled with rubble.

Surviving examples of medieval secular architecture mainly served for defense. Castles and fortified
walls provide the most notable remaining non-religious examples of medieval architecture. Windows
gained a cross-shape for more than decorative purposes: they provided a perfect fit for a crossbowman
to safely shoot at invaders from inside. Crenellated walls (battlements) provided shelters for archers on
the roofs to hide behind when not shooting invaders.

Ans 25

a)
Flying buttresses.

A flying buttress is a specific form of buttressing most strongly associated with Gothic church
architecture. It serves to transmit the lateral forces pushing a wall outwards (which may arise from
stone vaulted ceilings or from wind-loading on roofs) across an intervening space and ultimately down
to the ground. Although fully fledged flying buttresses only developed in the Gothic period, their
precursors can be found in Byzantine architecture and in some Romanesque buildings, such as Durham
Cathedral, where quadrant arches were used to carry the lateral thrust of the stone vault over the aisles.

Early flying buttresses tended to be far heavier than is required for the static loads involved, as for
example at Chartres (c. 1210) and around the apse of the Basilica of St Remi in Reims, which is thought
to be among the earliest examples still surviving in its original form (dating from around 1170). Later
Gothic buildings continued to use flying buttresses but often embellished them with crockets on the
flyers and figural sculpture in niches or aedicules set into the buttresses. Renaissance and later
architecture eschewed the flying buttress in favour of thick-wall construction.
b)
Development of windows in Gothic architecture

The most significant and characteristic development of the Early English period was the pointed arch
known as the lancet. Pointed arches were used almost universally, not only in arches of wide span such
as those of the nave arcade, but also for doorways and lancet windows. The arched windows are usually
narrow by comparison to their height and are without tracery. The Lancet openings of windows and
decorative arcading are often grouped in twos or threes.

Since the walls themselves were no longer the primary supports, Gothic buildings could include large
areas of glass. Huge stained glass windows and a profusion of smaller windows created the effect of
lightness and space.

This perpendicular linearity is particularly obvious in the design of windows, which became very large,
sometimes of immense size, with slimmer stone mullions(vertical bars of stone) than in earlier periods,
allowing greater scope for stained glass craftsmen.

Inside the church the triforium disappears, or its place is filled with panelling, and greater importance is
given to the clerestory windows, which are often the finest features in the churches of this period.

f)
Gopurams

A Gopuram or Gopura, is a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially
in Southern India. This forms a prominent feature of Hindu temples of the Dravidian style. They are
topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone finial. They function as gateways through the walls that
surround the temple complex.

A gopuram is usually rectangular in form with ground-level wooden doors, often richly decorated,
providing access. Above is the tapering gopuram, divided into many storeys which diminish in size as the
gopuram tower narrows. Usually the tower is topped with a barrel vaulted roof with a finial.Gopurams
are exquisitely decorated with sculpture and carvings and painted with a variety of themes derived from
the Hindu mythology, particularly those associated with the presiding deity of the temple where the
gopuram is located.

The 'Rajagopuram' Gopuram of Murudeshwara in Karnataka is 249-feet tall and 21 floors and the tallest
Gopuram in the world.

g)
Development of Shikhara

Sikhara, a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising tower in the Hindu
temple architecture of North India. Sikhara over the sanctum sanctorum where the presiding deity is
enshrined is the most prominent and visible part of a Hindu temple of North India.

The shikhara is composed of a series of horizontal roof slabs gradually receding toward the top and
provided with projections that extend from the base and wall of the temple. The surface of the shikhara
is covered with a vinelike tracery composed of diminutive chandrashalas (ogee arches). Above the
truncated top (skandha) projects a necking on which rests a large grooved disk (amalasaraka), and above
it sits a pot with a crowning finial. Each story is indicated by miniature amalasarakas at the four corners,
repeated all the way to the top.

Among several styles of Sikharas that obtain in Hindu temple architecture, the two most common ones
are the "Dravidian" style prevalent in southern India and the "Nagar" style prevalent almost everywhere
else. Seen mostly in Karnataka and most commonly in Hoysala and later Chalukya temples. Both Nagara
and Dravida styles feature a tall and tapering tower, the dravidian style is highly ornate, as seen at the
Tirupati temple. The "Nagar" style is simpler and consists of a curvilinear dome.