LESSON 1- Resumen

Linguistics-

1- What is linguistics?
Is the scientific, systematic study of human languages.
2- What is linguist?
The person who analyze the language
3- What is the difference between a linguist and a
polyglot?
Linguist: It is no necessary speaks more than 2 languages
to be a linguist.
Polyglot: speaks more than one language
4- What is Philologist?
The person who study the literal meaning of a text. (Their
original form)
5- What is multilingual?
A person who is be able to use more than two languages
for communication.
6- How does Linguistics differ from traditional
grammar?
Grammar: Linguistics:
1- Prescriptive 1- Descriptive
2- Written (is more important) 2- Oral is primary
3- Languages are compared to Latin. 3- Languages are
are analyzed individually
7- What does “scope” mean?
It means what linguistics cover.
8 - How is Phonetics different from Phonology?
Phonetics: (is descriptive) It studies how sounds are
produced and perceived.
Phonology: (is prescriptive) It studies which sound
sequences are possible in your language.
9- What is the difference between Morphology and
Syntax?
Morphology: Study the shape of words.
Syntax: study how the phrases are formed.
10- How do Semantics and Pragmatics differ?
Semantics: literal meaning (is ambiguous) (have more than
2 meanings)
Pragmatics: Study everything that is not literal. (What`s
up?)
11- What is the object of study of Sociolinguistics?
The relationship between language and society. How can
society influence the language.
12- What is Psycholinguistics?
Is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors
that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and
produce language (concerned with the mechanisms in
which languages are processed and represented in the
brain.
13- What is Neurolinguistics?
Relationship between language and the structure and
functioning of the brain
14- What is applied linguistics?
Application of Linguistics. Teaching foreign/second
language
15- What does Anthropological linguistics study?
Language incross cultural, compare culture.
16- What is the object of study of Stylistics?
Stylistics deals with styles, poetic, scientific, newspaper,
colloquial style.
17- What does Computational linguistics study?
Study the statistical or rue-based modeling of natural
language from a computational perspective.
18- What is the object of study of Philosophical
linguistics?
Study the logical language.
19- What is Synchronic linguistics?
Study the language at a given point in time. The time
studied may be either the present or a particular point in the
past (historical linguistics)
20- What is diachronic linguistics?
Is the study of a language through different periods in
history.
 Lesson 2- Fact or Fantasy : Resumen
Linguistics.
1- (F) All languages are equally complex.
2- (F) It is not necessary the logical.
3- (F) We follow structures (There is an universal grammar)

4- (F) They cannot be analyzed on the same grammar.

5- (F) It does not exist. Each language has their grammar, but it
is not absolute.
6- (F) There are no pure languages.
7- (F) All words are invented
8- (F) It is a mixture of a lot of things.
9- (F) Find the way to express concepts about society ( create,
borrow)
10- ( F) al languages change constantly , language is
infinitive.
11- (F) Lazy does not exist
12- (F) Belong to the language
13- (F) Everything has a middle part
14- (F) We think different
15- (F) Intuitions are part of us
16- (F) It is possible, languages are very flexible.
17- (F) They are dynamics, they change , are flexible, there
are not pure languages
18- (F) There are no pure languages.
19- (F) It is not the basics of “all”
20- (F)
21- (F) No the base of all languages.
22- (F) Linguistics is not static as grammar.
23- (F) They are the same language
24- (T) Are wrong ideas from people.
25- (F) Do not need to know grammar to speak a native
language
26- (F) It is not true because it says ( Only )
27- (F) All languages are real.
28- (F) No, because they see the world in different ways.
29- (F) primitive, (simple) All languages are equally
complex
30- (F) Foreign: when you study a new language
second language: when your country is bilingual for example:
In Paraguay: we speak Spanish and our second language is
Guarani.
31- (F) No language is more logical than other.
32- (F) Each language is beautiful , all languages are
complex
33- (F) All languages have the same importance.
34-
35-
36- (F) There is not a primitive language. All languages are
equally complex
37- (F) Speakers of a standard language speak a dialect.
38- (F) Each language is complex.
39- (F) They are correct.
40- A language can´t be “protected” from changing.
41- (F) All languages are equally complex.
42- (T) Secretaria Nacional de Lingüística del Paraguay
43- (T)
44- (F) There are a lot of correct ways to speak each
language.
45- (F) There are not absolutes in any language.
46- (F) You can learn out the class.
47- (F) A translation often changes the meaning of the text.
48- (F) We learn in different way.
49- (F) There are some many people who speak different
languages. English is not mandatory.
50- (F) We use them and adapt them to our language.
51- (F) if it is a word , is pronounceable.
52- (F)
53- (F) The spoken is as important as written
54- (F)
55- (F)
 56- (F) If you want to be something in this life you must study
no because you are going to receive a gift is because effort
will open you many doors.
57- (F) You can live wherever you want, if you don’t speak
the language of that country that is the challenge to grow up.

LESSON 3 . RESUMEN
Language:
FEATURES:
1. Use of sound signals: "Sound signals" because just sounds
doesn't mean anything, sounds
combined together have meaning.
2. Duality: Having two different layers: sound and meaning
together. They have a dual function:
producing the sound and giving a meaning to it, it has to mean
something.
3. Cultural transmission: The need of having someone who
teach us or live with people who
speaks the language. We, human beings, need to learn it or listen
people who speaks the
language.
4. Displacement: Human ability to talk about different _mes. I
can talk about the past or the
future.
5. Creativity: In linguis_cs, this means produc_on. The ability to
produce an infinite number of
sentences. (Codemixing - jopara: mixing and using words from
different languages).
6. Patterning: We use an order to place the words. There are
types of words, and they have a
special place in every sentence. We're able to follow this
"pattern".
7. Structure dependence: We need grammar, for us to
communicate. If the other person doesn't
know my grammar or structure, there is not an understanding.
8. Arbitrariness: Based on random choice, without following all
the rules. For example, there is
no reason why chair is called like that. There is no relation
between the object and the sound.
It's arbitrary. (There is no intrinsic connection between sound
and meaning)
So, having these features into consideration we can say that
Language is: A patterned system of arbitrary sound
signals, characterized by structure dependence, creativity,
displacement, duality and cultural transmission.

Lesson 4. History of Linguistics

1. What is synchronic linguistics?

Synchronic linguistics is the analysis of any language at a
single point in time
2. What is diachronic linguistics?
Diachronic Linguistics is the analysis of any language
through time
3. How is the history of linguistics divided?
The history of linguistics can be split in three main periods:
Historical Linguistics: 19th century
Descriptive Linguistics: early-to mid-20th century
Generative Linguistics: mid-to-late 20th century
4. Talk about Historical Linguistics.
Before the 19th century, language in the western world was
of interest mainly to
philosophers. Plato is said to have been the first person to
distinguish between nouns
and verbs.
The birthdate of linguistics: in 1786 Sir William Jones said
that Sanskrit (an old Indian
Language), Greek, Latin, Celtic and Germanic all had
striking structural similarities. So
impressive were these likenesses that these languages
must spring from one common
source, he concluded.
Linguists were very concerned about finding the common
source of language, which
they called "Proto-Indo-European". In the mid-19th century,
Darwin published his
famous "Origin of Species", putting forward the theory of
evolution. It seemed natural to
attempt to chart the evolution of language alongside the
evolution of species.
In the last quarter of the 19th century, a group of scholars
claimed that language change
is "regular" they argued that if, in any word of a given
dialect, one sound changes into
another, the change will also affect all other occurrences of
the same sound in similar
phonetic surroundings.
5. Talk about Descriptive Linguistics.
In the 20th century, the emphasis shifted from language
change to language description.
The person responsible for this change was the Swiss
scholar Ferdinand de Saussure,
who is sometimes called, "The father of Modern
Linguistics". Amazingly, he died without
having written any major work on general linguistics. But his
students collected together
his lecture notes after his death and published them under
the title Course in General
Linguistics, which exerted a major influence on the course
of linguistics. His crucial
contribution was that all language items are essentially
interlinked. Nobody had
seriously examined the relationship of each element to all
the others. His insistence that
language is a carefully built structure of interwoven
elements initiated the era of
structural linguistics.
In America, linguistics began as an offshoot of
anthropology. Around the beginning of
the 20th century, anthropologists were eager to record the
culture of the fast-dying
American-Indian tribes, and the American-Indian languages
were one aspect of this.
Leonard Bloomfield published "Language" which attempted
to lay down rigorous
procedures for the description of any language. During the
"Bloomfieldian era", large
numbers of linguists concentrated on writing descriptive
grammars of unwritten
languages.
6. Talk about Generative Linguistics.
In 1957, a teacher from the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Noam Chomsky,
published a book called Syntactic Structures. This 120-page
book started a revolution in
linguistics. Chomsky is the most influential linguist of the
century. He has shifted
attention away from detailed descriptions of actual
utterances, and started asking
questions about the nature of the system which produces
the output. Chomsky claimed
that a grammar should be more than a description of old
utterances. It should also take
into account possible future utterances.
This period is called generative linguistics because a
grammar which consists of a set
of statements or rules which specify which sequences of a
language are possible, and
which are impossible, is a generative grammar. Chomsky
then, initiated the era of Generative linguistics.
Theories of Language Origin:

The origin of language (glottogony, glossogeny) is a

topic that has been written about for centuries, but the
ephemeral nature of speech means that there is almost no
data on which to base conclusions on the subject concepts.
Homo sapiens clearly have an inherent capability for
language that is not present in any other species known
today. Whether other extinct hominid species, such as
Neanderthals, possessed such a capacity is not known. The
use of language is one of the most conspicuous and
diagnostic traits that distinguish H. sapiens from other
animals.
According to one Biblical account, the observed variety of
human languages originated at the
Tower of Babel with the confusion of tongues.
History
One of the earliest accounts of the origin of languages is in
the Hebrew Bible, in the book of
Genesis (dated to the early 1st millennium BC). Genesis
2:19-20 has God giving Adam the task
of assigning names to all the animals and plants he had in
Eden
The key biblical narrative of the observed linguistic variety is
the story that God punished human presumption in building
the Tower of Babel (Genesis 11:1-9). Additionally, Genesis
10:5 tells how, before Babel, the languages of the
descendants of Japhet were divided naturally. This is most
likely due to the narrative style of Genesis, in which an
event was explained following its introduction into the
narrative.
Most mythologies do not credit humans with the invention of
language, but know of a language of the gods (or, language
of God), predating human language. Mystical languages
used to communicate with animals or spirits, such as the
language of the birds are also common, and were of
particular interest during the Renaissance.
History contains a number of anecdotes about people who
attempted to discover the origin of language by experiment.
The first such tale was told by Herodotus, who relates that
Pharaoh "Psamtik" (probably Psammetichus I) caused two
children to be raised by deaf-mutes; he would see what
language they ended up speaking. When the children were
brought before him, one of them said something that
sounded to the pharaoh like bekos, the Phrygian word for
bread.
From this, Psamtik concluded that Phrygian was the first
language. King James V of Scotland is said to have tried a
similar experiment; his children were supposed to have
ended up speaking
Hebrew. Both Frederick II of Prussia and Akbar, a 16th
century Mughal emperor of India are said to have tried a
similar experiment; the children they tried these
experiments with did not speak.
In 1866 the Linguistic Society of Paris banned discussion of
the origin of language, deeming it to be an unanswerable
problem.

Anthropological hypotheses: Steven Pinker, following

Noam Chomsky and ultimately Immanuel Kant, believes
that humans
are born with a "language instinct:"

Linguistic hypotheses: language acquisition

apparently only occurs in situations involving pre-existing
languages, or at the very least pidgin communication.

Ding-Dong: onomatopoeia.
Bow-wow: animal sounds.
Pooh-pooh: sighs of pleasure, moans of pain,
and other semi-involuntary cries or exclamations.
Ta-ta: Oral gestures from hand gestures
Uh-oh: warnings.
Yo-he-ho: language arose in rhythmic chants and
vocalisms.
Watch the Birdie
This one is associated with ethologist and linguist E. H.
Sturtevant. According to this hypothesis,
human language became elaborated because humans
found selective advantage in being able
to deceive other humans.
The Psychedelic Glossolalia Hypothesis
This theory states that speech was inspired by psychoactive
fungi. The line of reasoning is thus:
A common symptom of tryptamine intoxication is
glossolalia, more commonly known as
“speaking in tongues”

Monogenesis: Joseph Greenberg- one common source.

Panini 4 BC: The father of (ancient) Linguistics.
Bishop Robert Lowth 1762: A short introduction to English
Grammar with Critical Notes.
The birthday of Linguistics: 1786 Sir William Jones:
Sanskrit.
Evolution of language: Young grammarians: Language
Regularities – Comparative Linguistics.
Ferdinand de Saussure: The father of modern Linguistics-
Descriptive Linguistics – Structural Linguistics.
Noam Chomsky 1960: Syntactic Structures- Generative
Grammar.
Theories of Language Origin:
1- Historical Linguistics:
Divine Theories – Babel Tower.
Fist experiment: Pharaoh.
Second Experiment: Holy Roman Emperor Frederick
II of Hohenstaufen.
Third Experiment: James IV of Scotland.
Fourth experiment: Mugbal Emperor.
 16th century: Johannes Goropius Becanus: “The
perfect language” “all languages derived ultimately
from Brabantic”

Charles Darwin: Theory of Evolution of languages.

LESSON 5- GRAMMAR

Questions on lesson 5 – Grammar

1- What is linguistics knowledge?
Permits us to form longer and longer sentences by
joining sentences and phrases together or adding
modifiers to a noun.
2- Descriptive grammar: Is a study of a language,
its structure, and its rules as they are used in daily
life its speakers from all walks of life, including
standard and non-standards varieties.
3- Prescriptive grammar: specifies how a language
should be used and what grammar rules should be
followed. (good grammar and bad grammar)
4- What is linguistic competence?
Subconscious ability to string words into grammatical
sentences.
5- What is linguistic performance?
Knowledge of language put to use.
6- What does grammaticality mean?
Is based on whether the sentence is produced and
interpreted in accordance with rules and constrains of
the relevant grammar.
 Ungrammatical: is one that violates the rules of the
given language.
7- What is lexicon?
The average person has between 45.000 to 60.000
words stored there. (Mental dictionary)
8- What is an idiolect?
- Is an individual`s distinctive and unique use of
language, including speech.
- Is the variety of language unique to an individual?
- Refers to the language of an individual.

LESSON 6 - NEUROLINGUISTICS- APHASIA- APRAXIA.

Franz Joseph Gall: Theories of localization.

Phrenology: (not considered scientific): determining
personality traits, intellectual capacities according to the
bumps of the skull.
Modularity: the brain is divided into distinct anatomical
faculties.
Neurolinguistics: Concerned with the biological basis of
language acquisition and development and the
brain/mind/language interface. It is the study of brain
imaging and processing. (The study of the relationship
between the language and the brain)
Aphasia: is the loss or impairment of the ability to spoken
and written words.
Apraxia: inability to tell mouth muscles to articulate sounds
Classifications of aphasia:
Broca´s aphasia: (expressive) patients understand speech
reasonably well but have difficulty in retrieving words and
hence in naming objects or expressing themselves. (a
disorder that affects a person´s ability to form sentences
with the rules of syntax. Broca´s aphasics (also often called
agrammatic aphasics)
One of the most common notable characteristics of Broca´s
aphasia is that language produced is often agrammatic.
Wernicke´s aphasia: (receptive) patients produce fluent
but nonsensical speech, and comprehend poorly the
speech of others.
Broca´s area: the front part of the left hemisphere.
Wernicke´s area: the left temporal lobe.

Differences between aphasia and apraxia:

Aphasia: is the communication problem following a stroke
that involves language, really the processing of language
and the use of language. We talk in terms of four modalities
when we´re talking about aphasia. Two are incoming
modalities and two are outgoings. So two are receiving
information and two are giving information. We receive
information visually, or by reading; and auditorially, or by
hearing. So information comes in through reading and
though listening and that can be involved when you have
aphasia. Or we can look at communication in terms of
outgoing information and we give information out through
the modalities of writing and speaking. Of course speaking
tends to be the modality that most people talk about and
most people worry about, but really all four modalities can
be involved- difficulty with information coming in, difficulty
with information going out. It’s a loss of words, not intellect,
but loss of words, an inability to kind of find the vocabulary,
manipulate the vocabulary, use of vocabulary.
Apraxia: By definition, is the inability to execute what we
call volitional movements for speech. It is not a muscle
weakness. The muscles of the tongue, of the lips, are not
necessarily diminished in any way. They´re not weakened,
they´re not paralyzed, but there is a disconnect between the
language pattern, the words , they´re thinking in the brain,
and how to get the movements of your mouth, your lips,
your tongue, your articulators to actually form that word. A
person might know exactly what they want to say. They
know the word; they have a picture of the word. It´s just
“How do I make my mouth do it” “How do I get my mouth
going to actually produce and say that word?” And that´s
apraxia.

Wernicke´s symptoms: 1- strings words together to make

sentences that don’t have make sense.
2- Make up words that have no meaning.
3- Have difficulty repeating phrases.
4- Interrupt others and speak rapidly.

Broca´s symptoms: 1- poor grammar

2- Difficulty forming complete sentences.
3- Difficulty reading.
4. Difficulty following directions