MARWAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

AND
RESEARCH CENTRE

A Seminar Presentation on
Wind energy

Submitted
In The Partial fulfillment of
Bachelor of Technology
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Prof. Abhay Singh Bhati
Faculty of Department B.Tech.(ME): IV Year
Mechanical Engineering Semester: VIII
Marwar Engineering college RollNo.:11EMRME001
& Research Centre.
RENEWABLW ENERGY-

Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes

from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale
such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal
heat. Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct
areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels,
and rural (off-grid) energy services.
Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to
our energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in
2012 and 2013, respectively. Both, modern renewables, such as hydro,
wind, solar and biofuels, as well as traditional biomass, contributed in
about equal parts to the global energy supply. Worldwide investments
in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$214 billion in
2013, with countries like China and the United States heavily investing
in wind, hydro, solar and biofuels.
Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in
contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited
number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy
and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate
change mitigation, and economic benefits. In international public
opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable
sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at
least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy
contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National
renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly
in the coming decade and beyond.
While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable
technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas anddeveloping
countries, where energy is often crucial in human development.
USES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY-

 Power generation. Renewable energy provides 21.7% of

electricity generation worldwide as of 2013.[12] Renewable power
generators are spread across many countries, and wind power
alone already provides a significant share of electricity in some
areas: for example, 14% in the U.S. state of Iowa, 40% in the
northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, and 49% in
Denmark. Some countries get most of their power from
renewables, including Iceland (100%), Norway (98%), Brazil (86%),
Austria (62%), New Zealand (65%), and Sweden (54%).

 Heating. Solar water heating makes an important contribution

to renewable heat in many countries, most notably in China,
which now has 70% of the global total (180 GWth). Most of these
systems are installed on multi-family apartment buildings and
meet a portion of the hot water needs of an estimated 50–60
million households in China. Worldwide, total installed solar water
heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of
over 70 million households. The use of biomass for heating
continues to grow as well. In Sweden, national use of biomass
energy has surpassed that of oil. Direct geothermal for heating is
also growing rapidly.

 Transport fuels. Renewable biofuels have contributed to a

significant decline in oil consumption in the United States since
2006.[13]The 93 billion liters of biofuels produced worldwide in
2009 displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion liters of
gasoline, equal to about 5% of world gasoline production.
WIND POWER

The 845 MW Shepherds Flat Wind Farm near Arlington, Oregon, USA
Airflows can be used to run wind turbines. Modern utility-scale wind
turbines range from around 600 kW to 5 MW of rated power, although
turbines with rated output of 1.5–3 MW have become the most
common for commercial use; the power available from the wind is a
function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed increases,
power output increases up to the maximum output for the particular
turbine. Areas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as
offshore and high altitude sites, are preferred locations for wind farms.
Typical capacity factors are 20-40%, with values at the upper end of the
range in particularly favourable sites.
Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind energy is believed
to be five times total current global energy production, or 40 times
current electricity demand, assuming all practical barriers needed were
overcome. This would require wind turbines to be installed over large
areas, particularly in areas of higher wind resources, such as offshore.
As offshore wind speeds average ~90% greater than that of land, so
offshore resources can contribute substantially more energy than land
stationed turbines.
Hydropower

Energy in water can be harnessed and used. Since water is about 800
times denser than air, even a slow flowing stream of water, or
moderate sea swell, can yield considerable amounts of energy. There
are many forms of water energy:

 Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for large-scale

hydroelectric dams. The largest of which is the Three Gorges
Dam inChina and a smaller example is the Akosombo Dam in Ghana.
 Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that
typically produce up to 100 kW of power. They are often used in
water rich areas as a remote-area power supply (RAPS).
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region
generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the
largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of
production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic
electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity stations larger
than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam across the
Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.
Wave power, which captures the energy of ocean surface waves,
and tidal power, converting the energy of tides, are two forms of
hydropower with future potential; however, they are not yet widely
employed commercially. A demonstration project operated by
the Ocean Renewable Power Company on the coast of Maine, and
connected to the grid, harnesses tidal power from the Bay of Fundy,
location of world's highest tidal flow. Ocean thermal energy
conversion, which uses the temperature difference between cooler
deep and warmer surface waters, has currently no economic feasibility.
Solar energy

The 354 MW SEGS solar complex in San Bernardino, California, USA

Main article: Solar energy
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a
range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar
heating,photovoltaics, concentrated solar power, solar
architecture and artificial photosynthesis.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive
solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and
distribute solar energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a
building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or
light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally
circulate air.
Active solar technologies encompass solar thermal energy, using solar
collectors for heating, and solar power,
converting sunlight intoelectricity either directly
using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar
power (CSP).
A photovoltaic system converts light into electrical direct current (DC)
by taking advantage of the photoelectric effect. Solar PV has turned
into a multi-billion, fast-growing industry, continues to improve its
cost-effectiveness, and has the most potential of any renewable
technologies together with CSP. Concentrated solar power (CSP)
systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large
area of sunlight into a small beam. Commercial concentrated solar
power plants were first developed in the 1980s. CSP-Stirling has by far
the highest efficiency among all solar energy technologies.
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of
affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have
huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries' energy security
through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-
independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower
the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower
than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional
costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered
learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely
shared".
Biomass

A combined heat and power plant inMetz, France. The station uses
wood and supplies 30,000 households.
Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living
organisms. It most often refers to plants or plant-derived materials
which are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass. As an energy
source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce
heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel.
Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods
which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical,
and biochemical methods.
Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today; examples
include forest residues (such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps),
yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal solid waste. In the
second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be
converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels.
Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants,
including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghu
m, sugarcane, bamboo, and a variety of tree species, ranging
from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil).
Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for use as fuel that
offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy. Some
examples of these plants are wheat, which typically yield 7.5–8 tonnes
of grain per hectare, and straw, which typically yield 3.5–5 tonnes per
hectare in the UK.[39] The grain can be used for liquid transportation
fuels while the straw can be burned to produce heat or electricity.
Plant biomass can also be degraded from cellulose to glucose through a
series of chemical treatments, and the resulting sugar can then be used
as a first generation biofuel.
Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like
methane gas or transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting
garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane gas –
also called "landfill gas" or "biogas". Crops, such as corn and sugar
cane, can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol.
Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over
food products like vegetable oils and animal fats. Also, biomass to
liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still under research.
There is a great deal of research involving algal, or algae-derived,
biomass due to the fact that it's a non-food resource and can be
produced at rates 5 to 10 times those of other types of land-based
agriculture, such as corn and soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented
to produce biofuels such as ethanol, butanol, and methane, as well
as biodiesel andhydrogen.
The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region. Forest by-
products, such as wood residues, are common in the United States.
Agricultural waste is common inMauritius (sugar cane residue)
and Southeast Asia (rice husks). Animal husbandry residues, such as
poultry litter, are common in the UK.
Biofuel

Sugarcane plantation to produceethanol in Brazil

Biofuels include a wide range of fuels which are derived from biomass.
The term covers solid biofuels, liquid biofuels, and gaseous
biofuels. Liquid biofuels include bioalcohols, such as bioethanol, and
oils, such as biodiesel. Gaseous biofuels include biogas, landfill
gas and synthetic gas.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of
plant materials and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops.
These include maize, sugar cane and, more recently, sweet sorghum.
The latter crop is particularly suitable for growing in dryland conditions,
and is being investigated by International Crops Research Institute for
the Semi-Arid Tropics for its potential to provide fuel, along with food
and animal feed, in arid parts of Asia and Africa.
With advanced technology being developed, cellulosic biomass, such as
trees and grasses, are also used as feedstocks for ethanol production.
Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is
usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve
vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil.
Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases.
Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is
usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon
monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel
is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most
common biofuel in Europe.
Biofuels provided 2.7% of the world's transport fuel in 2010.
Geothermal energy

Steam rising from the Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station in Iceland

Geothermal energy is from thermal energy generated and stored in the
Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines
thetemperature of matter. Earth's geothermal energy originates from
the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive
decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the
difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its
surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form
of heat from the core to the surface. The
adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo, meaning
earth, and thermos, meaning heat.
The heat that is used for geothermal energy can be from deep within
the Earth, all the way down to Earth's core – 4,000 miles (6,400 km)
down. At the core, temperatures may reach over 9,000 °F (5,000 °C).
Heat conducts from the core to surrounding rock. Extremely high
temperature and pressure cause some rock to melt, which is
commonly known as magma. Magma convects upward since it is
lighter than the solid rock. This magma then heats rock and water in
the crust, sometimes up to 700 °F (371 °C).
From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing
since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman
times, but it is now better known for electricity generation.
NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY

A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a resource

that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic
extraction in meaningful human time-frames. An example is carbon-
based, organically-derived fuel. The original organic material, with the
aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or
gas. Earth minerals and metal ores, fossil fuels (such ascoal, petroleum,
and natural gas), nuclear fuels, and groundwater in certain aquifers are
all non-renewable resources.
In contrast, resources such as timber (when harvested sustainably) and
wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are
considered renewable resources, largely because their localized
replenishment can occur within timeframes meaningful to humans.
EARTH MINERAL AND METAL ORES

Earth minerals and metal ores are other examples of non-renewable

resources. The metals themselves are present in vast amounts in
Earth crust, and their extraction by humans only occurs where they are
concentrated by natural geological processes (such as heat, pressure,
organic activity, weathering and other processes) enough to become
economically viable to extract. These processes generally take from
tens of thousands to millions of years, through plate tectonics, tectonic
subsidence and crustal recycling.
The localized deposits of metal ores near the surface which can be
extracted economically by humans are non-renewable in human time-
frames, but on a world scale the most common metal ores as a whole
are virtually inexhaustible[citation needed], in the terms that the
amount vastly exceeds human demand or the capacity to mine them,
on all time-frames.
There are certain rare earth minerals and elements that are more
scarce and exhaustible than others, these are in high demand
in manufacturing, particularly for the electronics industry.
Although metal ores are technically non-renewable, similar
to rocks and sand, humans are unlikely at the current rate to deplete
the world's supply.[citation needed] In this respect, metal ores are
considered vastly greater in supply to fossil fuels, because metal ores
are formed by crustal-scale processes which make up a much larger
portion of the earth's near-surface environment, than those that form
fossil fuels. Which are limited to areas where carbon-based life forms
flourish, die, and are quickly buried, moreover these fossil fuel forming
environments and deposits that we use today occurred extensively in
the Carboniferous Period of history.
Fossil fuels
Natural resources such as coal, petroleum (crude oil) and natural
gas take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced
as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually it is considered that
fossil-based resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity
will need to shift its reliance to other sources of energy. These
resources are yet to be named.
An alternative hypothesis is that carbon based fuel is virtually
inexhaustible in human terms, if one includes all sources of carbon-
based energy such as methane hydrates on the sea floor, which are
vastly greater than all other carbon based fossil fuel resources
combined. These sources of carbon are also considered non-
renewable, although their rate of formation/replenishment on the sea
floor is not known. However their extraction at economically viable
costs and rates has yet to be determined.
At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable
fossil fuels. Since the dawn of internal combustion engine technologies
in the 17th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in
continual demand. As a result,
conventional infrastructure and transport systems, which are fitted to
combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe. The
continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate is believed to
increase global warming and cause more severe climate change.
Nuclear fuels

Rössing uranium mine is the longest-running and one of the largest

open pit uranium mines in the world, every year it produces eight
percent of global uranium needs.
In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED) an organization set up by but independent from
the United Nations classified fission reactors that produce
more fissile nuclear fuel than they consume -i.e. breeder reactors, and
when it is developed, fusion power, among conventional renewable
energy sources, such as solar and falling water. The American
Petroleum Institute likewise does not consider conventional nuclear
fission as renewable, but that breeder reactor nuclear power fuel is
considered renewable and sustainable, before explaining that
radioactive waste from used spent fuel rods remains dangerous, and so
has to be very carefully stored for up to a thousand years. With the
careful monitoring of radioactive waste products also being required
upon the use of other renewable energy sources, such as geothermal
energy.
The use of nuclear technology relying on fission requires Naturally
occurring radioactive material as fuel. Uranium, the most common
fission fuel, and is present in the ground at relatively low
concentrations and mined in 19 countries. This mined uranium is used
to fuel energy-generating nuclear reactors with fissionable uranium-
235 which generates heat that is ultimately used to power turbines to
generate electricity.
Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of
the world's electricity. The expense of the nuclear industry remains
predominantly reliant on subsidies and indirect insurance subsidies to
continue. Nuclear energy production is associated with potentially
dangerous radioactive contamination as it relies upon unstable
elements. In particular, nuclear power facilities produce about 200,000
metric tons of low and intermediate level waste (LILW) and 10,000
metric tons of high level waste (HLW) (including spent fuel designated
as waste) each year worldwide.
The use of nuclear fuel and the high-level radioactive waste the nuclear
industry generates is highly hazardous to people and wildlife.
Radiocontaminants in the environment can enter the food chain and
become bioaccumulated. Internal or external exposure can
causemutagenic DNA breakage
producing teratogenic generational birth defects, cancers and other
damage. The United Nations (UNSCEAR) estimated in 2008 that
average annual human radiation exposure includes 0.01 mSv (milli-
Sievert) from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing plus
the Chernobyl disaster and the nuclear fuel cycle, along with 2.0 mSv
from natural radioisotopes and 0.4 mSv fromcosmic rays; all
exposures vary by location. natural uranium radioisotopes in nuclear
waste and naturally in the ground emits radiation for the prolonged
period of 4.5 billion years or more, and storage has risks of
containment. The storage of waste, health implications and dangers of
radioactive fuel continue to be a topic of debate, resulting in
a controversial and unresolved industry.
Wind power

Wind power is extracted from air flow using wind turbines or sails to
produce mechanical or electrical power. Windmills are used for their
mechanical power, windpumps for water pumping, and sails to
propel ships. Wind power as an alternative to fossil fuels, is
plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces
no greenhouse gas emissions during operation, and uses little land. The
neteffects on the environment are generally less problematic than
those from nonrenewable power sources.
Large wind farms can consist of hundreds of individual wind turbines
which are connected to the electric power transmission network.Gansu
Wind Farm, the largest wind farm in the world, has several thousands
of turbines. Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electricity,
competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal, gas or fossil fuel
plants. Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land, and
offshore farms have less visual impact, but construction and
maintenance costs are considerably higher. Small onshore wind farms
can feed some energy into the grid or provide electricity to isolated off-
grid locations.
Wind power is very consistent from year to year but has significant
variation over shorter time scales. It is therefore used in conjunction
with other sources to give a reliable supply. As the proportion of
windpower in a region increases, a need to upgrade the grid, and a
lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur. Power
management techniques such as having excess capacity, geographically
distributed turbines, dispatchable backing sources,
sufficient hydroelectric power, exporting and importing power to
neighboring areas, using Vehicle-to-grid strategies or reducing demand
when wind production is low, can in many cases overcome these
problems. In addition, weather forecasting permits the electricity
network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that
occur.
As of 2014, Denmark had been generating around 40% of its electricity
from wind, and at least 83 other countries around the world are using
wind power to supply their electricity grids. Wind power capacity has
expanded rapidly to 336 GW in June 2014, and wind energy production
was around 4% of total worldwide electricity usage, and growing
rapidly.

History

Charles Brush's windmill of 1888, used for generating electricity.

Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the
wind. For more than two millennia wind-powered machines have
ground grain and pumped water. Wind power was widely available and
not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later, requiring
sources of fuel. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the
Netherlands, and in arid regions such as the American mid-west or
the Australian outback, wind pumps provided water for live stock and
steam engines.
The first windmill used for the production of electricity was built
in Scotland in July 1887 by Prof James Blyth of Anderson's College,
Glasgow (the precursor of Strathclyde University). Blyth's 10 m high,
cloth-sailed wind turbine was installed in the garden of his holiday
cottage at Marykirk in Kincardineshire and was used to
charge accumulators developed by the Frenchman Camille Alphonse
Faure, to power the lighting in the cottage, thus making it the first
house in the world to have its electricity supplied by wind
power.[18] Blyth offered the surplus electricity to the people of
Marykirk for lighting the main street, however, they turned down the
offer as they thought electricity was "the work of the
devil."[17] Although he later built a wind turbine to supply emergency
power to the local Lunatic Asylum, Infirmary and Dispensary
of Montrose the invention never really caught on as the technology
was not considered to be economically viable.[17]
Across the Atlantic, in Cleveland, Ohio a larger and heavily engineered
machine was designed and constructed in the winter of 1887-1888
by Charles F. Brush, this was built by his engineering company at his
home and operated from 1886 until 1900. The Brush wind turbine had
a rotor 17 m (56 foot) in diameter and was mounted on an 18 m (60
foot) tower. Although large by today's standards, the machine was only
rated at 12 kW. The connected dynamo was used either to charge a
bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent light bulbs,
three arc lamps, and various motors in Brush's laboratory.
With the development of electric power, wind power found new
applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated
power. Throughout the 20th century parallel paths developed small
wind stations suitable for farms or residences, and larger utility-scale
wind generators that could be connected to electricity grids for remote
use of power. Today wind powered generators operate in every size
range between tiny stations for battery charging at isolated residences,
up to near-gigawatt sized offshore wind farms that provide electricity
to national electrical networks.
Wind farm
Large onshore wind farms
Current
Wind farm capacity Country
(MW)

Gansu Wind Farm 6,000 China

Alta (Oak Creek-Mojave) 1,320 United States

Jaisalmer Wind Park 1,064 India
Shepherds Flat Wind Farm 845 United States

Roscoe Wind Farm 782 United States

Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center 736 United States

Capricorn Ridge Wind Farm 662 United States

Fântânele-Cogealac Wind Farm 600 Romania
Fowler Ridge Wind Farm 600 United States

Whitelee Wind Farm 539 United Kingdom

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for
production of electricity. A large wind farm may consist of several
hundred individual wind turbines distributed over an extended area,
but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or
other purposes. A wind farm may also be located offshore.
Almost all large wind turbines have the same design — a horizontal axis
wind turbine having an upwind rotor with three blades, attached to a
nacelle on top of a tall tubular tower.
In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium
voltage (often 34.5 kV), power collection system and communications
network. At a substation, this medium-voltage electric current is
increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high
voltageelectric power transmission system.

Generator characteristics and stability

Induction generators, which were often used for wind power projects
in the 1980s and 1990s, require reactive
power for excitation so substations used in wind-power collection
systems include substantial capacitor banks for power factor
correction. Different types of wind turbine generators behave
differently during transmission grid disturbances, so extensive
modelling of the dynamic electromechanical characteristics of a new
wind farm is required by transmission system operators to ensure
predictable stable behaviour during system faults. In particular,
induction generators cannot support the system voltage during faults,
unlike steam or hydro turbine-driven synchronous generators.
Today these generators aren't used any more in modern turbines.
Instead today most turbines use variable speed generators combined
with partial- or full-scale power converter between the turbine
generator and the collector system, which generally have more
desirable properties for grid interconnection and have Low voltage ride
through-capabilities. Modern concepts use either doubly fed
machines with partial-scale converters or squirrel-cage induction
generators or synchronous generators (both permanently and
electrically excited) with full scale converters.
Transmission systems operators will supply a wind farm developer with
a grid code to specify the requirements for interconnection to the
transmission grid. This will include power factor, constancy
of frequency and dynamic behaviour of the wind farm turbines during
a system fault.

Offshore wind power

Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms in large
bodies of water to generate electricity. These installations can utilize
the more frequent and powerful winds that are available in these
locations and have less aesthetic impact on the landscape than land
based projects. However, the construction and the maintenance costs
are considerably higher.
Siemens and Vestas are the leading turbine suppliers for offshore wind
power. DONG Energy, Vattenfall and E.ON are the leading offshore
operators.[38] As of October 2010, 3.16 GW of offshore wind power
capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe. According
to BTM Consult, more than 16 GW of additional capacity will be
installed before the end of 2014 and the UK and Germany will become
the two leading markets. Offshore wind power capacity is expected to
reach a total of 75 GW worldwide by 2020, with significant
contributions from China and the US.
The world's second full-scale floating wind turbine (and first to be
installed without the use of heavy-lift vessels), WindFloat, operating at
rated capacity (2 MW) approximately 5 km offshore of Póvoa de
Varzim, Portugal
At the end of 2012, 1,662 turbines at 55 offshore wind farms in 10
European countries are generating 18 TWh, which can power almost
five million households. As of August 2013 the London Array in
the United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at
630 MW. This is followed by the Greater Gabbard Wind Farm (504
MW), also in the UK. The 576 MW Gwynt y Môr wind farm is currently
in its final commissioning phase expected to end in 2015.
Collection and transmission network

Typical components of a wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake

assembly) being lifted into position
In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium
voltage (usually 34.5 kV) power collection system and communications
network. At a substation, this medium-voltage electrical current is
increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high
voltage electric power transmission system.
A transmission line is required to bring the generated power to (often
remote) markets. For an off-shore plant this may require a submarine
cable. Construction of a new high-voltage line may be too costly for the
wind resource alone, but wind sites may take advantage of lines
installed for conventionally fueled generation.
One of the biggest current challenges to wind power grid integration in
the United States is the necessity of developing new transmission lines
to carry power from wind farms, usually in remote lowly populated
states in the middle of the country due to availability of wind, to high
load locations, usually on the coasts where population density is
higher. The current transmission lines in remote locations were not
designed for the transport of large amounts of energy. As transmission
lines become longer the losses associated with power transmission
increase, as modes of losses at lower lengths are exacerbated and new
modes of losses are no longer negligible as the length is increased,
making it harder transport large loads over large distances. However,
resistance from state and local governments makes it difficult to
construct new transmission lines. Multi state power transmission
projects are discouraged by states with cheap electricity rates for fear
that exporting their cheap power will lead to increased rates. A 2005
energy law gave the Energy Department authority to approve
transmission projects states refused to act on, but after an attempt to
use this authority, the Senate declared the department was being
overly aggressive in doing so. Another problem is that wind companies
find out after the fact that the transmission capacity of a new farm is
below the generation capacity, largely because federal utility rules to
encourage renewable energy installation allow feeder lines to meet
only minimum standards. These are important issues that need to be
solved, as when the transmission capacity does not meet the
generation capacity, wind farms are forced to produce below their full
potential or stop running all together, in a process known as
curtailment. While this leads to potential renewable generation left
untapped, it prevents possible grid overload or risk to reliable service.

Wind power capacity and production

Worldwide there are now over two hundred thousand wind turbines
operating, with a total nameplate capacity of 282,482 MW as of end
2012. The European Union alone passed some 100,000 MW nameplate
capacity in September 2012, while the United States surpassed 50,000
MW in August 2012 and China's grid connected capacity passed 50,000
MW the same month.
World wind generation capacity more than quadrupled between 2000
and 2006, doubling about every three years. The United States
pioneered wind farms and led the world in installed capacity in the
1980s and into the 1990s. In 1997 installed capacity in Germany
surpassed the U.S. and led until once again overtaken by the U.S. in
2008. China has been rapidly expanding its wind installations in the late
2000s and passed the U.S. in 2010 to become the world leader. As of
2011, 83 countries around the world were using wind power on a
commercial basis.
Wind power capacity has expanded rapidly to 336 GW in June 2014,
and wind energy production was around 4% of total worldwide
electricity usage, and growing rapidly. The actual amount of electricity
that wind is able to generate is calculated by multiplying the nameplate
capacity by the capacity factor, which varies according to equipment
and location. Estimates of the capacity factors for wind installations are
in the range of 35% to 44%.
Europe accounted for 48% of the world total wind power generation
capacity in 2009. In 2010, Spain became Europe's leading producer of
wind energy, achieving 42,976 GWh. Germany held the top spot in
Europe in terms of installed capacity, with a total of 27,215 MW as of
31 December 2010.

Growth trends
In 2010, more than half of all new wind power was added outside of
the traditional markets in Europe and North America. This was largely
from new construction in China, which accounted for nearly half the
new wind installations (16.5 GW).
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) figures show that 2007 recorded
an increase of installed capacity of 20 GW, taking the total installed
wind energy capacity to 94 GW, up from 74 GW in 2006. Despite
constraints facing supply chains for wind turbines, the annual market
for wind continued to increase at an estimated rate of 37%, following
32% growth in 2006. In terms of economic value, the wind energy
sector has become one of the important players in the energy markets,
with the total value of new generating equipment installed in 2007
reaching €25 billion, or US$36 billion.
Although the wind power industry was affected by the global financial
crisis in 2009 and 2010, a BTM Consult five-year forecast up to 2013
projects substantial growth. Over the past five years the average
growth in new installations has been 27.6% each year. In the forecast
to 2013 the expected average annual growth rate is 15.7%. More than
200 GW of new wind power capacity could come on line before the
end of 2014. Wind power market penetration is expected to reach
3.35% by 2013 and 8% by 2018.

Capacity factor
Wind power can be considered a topic in applied eolics.[66] Since wind
speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never
as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by
the total hours in a year. The ratio of actual productivity in a year to
this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor. Typical capacity
factors are 15–50%; values at the upper end of the range are achieved
in favourable sites and are due to wind turbine design improvements.
Online data is available for some locations, and the capacity factor can
be calculated from the yearly output. For example, the German
nationwide average wind power capacity factor over all of 2012 was
just under 17.5% (45867 GW·h/yr / (29.9 GW × 24 × 366) = 0.1746), and
the capacity factor for Scottish wind farms averaged 24% between
2008 and 2010.
Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is affected by
several parameters, including the variability of the wind at the site and
the size of the generator relative to the turbine's swept area. A small
generator would be cheaper and achieve a higher capacity factor but
would produce less electricity (and thus less profit) in high winds.
Conversely, a large generator would cost more but generate little extra
power and, depending on the type, may stall out at low wind speed.
Thus an optimum capacity factor of around 40–50% would be aimed
for.
A 2008 study released by the U.S. Department of Energy noted that the
capacity factor of new wind installations was increasing as the
technology improves, and projected further improvements for future
capacity factors. In 2010, the department estimated the capacity factor
of new wind turbines in 2010 to be 45%. The annual average capacity
factor for wind generation in the US has varied between 28.1% and
32.3% during the period 2008-2013.