05 Waller Sociology of Teaching PDF

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INTRODUCTION
O ite of the qualities of a classic hook is that it continues to do for the

latest, reader what it apparently did for the first. What Willard W aller’s
Sociology of Teaching continues to do is to give insight. In his preface
to the first edition Waller stated his purpose this way: “ To give insight
into concrete situations typical of the typical school.” This Iris work
continues to do in generous measure. And more. For as an early french
mark study in the social life of the school the book now gives perspective.
What. Waller chose to talk must be talked about wherever and when
ever the school as a social institution is examined. The topics found
here continue to enliven the discourse of scholars and the folk talk of
teachers. They constitute the on going agenda, for the study of the schools.
But Lhe Sociology of Teaching does more than possess the qualities of
insight and perspective: it teaches them to the reader, or. more accu
rately, it teaches the reader to teach them to himself. Reading the book
is a moving experience, even after repeated readings. Fresh insights
and perspectives constantly appear, and the reader does precisely what
Waller wanted him to do, be his own teacher. Almost unawares, one
finds himself carrying on a dialogue with the
Tn a sense Waller makes every teacher an educational sociologist. He
takes the common place events in the human life of the school and its
surroundings, things many teachers might tend to overlook, and holds
them up for examination like a good teacher docs. He turns them
around and inside out, he describes and relates them to people like
teachers, students and parents, he places them in the larger context of
many schools, many teachers, students, and parents, and suddenly the
routine life of the school takes on excitement and magic, the gifts of
insight and perspective.
Perhaps W aller’s signal contribution.is that he teaches us how to look
at the school as a social institution. With him wc begin to see that what
happens among tbe human heings who constitute the .school, or who are
touched by it, is the single most important thing that goes on in the
school. A sh e points out, these human heings are not “ disembodied intel
ligences,” “ instructing machines,” or “ learning machines” but whole
human beings interlocked in a network of human relationships. It is
INTEODTTCTION
this n etw ork , a n d the in d iv id u a l rela tio n s a n d roles o f th e people w ith in

it, th a t r e a lly determ in es the outcom es o f edu cation .
T h is rem in d er cou ld n ot be issued a t a b etter tim e. I t is a n a p p r o
p r ia te ed u cation al m essage fo r the sixties a n d seventies. These tw o
decades w ill lik e ly be ch aracterized ed u ca tio n ally b y developm en ts
w h ich ten d fu r th e r to i m p e r s o n a t e tea ch in g a n d le a rn in g . I n A m e r ic a
the age o f p o p u la r education is b eh in d u s, b u t the age o f m ass education
has ju s t beg u n . T h e legitim ate d em an d s p u t .upou u s to develop m ass
ed u ca tio n al techniques w ill su r e ly fu r th e r deperson alize the edu cation
process. T h e d a n g er is th at we w ill com e to r e g a r d the n ew developm en ts
as ed u ca tio n al goals in them selves, rath er th a n sim p ly m ean s fo r a ch iev
in g a better h u m a n en viron m en t fo r le a rn in g . I n a sense th e rea l test
o f m o d ern edu cation al tech n ology, c u rric u lu m ch an ge, and a d m in istra •
tiv e reo rg a n iza tio n is w h at th ey do to re a d ju st th e h u m a n eq u a tio n in
order to m ake fo r m ore effective le a rn in g . A s W a lle r w a r n s: " L e t no
one be deceived, th e im p o rta n t th in g s th a t h ap p en in th e schools resu lt
fr o m the in teraction o f p e r so n a litie s.” T o d a y ’s educators, w hether
th e y be stu d en ts in edu cation , first y e a r or v eteran teachers, college or
u n iv e r s ity scholars, w ill find here fresh p ersp ectiv e on the h u m a n an d
in d iv id u a l dim en sion s o f m ass edu cation . T h u s th e Sociology of Teach
ing is m ore th an a bench w ork, as w as m e n tio n ed e a r lie r ; it is an ed u
cation al beacon h e lp in g one to keep h is eye tr a in e d on w h at is im p o rta n t
a n d d istin g u ish in g it fr o m the m ean s to achieve th e im p o rta n t.
O n e n eed n ot possess special p o w ers to p re d ict th a t th is new edition
w ill be reread in a w a y th a t one re tu rn s to an o ld fr ie n d and th a t it w ill
a ttra c t a h ost o f n ew readers am ong those w h o h a d n ot m ade its a cq u a in
tan ce b efore. A n d as in the p ast, new dialogu es betw een reader an d
book w ill sp r in g u p , g iv in g n ew in sig h t a n d p ersp ectiv e, just, as W a lle r
th o u g h t p ro p er.
C ole S . B rem b eck
M ichigan S tate U niversity
PREFACE
W hat th is h o o t tells is w h a t every teacher kn ow s, th a t the w o r ld o f

school is a social w o rld . Those h u m a n b ein gs who liv e togeth er in th e
school, th ou gh deeply severed in one sense, nevertheless sp in a ta n g le d
weh o f in te rre la tio n sh ip s; th a t web a n d the people in i t m ake u p the
social w o rld o f school. I t is n ot a w id e w orld , b u t, f o r those who kn ow
it, it is a w o r ld com p act w ith m e an in g . I t is a u n iq u e w orld . I t is th e
purpose o f this book to ex p lore it.
I believe th a t a ll teachers, g re a t a n d sm all, h av e n eed o f in sig h t
into the social realities o f school life , th a t th ey perish, as teachers,
fo r lack o f it. Y o u n g teach ers f a i l becau se th ey do n o t k n ow how to
keep order. B r illia n t specialists do th e ir jo b s p o orly because th ey do
not u n d ersta n d the h u m a n n atu re o f th e classroom . Teacher tr a in in g
bas done m u ch to im p rov e the gen eral ru n o f in stru ction , b u t it can do
vastly m ore i f it equ ips b e g in n in g teach ers w ith social in sigh t. F o r it
needs insigh t to p u t a d va n ced ed u ca tio n al th eories in to p ractice w hen
schools an d com m u n ities are a tta ch ed to th e o ld and a n ta g on istic to
the new . In sig h t w ill h elp teach ers to keep a g oo d school a n d it w ill
help th em to h o ld their job s.
I f I am to h elp others to g ain a n y u sab le in sigh t, I m u st show th em
the school as i t rea lly is. I m u s t n o t a tta c k th e school, n or ta lk over
m uch abou t w h a t o u g h t to be, b u t o n ly abou t w h a t is. T h ere are m a n y
th in gs in th e p resen t-d a y school w h ich o u g h t to be bettered, m a n y ev il
things w h ich sh ou ld be rem edied, h u t m y concern w ith th em is exposi
tory rath er th an re fo rm a tiv e. N o r do I in te n d to gloss over w eak spots
or to apologize f o r ex istin g th in g s. T h is p resen tation , i f it is to be
effective, m u s t be unhiased.
B u t i f one is to show the school as i t r e a lly is, it is n o t enough to be
u n p re ju d iced . I t is necessary to achieve som e sort o f lite ra ry rea lism .
I th in k o f th is w ork, th erefore, as an a d v en tu re in realism . T o he
realistic, I believe, is sim p ly to be concrete. T o be concrete is to p resen t
m aterials in such a w ay th a t ch aracters do n ot lose the qu alities o f
persons, nor situ ation s their in tr in sic h u m a n rea lity . R ea listic soci
ology m u st be concrete. I n m y ow n case, th is preferen ce fo r concrete
ness has le d to a relative d istru st o f statistical m eth od, w h ich h as
seemed, fo r m y purposes, o f little u tility . P o ssib ly the u n d e rsta n d in g
o f b u m a n life w ill be as m u ch advan ced b y th e d irect stu d y o f social
PREFACE
phenomena as liy the study of numerical symbols abstracted from

those phenomena.
This work is a study of the life of human beings in the school. The
point of view of the analysis is primarily sociological. The work is, in
one sense, a systematic application of the concepts of sociology and
social psychology to the social phenomena of school life. The chief
utility of the hook, probably, will he as a textbook in Educational
Sociology, but I hope that it may have some general interest as well,
I have tried, indeed, to write such a hook as would appeal to every
teacher everywhere. The method that has heen employed in gathering
and interpreting material is empirical and ohservational. The style is
as non-technical as it was possible to make it without the loss of
essential meanings.
The purpose of the hook, however it is used, is to give insight into
concrete situations typical of the typical school. I have hewed to this
line, and to no other. Whatever seemed likely to give insight has heen
included, and all else, however worth while in other respects, has heen
excluded. A certain amount of fictional material has been included.
This must he judged as fiction; it is good fiction, and it is relevant to
our point, if it is based upon good insight. A numher of atypical eases
have been included because of the illustrative value of such material.
This combination of an attempt to give insight and to call attention
to its applicability to the every-day realities o f school seems strongly
to suggest the project method of teaching. 1 have therefore included
projects covering most of the main points of the text, material. In
accordance with this theory of instruction, it is the function of the
text and the teacher to furnish the student with preliminary insight
which the student then checks, supplements, reorganizes, and assim
ilates by applying it. to the data. Ultimately each student will work
out his own evaluation of the point of view of the text, changing the
analysis as he sees fit, and retaining in his mind only that which
proves useful to him; this is exactly what I should wish him to do if
I were teaching him directly. Each teacher, too, will prohahly want
to furnish many of his own projects, and the projects given in the text
should he regarded merely as suggestions. A further suggestion coming
out of my own experience in teaching this material and using these
projects in Educational Sociology is that it will he desirable to have
students write out or otherwise very carefully prepare such projects -
as are presented to t.he class. I hope that the project-method feature
of the text will take on, for I feel that effective teaching of sociology '
depends upon finding some way to make the student a collaborator I
PREFACE
of the text-writer and the teacher. This text, however, is not indis
solubly wedded to the project method, for the field is broad, and will
allow plenty o f room for both teacher activity and student activity,
no matter how it is taught. I am epnvinced that Educational Sociology
is a fruitful and challenging idea, and I have tried to put the evidence
for this helief into my book.
Many teachers, o f many ranks and stations, have knowingly con
tributed their insight and their experience to this hook; some others
have contributed unwittingly. To all those who have contributed 1 am
very grateful, but it seems best to leave them nameless. My debts in
the general field of sociology are many, and their nature will doubtless
he clear to the initiated reader. In the specialized field o f Educational
Sociology, I am particularly indebted to Clow, Smith, Snedden, and
Peters for their books, and, in the case of Peters, for valuable sug
gestions given in conversation. Harold Alderfer, James W. Woodard,
Clifford Kirkpatrick, Duncan Strong, Albert G. Dodd, Kenneth Mc
Gill, Henry Pratt Fairchild, and others have read all or part of the
manuscript and have aided with constructive suggestions.
S t a t e C o l l e g e , P e n n s y l v a n i a , 1932.
CONTENTS
P A R T ONE. INTRODUCTORY
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1
What the teacher geta from experience 1 ; Nature of our task 2 ;
Method to be employed 2; Problems attacked 2 ; Uses of this work 3;
Materials 3; Projects and readings 4.
II. THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISM ..........................................
Nature o f school 6 ; Characteristics o f school 6 ; Kinds o f schools 7;
Population o f school 7; Political order 8 ; Autocratic principle in school
8 ; School a despotism in perilous equilibrium 10; Subsidiary institutions
11; Levels o f control 12; Social relationships 12; Schema 12; W e -feeling
13; Separate culture 13; Projects and readings 13.
P A R T TWO. THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY

I I I . TH E SCHOOL IN TILE SOCIAL PROCESS; V E RTICA L
M O B I L I T Y ........................... ...................................................................... 15
The social process 15; Social processes 15; Accommodation and as
similation 15; Effect on school 10; Place o f school in assimilation 17;
Invention and diffusion 18; Cultural lag 18; Transmission o f attitudes
to young 19; Vertical mobility 19; Elimination in schools 19; Selection
in schools 20; Selective function o f schools 22; Opportunities for edu
cation and selection 23; Nature o f selection 23; Intelligence as basiB o f
selection 24; Overemphasis o f intelligence 24; Student aids affect selec
tion 24; Selective function essential 25; Effect o f elimination upon school
26; Vertical mobility o f teachers 27; Fitness for work 27; Fitness for
status 28; Rate o f advancement 29; Projects and readings 30.
IV. THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY: G EN E RAL..................... 33
Divergent aims of school and community 33; Schools as repositories
o f ideals 34; Idealism for the young 34; Place o f pupils in community
; 35; Influence of prominence o f parents 36; Social standing o f rich and
poor children 37; Standing o f individuals 38; Influence o f school on
community as carried by students 38; Parent-school conflict 39; Teacher
as agent of cultural diffusion 40; As martyr to cultural diffusion 40;
Illustrations 41; Teacher as representative of certain ideals 43: Illus
trated by teacher's contract 43; Demands o f community upon time and
money o f teachers 43; Moral requirements o f teaching 44; Conduct
unbecoming in a teacher 45; Projects and readings 47.
U" V. TEACHERS IN THE COM M UNITY......................................................

Isolation of the teacher in the community 49; The school-teacher stereo
49
type as an isolating factor 49; Finding a room, what hinges upon the
room 51; Teacher at focal point o f community conflict 55; Teacher cliques
■ CONTENTS
56; Low social standing o f teachers 58; Factors In explanation 58; Flog
ging 58; Financial 58; Stereotype 58; Irony in stereotype 58; Teacher
lives in world o f adolescent roles and attitudes 59; This excludes him from
society o f adults 60; Teaching regarded as a failure belt 61; Insecurity
of tenure o f teacher 61; As conditioning categorical contacts 61; Teacher
as stranger 62; Distribution of teaching positions conditions insecurity o f
tenure 63; “ M ating teaching a profession” as a remedy 64; Eolation o f
special teachers to community 64; Teachers in home community 64; De
vices for holding community 66; Projects and readings 66.
VI. PARENTS AND TEACHERS ................................................................. 08
Parents and teachers natural enemies 68; Conflict traceable to group
alignments 68; Crystallizations and oppositions o f attitudes illustrated
69; Technique of handling irate parents 74; Where complaint concerns
another 77; Projects and readings 78.
V II. THE FRINGES OF THE SCHOOL ........................................................ 80
The janitor 80; School store and restaurant keepers 81; Case 81;
Matrons 83; Policemen 83; Alumni 83; Why best alumni do not return
84; Sponsors o f school 85; Case 86; Projects 92.
V III. OTHER ASPECTS OF THE R E LA TIO N OF THE SCHOOL AND
THE C O M M U N IT Y ................................................................................. 93
Relation o f school board to superintendent 93; Struggle for control 93;
Techniques o f managing board 93; Succeeding a popular man 95; Case
96; Succeeding an unpopular man 99; Mechanism whereby executive be
comes alienated from community 99; Life-history o f a superintendent
100; Greater security in larger communities 101; Projects and read
ings 102.
PAR T THREE
SOME IN TERPRETATIONS OF L IF E IN THE SCHOOL

i il J
I X . THE SEPARATE CULTURE OF THE S C H O O L ............................... 105
Place o f the school in the process of cultural diffusion 103; Culture con- '
flicts in the school 104; Special culture o f the young 104; Age level loies
105; Configurational explanation 105; Cultural pigeonholes 106; Footnote
on lying to children 106; Adult participation in forming childish culture
106; Tradition in school 107; Tradition of external origin 108; Mingled
tradition 108; Indigenous tradition 109; Folklore 111; Culture patterns
111; “ Activities” as culture patterns 111; Athletics 112; Games as cul
ture patterns 113; “ F orm ” 113; Games as disguised war 113; Sports
manship 114; Coaches 114; Uses o f athletics 115; Effect o f athletics
upon group alignments 115; Athletes 116; Other activities 117; Debating
117; Social cluhs 117; Music 117; Activities evaluated 118.
X . THE CULTURE OF THE SCHOOL: CEREMONIES ...................... 120
Psychological mechanisms in ceremonies 120; Collective representa
tions 120; Idea o f merit in activities 121; Opening exercises 122; As
semblies 123; Commitment ceremony 123; Pop-meeting 124; Organized
cheering 125; Yells 126; School songs 126; Recruiting 127; Military and
quasi-military ceremonies 128; Morale ceremonies 128; Martyrdom cere-
CONTENTS
monies 129; Scholastic ceremonies 129; Preparation ceremonies 129;

Unanimity ceremonies 130; Purification ceremony 130; Commencement
season 130; School spirit ceremonies 130; Projects anfi readings 131.
X I. THE FOUR W ISHES IN THE S C H O O L ............................................. 134
Innate behavior patterns 134; Difficulty o f identifying instincts 134;
The four wishes 135; F a n s ' modification o f doctrine 136; Wish for
response in school 137; Thwarting o f response 138; Sex wishes 138;
Stages in development 138; Configurational account 141; Teachers 142;
Cross-sex rapport o f students and teachers 144; Influence of teachers’
attitudes upon students 148; Social affairs 149; Wish for recognition in
school 150; Struggle for status 151; Teacher pride 152; Inferiority com
plex 153; Defence reactions 154; Fear in the school 155; Curiosity in the
school 156; Techniques o f presentation 157; Desire for group allegiance
157; Projects and readings 158.
X II. CROWD AND MOB PSYCHOLOGY IN THE S C H O O L ................... 160
The crowd 160; Glass as crowd ot audienco 160; Ecology o f classroom
161; Personality o f class 162; The mob 163; Technique o f beeping study
ball 164; A disorderly study hall 164; A school strike 167; Outbreaks in
colleges 168; Culture patterns in inob 169; Technique o f handling mob
169; Social interaction in inob 170; Psychic epidemics 171; Take-offs
172; Disorder 173; Fads and crazes 173; Crowdmindedness 173; Projects
and readings 174.
X I I I . PRIM ARY GROUPS AMONG SCHOOL C H IL D R E N ....................... 176
Primary groups 176; Personal attitude constitutes primary group 176;
Succession o f social groups 177; Stair-stepped primary groups 179;
Types o f group 180; Gang 180; Congenial group 180; Courtship group
181; Primary groups of children furnish an escape from adult social older
181; Tradition passed on in primary groups 182; Fighting as ceremony
of initiation 182; Taboos 183; Hazing 183; Faculty hazing 183; Con
flicting loyalties 184; Attempts to organize primary group life 185;
Technique o f participation 186; “ Prefect psychology” 187; Projects
and readings 187.
PAR T FOUR. THE TEACHER-PUPIL RELATIONSHIP

X IV . TEACHING AS IN STITU TIO N A LIZE D LEADERSHIP .............. 189
Personal and institutional leadership contrasted 189; Teacher as an
institutional leader 192; Institutionalized dominance and subordination
193; Formality as accommodation 195; Teacher pupil relationship 195;
Authority 196; Mechanization o f conformity 196; Adjustment to rules
196; Discipline 197; Analyzed 198; Techniques for maintaining disci
pline 198; Command 198; Punishment 200; Management 203; Temper
205; Appeal 207; Projects and readings 210.
X V . TRAITS DETERM INING TH E PRESTIGE OF THE TEACHER. . 212
Age 212; Social background 216; Physical characteristics 218; Dress
220; Manners 221; Manner 221; Mannerisms 221; Attitude toward stu
dents 222; Institutional courage 223; Insight 224; Attitude toward sub
ject matter 225; Voice 226; Good and bad voices 227; Voice of strain
228; Didactic voice 229; Laugh ter 229; Expression o f face 230; Teaching
mask 230; Synthetic smile 232; Wan smile 232; Grim smile 233; Qualities
CONTENTS
o f tlio personality as a whole 233; Tempo 234; Range of mental personal

ity, 234; Complexity o f personal organization 236; Relationship of con
tainer and contained 237; Stability 238; Stable domination 239; Levels
o f control through stability 240; Stability differentiated from obstinacy
241; Stable and unstable teachers contrasted 242; Movement o f teacher
in classroom 243; Projects and readings 244.
X V I. V A R IE TIE S OF PRESTIGE AND OP D ISREPUTE ....................... 247
Prestige 247; Prestige carried by social images 247; Parent substitute
248; Cultural or social ideal 248; Officer and gentleman 249; Patriarch
250; Kindly, understanding adult 251; Control by praise 251; Love object
252; Disrepute or negative prestige 252; Easy mark 253; Disrepute of
good-natured teacher explained 253; Life-history o f good-natured teacher
254; The ass 257; The incompetent 258; Martinet 259; Case 260; Wind-
bag 262; Case 262; Weakling 267; Case 267; Flirt 268; Caricature 269;
Bully 270; Case 270; Egotist 272; Case 273; Summary 276; Projects and
readings 277.
X V II. SOCIAL DISTANCE; BU FFER PHRASES ....................................... 279
Social distance in teacher-pupil relationship 279; Means of maintaining
distance 280; Business-like manner 281; Other devices 281; Students also
maintain distance 282; Buffer phrases 283; Buffer phrases of teacher
284; Buffer phrases in technique o f persuasion 285; Foolish questions
286; Tricks o f ill-prepared teachers 288; How teachers throw out hooks
289; Projects and readings 290.
X V I I I . TH E DEFIN ITION OP THE (SITUATION......................................... 292
Concept o f definition of situation 292; Elements in the definition of
situation 294; Principle o f closure 295; The social role 296; Personality
296; Definition o f situation in school 296; Modes o f defining situation
297; How teachers impose their definition 297; Case 298; Situation de
fined for child 300; Case 300; Bagley on the first, day o f school 302;
Rigidity o f old school 304; Limited utility o f specific rules 305; Defini
tion and redefinition in rigid school 306; Definition in Less rigid school
308; New school and old school contrasted 308; Effect o f rigid discipline
on character 310; Plexible social process in new school 311; Techniques
for defining situation 312; Routiuization 312; Punishment 312; Express
statement 312; Ritual 313; Influence 313; Definitions absorbed by stu
dents 314; School situation 314; Sportsmanship 314; Property 315;
Heterosexual dofiuition 315; Projects and readings 316.
X I X . ATTITUDES AND ROLES IN CLASSROOM S IT U A T IO N S ........ 318
Attitudes 318; Non-social attitudes 318; Attitudes toward suhject mat
ter 319; Social attitudes 320; Primary and secondary group attitudes
321; Roles 321; Psychology of roles 322; Role inheres in situation 322;
Roles in social interaction 323; Mental conflict 323; Elaboration o f roles
324; Conscious and unconscious roles 324; Roles in school 325; Teaching
role 325; Alternation of roles 326; Case 326; Roles of students 332;
Social interaction of classroom in terms o f roles 333; Use of identifica
tion mechanisms by teacher 333; Technique 334; Unintended suggestions
335; Social distance limits the use o f identification mechanisms 335; De
flation o f ego 336; Challenge as negative identification mechanism 336;
Projects and readings 337.
CONTENTS
X X . FOCAL POINTS OF STUDENT-TEACHER ANTAGONISM ....... 339

Feud defined 339; Case 340; Avoidance o f feuds 343; Struggle on
another level 343; Case 343; Analysis of case 348; Wit and humor 349;
Crisis terminates feud 349; conciliation 351; Sociology o f conflict 351;
Insight complicates social interaction in school 353; Projects and read
ings 353.
X X I. TH E BA TTLE OF THE R E Q U IR E M E N T S ........................................ 355
Forced learning 355; Academic assumptions 355; Classroom necessities
affect content o f education 356; Devotion of teachers to standards 357;
Explanation 357; Specialism 357; Conflict groups 358; Undertone o f stu
dent rebellion 360; Crihliing 360; Conflict of moralities 361; Honor sys
tem proposed 362; “ Chiselling” and “ handshaking” 363; Chiselling
illustrated 363; Responsive attitude as technique o f chiselling 364; A t
tempt of a teacher to escape “ the system” 365; Play o f social forces
upon requirements 369; Attitude courses 369; Insight courses 370; Tests
fail to eliminate the incapable 370; Examination complexes 371; Evalua
tion of academic requirements 371; Projects and readings 372.
PART FIVE. W H AT TEACHING DOES TO TEACHERS

X X II. DETERM INANTS OF THE OCCUPATIONAL T Y P E ................... 375
Influence o f occupation 375; Factors determining occupational type
376; Selective influences affecting composition o f an occupational popula
tion 377; Occupational choice rarely rational 378; Selective pattern of
teaching 379; Composition o f teaching population 380; Influence of occu
pation upon personality 380; Traits supposed to characterize the teacher
381; Prohlem: To account for traits hy situational analysis 383; Adapta
tion o f teacher’s personality to dominance and subordination 383; In
flexibility o f teacher accounted for 384; Alternation of few and simple
roles 385; Formalization o f authority role 386; Dignity 387; Roots of
dignity 387; Dignity as iuhihition 388; Dignity as norm o f teacher
group 389; Dignity unconsciously attained as reaction to insecurity 389;
Seeking-avoiding balance 390; Unenthusiasm 390; Nou-creativeness of
teachers 391; Explanation 391; Tool subjects 392; Selective pattern of
teacher uiind 392; Attitudo o f grading 393; Loss o f learner’s attitude
394; Adjustment to simple and unvarying rhythms 394; Dominance of
security motive 395; The warmer as a social type 396; Standard o f living
and security 397; Impersonality o f teachers 397; Traumatic learning
( 398; Teacher dreams as showing underlying tensions 401; Discipline

dream 401; Supervision dream 405; Other types 406; Phantasies of
teachers 407; Tensions o f spinster teachers 408; Critical period 408; Ad
justments to spinsterhood 408; Naming o f inanimate objects 409.
X X III. TEACHER TY P E S ; THE TEACHER STEREOTYPE, ETC........... 410
Contrasting adjustments to teaching 410; Techniques o f teaching 410;
Introversion and extroversion 412; Social techniques 412; Different ad
justments for different subjects and positions 413; Life-organization of
the teacher 413; Case 414; Teacher stereotype 415; Stereotypes in social
interaction 415; Measurement o f influence o f teacher stereotype 416; Two
different stereotypes o f teacher 419; Teacher must live within stereotype
419; Adjustment to stereotype 420; Attempt o f teacher to preserve some
CONTENTS
segment o f his personality 420; Attempt to break through stereotype 42] ;

Discontent o f young teachers with profession 421; Rebellion against be
coming teachers 422; Example 422; Case 423; Attitudes o f teachers to
ward executives 424; Contrast between teacher and executive mentality
425; Techniques of executives 426; Relations o f teacher to colleagues
428; "Institutional behavior” 428; Ethics o f profession not formu
lated 429; Rivalry o f teachers 429; Rivalry in upholding status quo 429;
Prerogative 430; The society o f teachers 431; Shop-talk 481; Need of
other contacts 433; Personality changes in young teachers 433; Involu
tion of teaeber 436; Projects and readings 437.
PAR T SIX. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

X X IV . A PRINCIPAD REASON W H Y IN STITU TIO N S DO NOT FUNC
TION ..........................................................■................................................
Mechanism in society 441; Institutions defined 441; Formalism defined
442; Discussion 442; Formalism from in-group attitudes 443; Cancerous
primary groups 444; Doss o f personality values in formalized school 445;
Artificiality o f school social order the result of formalism 446; Need, o f
natural social order 446; Projects and readings 446.
X X V . RECOMMENDATIONS ..............................................................................
Education through social situations 448; Behavior results from tbe
reaction o f the entire organism to the total situation 449; School may
reproduce situations of life 450; May mediate situations o f broader range
to students 451; Natural social order necessary 452; Reformation o f edu
cation must begin with teaching personnel 452; Removal of irrelevant
competition 453; Stepping-stone teachers 454; Non-professional teachers
454; Teacher must be free in teaching 455; Necessity of a code 455;
Teachers must be normal members o f the community 455; Need of posi
tive morality 456 ; Personnel work with students 456; With teachers 457;
A snggestion concerning the training o f teachers 459; Readings 459.
16 THE SOCIOLOGY OP TEACHING
A ssim ilation is a process o f interpenetration, and fu sion in w hich persons

and grou ps acquire the memories, sentiments, and attitudes o f other persons
or grou ps, and, by sharing their experience, and history, are incor
w ith them in a common cultural life. I n so fa r as assimilation denotes this,
sharing o f tradition, this intimate participation in common experiences,
assimilation is central in the historical and cultural processes.1
I t w ill h elp u s to g rasp the m e a n in g o f th e school as a social insti.

tu tio n i f we tr y to place it w ith re g a rd to these processes. T o he
s tr ic tly accu rate, w e m u st th in k o f these processes as g o in g on within
th e school as w e ll as w ith o u t it, o f th e sch ool as a m icrocosm that
m irro rs th e m acrocosm . W e are h ere co n cern ed w ith the m acrocosm ,
a n d w ith the p o sition o f th e sch ool in th e m acrocosm .
W h e n th e p o litic a l process is still in th e stag e o f overt conflict
v ariou s con flict g ro u p s a tte m p t to use th e sch ools f o r p a ssin g on 1'
truth to th e u n b ia sed y o u n g e r gen eration . S e c ta r ia n schools are
the m o st p a r t established fo r th is p u r p o se , h u t i t is p e rh a p s
o f th e w o rst o f these th at R o s s ’s a p h o rism th a t th e y are m e a n s of
co n d u c tin g ch ild ren into society th ro u g h a tu n n e l h old s tru e . E c o
n om ic g ro u p s are ahle to influence p r o fo u n d ly th e p olicies o f estah
lish ed schools, a n d on occasion to estahlish ch a irs and schools fo r
the p r o m u lg a tio n o f th eir d octrin es. I n a le a d in g eastern college is a
ch air th a t w a s endow ed fo r tea ch in g the fa lla c ie s o f socialism . O n e ol
the g re a test o f the husiness schools w a s estab lish ed at lea st in pari
as a m ean s o f cru sh in g o u t v a r io u s h eresies c o n ce rn in g th e pro
tectiv e ta riff.
C on flict g ro u p s likew ise reach o u t th e ir h a n d s to w ard th e public
schools. T h e lis t o f those w h o h ave so u g h t to use th e ta x -su p p o rte d
schools as ch an nels fo r th eir d o ctrin es is a lm o st as lo n g as th e list of
th ose w h o h a v e axes to g rin d . P ro h ih itio n ists, p ro fession a l reform ers,
p o litic a l p a rtie s, p u h lic u tilities, sec ta ria n s, m o ra lists, ad vocates oJ
the o p e n sh op, lah o r u n io n s, socialists, an ti-vivisec tio n ists, jingoes,
ch a u vin ists, and p a trio te ers— a ll h av e so u g h t to con trol the cu r
ric u lu m , the co m p ositio n o f th e te a c h in g staff, a n d the m eth o d of
in stru c tio n . I n w id e ly d iffe r in g d eg rees a ll these g ro u p s h av e su c
ceeded. T h e situ a tio n v a ries in a p e r p le x in g a n d co n trad icto ry fash ion
w ith d iffe rin g local co n d ition s, h u t th e sch ools are a lw ay s a t th e focal
p o in t o f c o m m u n ity conflict. To a degree, the ex p la n a tio n o f the
co n tra d ic tio n s o f th e school is to be fo u n d in th e conflicts th a t rage
a b o u t it.
i Park, R. I t , and Burgess, R W ., Introduction to the Science o f Sociology
pp. 735-736 (1934). (Reprinted by permission o f The University of Chicago
Press.)
the SCHOOL IN THE SOCIAL PROCESS; VERTICAL MOBILITY n
O p p o sin g gro u p s w o rk ou t v ariou s com p ro m ises h y v irtu e o f w h ich

the schools can he m ad e acceptable to a ll p arties. T h u s the school is
shot th ro u gh w ith accom m odation s, som e o f w h ich h av e g ro w n so old
th at th eir o rig in a l pu rp ose h as b een fo r g o tte n . W hen c o m m u n ity -
-flpide accom m odation s are w orked o u t h y the con flictin g p arties, th u s
b rin g in g th e p o litic a l process to a te m p o r a r y re stin g p lace, these
accom m odations are im m e d ia te ly tr a n sfe rr e d to the schools. W h e n
such accom m odation s as the C on stitu tio n o f th e c o u n tr y are in c orp o
rated into the cu rricu lu m and tr a n sm itte d h y the schools, t h a t is
alread y the c u ltu ra l process.
I n th a t assim ilation o f g ro u p to g ro u p w h ich P a r k a n d B u rg e ss
think o f as ch aracterizin g th e c u ltu ra l process, the schools p la y a
m ost im p o rta n t p a r t. T h a t is p a r tic u la r ly tru e o f th e schools o f a
n ation w hich, like ours, is seekin g to a m a lg a m a te into one w hole the
represen tatives o f m a n y diverse cu ltu res. T h e m a in h u rd e n o f A m e r i
canization fa lls u p o n the p u h lic schools, a n d th ere is ev ery likelih ood
th at it w ill continue to do so. T h e sch ools A m e ric a n ize h y im m e rsin g
the y o u n g in th e cu ltu re a n d tr a d itio n o f the co u n try , h y in d u c in g
them to p a rtic ip a te as m u ch as possihle in th e a ctiv ities o f the A m e r i
can arena. T h e th in g s th a t th e ch ild re n o f the fo r e ig n horn le a rn at
school, an d on the streets h efore a n d a fte r school, are o fte n in co n
flict w ith th e trad itio n w h ich th eir p a r e n ts are tr y in g to tr a n sm it to
them. C h ild re n u su a lly le a rn to speak E n g lis h h etter th a n th eir
parents, an d th ey m ore T a p id ly acqu ire a su perficial fa m ilia r ity w ith
A m erica n lif e , so th a t fr e q u e n tly th e y fe e l su perior to th e ir p a ren ts,
and are m o st u n w illin g to take a d vice fr o m them . Since th e hom e
plays a la rg e p a r t in th e fo r m a tio n o f la w -a h id in g attitu d es, and
since th e v ie w o f A m e r ic a n li f e w h ich these ch ildren g e t is at h est
incom plete a n d distorted, A m e ric a n iza tio n th ro u g h the schools u s u a lly
entails a certa in a m o u n t o f d isorg an iza tio n f o r the second gen eration
o f im m ig ra n ts. A d u lt edu cation o f im m ig ra n ts h as also been o rgan ized
on a w ide scale. T h o u g h less im m e d ia te ly effective, i t is y e t a v e r y
p o w e rfu l m ean s o f lea d in g th e im m ig r a n t to th at p a rtic ip a tio n in
A m erica n cu ltu re fr o m w h ich A m e r ic a n iz a tio n resu lts. I t seem s p o s
sible, too, th a t th e co n cu rren t ed u cation and A m e r ic a n iz a tio n of
parent an d ch ild m a y fu r n ish a p a r tia l re m e d y fo r th e d em oralization
o f the secon d gen eration w h ich so ciolo gists a n d social w ork ers h av e
so o fte n deplored. I t w o u ld h e in te re stin g to k n ow w h eth er the crim e
rate am on g sons o f im m ig ra n t fa th e r s w h o go to n ig h t school is as
high as th e g e n e ra l rate f o r th e en tire g ro u p .
18 THE SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING
T h e com m on experien ces o f a g ro u p o f p eo p le liv in g togeth er undet

a n y circu m sta n ces w h ich give a sem blan ce o f u n it y operate to give
the g ro u p th a t sense o f a com m on p a st w h ich is the m ark o f assim ila
tion . T im e is o f th e essence o f the c u ltu ra l process. T h ere is, however,
in th e c u ltu ra l process a m a n y -sid e d in terch a n ge o f a ttitu d e s a n
defin ition s o f situ ation s, o f tech n iq u es a n d k n ow led ge co n cern in g tba
elem en ts o f cu ltu re. I t is th is process o f tra n sm issio n an d interchan ge
w h ich we sh all h ave p a r tic u la rly in m in d w h en we sp ea k o f the
c u ltu ra l process fr o m th is p o in t on. T h e school serves as a m e d io or
i n w h ich th is in terch a n ge takes p lace.
W e m a y th in k o f th is p ro cess o f tr a n s m ittin g m e n ta l a n d material]
o b jects o f cu ltu re as o ccu rrin g , p r in c ip a lly , on tw o p la n e s : ( 1 ) T h en
is th e d istrib u tio n o f c u ltu ra l good s o v e r society a t larg e, a transfer]
o f o b je cts and a ttitu d es fr o m g ro u p to g ro u p , fr o m region to region]
fr o m p erso n to person. C u ltu ra l a n th ro p o lo g ists h av e so u g h t to de
scribe th e p ro d u c tio n and d istrib u tio n o f c u ltu ra l goods in te r m s o)
th e processes o f in v en tio n a n d d iffu sion . In v e n tio n is the m a n n e r ii
w h ich n ew cu ltu re tr a its a r is e ; diffu sion is th e process b y w h ich they
sp rea d th ro u g h o u t society.
T h e o rd in a r y school does n o t serve as a ce n ter o f in v en tio n s, al|
th o u g h there are m a n y in stitu tio n s o f h ig h er le a r n in g w hich, th rou ga
th e s u p p o r t o f ex p erim en tation and research, are ta k in g o ver this
fu n c tio n . T h e o rd in a ry school does n o t share in th is, b u t serves rathei
as a v e r y im p o rta n t su b-cen ter in the process o f cu ltu ra l diffusion
I t is p a r tly th e task o f the lo c a l sch ools to keep th e c o m m u n ity au
courant, or as n e a rly so as possible, in th e g re a te r society, to ex em p lify
and to fu r n is h in fo rm a tio n abou t the n ew er th in g s. T ea ch ers p la y an
im p o rta n t p a rt in the process o f c u ltu ra l diffu sion .
P a r tic u la r ly on the m e n ta l side o f cu ltu re is it the task o f the
schools to m ed iate n ew th in g s to th e lo c a l c o m m u n ity . C om m ercial
o rg a n ization s take care o f the p u r v e y in g o f n ew er m a teria l objects,
a n d th ey do it m o st effectively. S o ciolo gists h ave fo u n d th a t many
o f the u n a d ju stm e n ts in m o d e m society are traceable to w b a t is
k n o w n as cu ltu ra l la g , to tbe f a c t th a t n o n -m a teria l, or a d ap tive
cu ltu re , does n ot ch an ge so r a p id ly as m a te r ia l cu ltu re. T h u s our
sy stem s o f la w , relig io n , and m o r a ls are a u th en tic antiqu es, b u t oui
au tom ob iles an d rad ios a n d ta lk in g p ic tu re s are m od ern . M u c h o f the
m a la d ju stm e n t o f society is du e to th is fa ilu r e o f th e m a c h in e ry of
social con trol to change w ith a r a p id ity e q u a llin g th at o f m ech an ical
cu ltu re .
THE SCHOOL IN THE SOCIAL PROCESS; VERTICAL MOBILITY j g
N o w flie existence o f c u ltu ra l la g is ascrib able to a n u m b e r o f

factors. T h ere is a low rate o f in v en tio n in n on -m aterial cu ltu re. A n d
it is also tru e th a t new ideas sp rea d slow ly a n d m eet w ith m u c h
opposition because m a n y o f th em are a ga in st the m ores. The schools
could do m u ch to accelerate the d iffu sion o f n on -m aterial cu ltu re,
b u t th ey have n ot u su a lly cared to assum e th is fu n c tio n .
(2 ) W e com e n ow to the second phase o f the cu ltu ra l process, w h ich
consists o f th e tran sm ission o f attitu d es, tech n iq u es, an d kn ow ledge
to the y o u n g e r person s o f the co m m u n ity. T h is process is in cid en ta l
to the succession o f gen eration s a n d is necessitated b y th e fa c t th a t all
m en are b orn eq u a lly ign o ra n t. M u ch o f the w o rk o f fo r m in g the
y o u n g is done b y o th er in stitu tion s, a n d c e rta in ly the fa m ily is m ore
significant in ch ild life th a n the school, b u t th e im p o rta n ce o f the
school in the c u ltu ra l process seem s to be in c r e a s in g ; its fo r m a l p o si
tion h as a lw a y s been central in th e process, an d there are in d ica tio n s
th at the a ctu al significance o f the school in ch ild life is n o t destin ed
to dim inish.
A d ifferen t aspect o f the social process is th a t o f social m o b ilit y ;
we shall here discuss, m ore sp ecifically, v ertica l m o b ility . T h ere is in
our society a ra p id m ovem en t o f in d iv id u a ls fr o m clasa to class. P e r
sons b o rn to a lo w station in life m ove to a h ig h e r ; others m ore
fo rtu n a te in th eir b irth are less fo r tu n a te in th eir a ffairs a n d con
sequ en tly are d egraded b y several classes. These v ertical m o v em en ts
o f in d iv id u a ls in a stratified society we m a y th in k o f as con vection
currents in society. T h is concept o f v e rtica l m o b ility is one o f the
m ost illu m in a tin g in sigh ts o f sociology, a n d fo r its fu lle s t a n d m o st
auth oritative exposition w e are indeb ted to P r o fe sso r P itir im Sorokin.
I t seem s w o rth w hile to analyze the role o f the school in fo ste r in g a n d
im p ed in g th e vertical m ovem en t o f in d iv id u a ls. I n the m a in , we sh all
follow the p attern la id dow n b y S o rok in .
T here are g re a t variation s in th e a m o u n t o f sch oolin g w hich c h il
dren get. D r . A y r e s has com p u ted the elim in a tio n in th e school sy s
tem. F o r ev ery 1 ,0 0 0 ch ild re n in the first g ra d e, there are
723 in the second grade.

602 in the third grade.
640 in the fourth grade.
552 in the fifth grade.
462 in the sixth grade.
368 in the seventh grade.
263 in the eighth grade.
189 in the first grade of high school.

123 in the second grade of high school.
81 in the third grade o f high school,
5G in the fourth grade o f high school.1
Death and the increase of the population would account fo r a ratio

of 1000 in the first grade to 871 in the eighth, but we have in fact
263; the remaining 608 have been left hehind.2
The amount of schooling which children undergo foreshadows, and
some would say determines, their future earning capacity and the
level of society on which they will find their life. A crude selection,
then, goes on in the schools, a social selection of those destined to
fulfill certain predetermined social functions.
Partly it is the schools themselves which select. The native intelli
gence of children sets certain absolute limits to their achievements.
No amount of schooling can make the moron perform satisfactorily
above his fated level. The schools, by their curriculum which must
be mastered hefore the student can pass on, sift and resift their,
human materials, selecting on the basis of intelligence chiefly, but
allowing considerable weight to other qualities such as a pleasing
manner, emotional stability, and diligence.
The schools must sort all the human material that comes to them,
hut they do not subject all children to the same kind of sorting process.
Other things being equal, the schools tend to bring children at least
up to an intellectual level which will enable them to function in the
same economic and social stratum as their parents. The children of
the rich are carried by express elevators of prep schools which do not
stop below the college level. The most stupid, indeed, sometimes fall
off the elevator, but even these may ultimately ascend to the higher
floors by dint of much tutoring and the offices of friends. But the
children of the poor tend to drop out early, and very frequently for
reasons quite other than incapacity to learn; they drop out because
their labor is needed at home, because they are ashamed to attend
school in shabby clothes, because there is no tradition in their group
of going beyond the literacy stage in education. Equally important
with economic factors are the social assets o f a family, its standing
in the community, its level of cultural participation, its traditions and
ambitions— these factors likewise limit social mobility.
1 Ayres, Leonard P., Laggards in Our Schools, p. 13, New York Survey Asso
ciation, 1013.
z Of. Sorokin, Pitirim, Social Mobility, p. 190.
THE SCHOOL IN THE SOCIAL PROCESS; VERTICAL MOBILITY 21
It is clear enough that the native qualities and abilities of students

are not the only factors determining- their progress in school. Yet the
showing that a child makes on the school yardstick, however that
showing may itself be determined, usually proves roughly accurate as
a measure of further achievement. In casting up our reckoning it is
necessary to allow for a numher of factors, for the large number of
self-educated, for great and not measurable differences in the assimila
tion of the same subject matter, for the outside factors which aifect
the operation of the school as a sorting machine; but when we have
made all these qualifications it still seems to hold true that the sort
ing process of the schools produces results which roughly conform to
the (cultural or inherent) qualities of the individuals sorted, and it
also seems that there is a high degree o f correspondence between the
point to which one progresses in school and the level on which he
functions in society. One of the functions of the school is, then, to
sort out individuals with reference to their fitness for certain occu
pations and social positions. Sorokin goes so far as to say that this
distributive function is the essential social function of the school.1
Homell Hart demonstrates that we have recently made progress in
our utilization o f the abilities o f individuals.
The functions of the school as an agency of the cultural process
and as a channel of vcrLical mobility are sometimes blended ; indeed,
these two functions in their individual reference arc often indis
tinguishable. Education brings one into touch with the main stream
of culture. The aspiring student embraces this wider cultural partici
pation in the hope that it will make of him something somehow
different.2 Yet this being different is indissoluhly connected with hav
ing a different place in society. A university confronts a gifted
freshman as a vast array of cultural riches; he may appropriate these
and realize himself in learning to use them. The cultural process,
’-Sorokin, Pitirim, Social Mobility, p. 188: “ In other words, the essential social
function o f the school is not only to find out whether a, pupil has learned a defi
nite part o f a text book or not; but through all its examinations and moral
supervision to discover, in the first place, which o f the pupils are talented and
which are not; what ability every pupil lias and in what degree; and which o f
them are socially and morally fit; in the second place, to eliminate these who
do not have desirable mental and moxal qualities; in the third place, through
an elimination of the failures to close the doors for their social promotion, at
least, within certain definite social fields, and to promote those who happen
to be the bright students in the direction o f those social positions which cor
respond to their general and specific abilities. Whether successful or not, these
purposes are some o f the most important functions o f the school. From this
standpoint the school is primarily a testing, selecting and distributing agency.”
(Reprinted by permission o f Harper & Brothers.)
’ See Martin, Everett Dean, The Meaning o f a Liberal Education.
w h ich m u st sta r t anew w ith ev ery gen eration , a u to m a tic a lly assigns
m e n to th e ir p r o p e r posts. T h e m a n n e r a n d e x te n t to w h ich they
a ssim ilate the c u ltu ra l h erita ge d eterm in e the n iche they w ill fit into
in th e social stru ctu re.
O n e o f th e im p o rta n t th in g s th a t th e school does is to separate
in d iv id u a ls in to classes co rresp o n d in g r o u g h ly to certain occu pation al
a n d so cial strata . W h e n the m a tte r is p r a g m a tic a lly considered, th at
c o n clu sio n seem s inescapahle. O n e is te m p te d to in q u ire w h eth er this
v ie w o f edu cation corresponds w ith th a t so cia l p h ilo so p h y w h ich is
k n o w n as d em ocratic th eory a n d w h ich is r e g a r d e d as the fu n d a m e n ta l
o r ie n ta tio n p o in t f o r discussions o f social p o lic y i n ou r society.
I f th e dem ocratic th e o ry is an e g a lita r ia n th eo ry , th e n th is doctrin e
th a t th e so rtin g o f in d iv id u a ls fo r g iv e n social d n tie s is a n ecessary
fu n c tio n o f the schools is m o st in c o n g ru o u s w ith it. B u t eg a lita ria n ism
is n o t essen tial fo r d em ocracy. P e r h a p s the h otter view o f th e dem o
cra tic id eal is essen tia lly P la to n ic , th a t it is a social a rra n gem en t that
a tte m p ts to use each person in th e so cia l fu n c tio n f o r w h ich h is ahility
hest fits h im . C om p etition is the soul o f d em ocracy, com p etition which
h rin g s ou t a ll th e differen ces o f m e n . B u t it m u st be a fa ir co m p cti
tion , an d n o t a com p etition o f w h ich the resu lt is biased b y th e
h e r e d ita r y ra n k or th e econom ic resources o f th e fa m ily . A n d the
c o m p e titio n m u st he relev an t to fu n c tio n , i f it is to p ro d u ce good
effects. A d em oc rac y is n o t a society w ith o u t classes, h u t a so ciety o f
open classes. T h ere m u st he th e p o ssib ility th a t the person h orn in
th e h u m h le st p o sitio n m a y rise to th e h ig h e st. E a c h gen eration m u st
be r e s ifte d o n its ow n m e rits. T h e o re tic a lly , v e r tic a l m o b ility w o u ld he
v e r y h ig h in a d em ocracy.
N o so ciety h as a tta in ed to th is id eal fo r m o f social organization .
I t is a lw a y s a m a tte r fo r lo n g dehate as to w h eth er one society or one
p e rio d i n a so ciety is m ore or less d em ocratic th an another. T h e actu al
differen ces o f social stru c tu re betw een n a tio n s th eo retica lly q u ite d i f
fe r e n tly o rg a n ized m a y in fa c t be slig h t. E x tr e m e a b ility enables an
in d iv id u a l to rise in a n a ristocracy a n d extrem e in a b ility enables him
to sink. F a m i ly b a c k g r o u n d a n d tr a d itio n , a n d the o p p o rtu n itie s for
c u ltu r a l assim ilation th a t w e alth c a n b u y co u n t h ea vily in a dem oc
ra c y . T h ere is m u ch in e q u a lity a n d in ju stic e in ca p ita listic society,
a n d a lto g eth er too m u ch p o w e r over th e destin ies o f others is placed
in th e h a n d s o f irresp on sib le persons. T h ere is m u c h a rb itra ry p ow er
in socialistic society, an d i t seem s th a t it m a y he f u lly as difficult fo r
a b ility to g et itse lf reco g n ized there as elsew here. T h e o n ly f a i r con
clu sion is th a t no m o d ern so ciety is c o m p le te ly dem ocratic.
the SCHOOL IN THE SOCIAL PROCESS; VERTICAL MOBILITY 23
T h e best eviden ce th a t classes are r e a lly m ore or less open in th e

U n ited S ta te s is th e ahundance o f o p p o rtu n itie s f o r edu cation . T h e
social lad d er o f the schools is o p en to all a n d it is r e la tiv e ly in e x p e n
sive to c lim h ; th ere are m a n y w h o do n o t w a n t to u se it or w ho can n ot
p a y th e fe e , so th a t all do n o t h a v e a n eq u al chance a t edu cation , h u t
the edu cation al la d d e r is there, a n d its existen ce is som eth in g. E d u c a
tion, or w h a t passes fo r ed u ca tio n , is fre e a n d even co m p u lso ry in its
lower reaches. T h e ed u cation th a t is offered is n ot id e a lly a d a p te d to
discovering a n d d ev elop in g a b ility , b n t it is th e sam e f o r all. O n th e
higher levels, th ere are th e state u n iv e rsitie s w h ich g ra n t adm ission
rea d ily a n d ch arge low fees. In som e o f the cities are u n iv ersities
which offer a h ig h gra d e o f in stru ction a n d charge n o fe e . E v e n in g
schools, exten sion schools, a n d correspondence courses ex te n d the low
cost service o f these u n iv ersities y e t fu r th e r . O p p o rtu n itie s f o r se lf-
h elp are n u m ero u s, a n d the su r v e y s c o n sisten tly show a v e r y la r g e
percentage o f m en stu d en ts i n colleges a n d u n iv ersities p a y in g all or
p a rt o f th eir school ex pen ses hy th e ir o w n e ffo r ts ; a stu d en t does n o t
necessarily lose caste b y w o rk in g h is w a y , a n d th e p u b lic is fr e q u e n tly
v e r y h elp fu l. In ev ery in stitu tio n th ere are n u m ero u s stu d en t aid s in
the fo r m o f sch olarsh ips, fe llo w sh ip s, a n d lo a n fu n d s. N o w it m a y
well he tru e th a t the ed u ca tio n w h ich w e m a n u fa c tu re o n so la rg e a
scale an d d istrib u te so w id e ly is a ch eap p ro d u ct. B u t it is m u c h the
sam e f o r all, a n d i t d estro ys or it d ev elop s th e ch ild re n o f all classes
im p a rtially .
I f we fo llo w ou t th e lin e o f in terp reta tio n la id d o w n b y P r o fe sso r
Sorokin, th e im p o rta n ce o f the schools as selective agencies is increased
b y th e v e r y fa c t o f th e ir accessibility. F o r i f edu cation w ere v e r y
expensive, th en n ot the schools h u t th e fees w o u ld select o u t th e fe w
chosen fr o m th e m a n y desirous. O r i f ed u cation w ere the p r iv ile g e o f
a h ered ita ry caste, th en h ered ita ry sta tu s rath er th a n lea rn in g w o u ld
determ ine o n e ’s place in th e so cial o rg a n iza tio n . I n o u r society, th e
im portance o f academ ic selectiv ity is en h an ced b y th e lack o f o th e r
selective agencies.
The k in d o f selection w h ich goes o n in the schools h as a gre at deal
o f effect u p o n th e ton e o f social classes a n d u p o n the w a y in w h ich th ey
p erform th eir v ariou s fu n ctio n s. I t hehooves u s, th en , to consider w h at
sort o f selection takes p lac e in the schools.
Th e social selection o f the schools tak es place la r g e ly u p o n the
basis o f in telligen ce. A lth o u g h p lea sin g qu a lities o f person a n d su ch
incidental traits as sta b ility , p u rp o sefu ln ess, d ilig en ce, a n d ah ility to
control atten tion , m o st o f w h ich accru e fr o m the m od e o f p erso n a l
o rgan ization , are alw ays o f tbe first im p o rta n ce, i t is nevertheless trite
th a t th e selective p a tte rn o f the schools is one w h ich som ew hat over-J
em phasizes intelligen ce. A g a in , it seem s v e r y lik e ly th at th e in te lli
gen ce w h ich the schools rew ard m o st h ig h ly is n o t o f th e h igh est
ty p e , th at it is a m a tte r o f in com plete h u t docile assim ilation and
g lib re p e titio n rath er th an o f fe rtile a n d rebelliou s creation. H o w
m any sta r stu den ts are gra d e-h u n te rs an d p a rro ts ra th e r th ar
th in k e r s ! F o r it is n ot o n ly i n th e grad es th a t teach ers g iv e good
m ark s to good b o y s ; the c o n fo rm ed in tellig en ce sells everyw here fo i
a h ig h er p rice th a n th e u n co n fo rm ed . T h e in tellig en ce m ost u se fu l in
th e schools is th at w hich enables the stu d e n t to recite w e ll a n d to
pass tests.
I t can ea sily be established th a t th e o verem p h asis o f intelligence
in the schools h as serious effects u p o n some personalities. S tu p id stu
d en ts, or even stu den ts w ho are m e re ly slow , are m a d e to su ffer n eed
lessly, a n d the effects are lastin g. C le ver person s o f n o great w orth , or
p ro m isin g b u t en tirely u n p ro v ed persons, m a y acqu ire in college a
con cep tion o f th eir role w hich w ill m ake it im p ossible fo r th e m toj
su sta in th e task o f slow ascent in th e w o r ld o f t o i l ; su ch persons,
too, are fr e q u e n tly em bittered b y the disco very th a t the w o rld i:
ow ned a n d o perated h y and fo r persons o f lesser m e n ta lity . I t m a y be,
too, th a t tb e un rest o f the m aes o f these able persons in m in o r position,
con stitu tes a th re a t u p o n the establish ed order.
T b e overem ph asis o f in tellig en ce is lessened in A m e r ic a n schools by
the im p ortan ce attach ed to a c tiv itie s ; the able stu d e n t n ever a tta im
tb e reco g n itio n th a t is accorded a fo o tb a ll c a p ta in or the editor o f a|
stu d en t p ap er. A n d even on th e academ ic side, th e selectiv ity o f the
schools is n o t en tirely a m a tte r o f in tellig en ce, fo r a certain a m o u n t of
dogged n ess and a b ility to stick to u n p le asa n t tasks is alw ays a requisite
o f academ ic success. T h is n ecessary a m o u n t o f p e r tin a c ity is n icely!
g ra d ed fo r the v ariou s levels o f academ ic ach ievem en t, fo r th e higher
one goes th e m ore tedious, in spots, is th e g oin g. T h ere is a cynical
p ro fesso r w ho insists th at the m o st im p o r ta n t th in g a college degree!
p ro ves is th at th e p erson w h o h as it cou ld stan d th e grin d fo r fo ir
y ea rs. Since a fe a tu re o f creative in tellig en ce is p erh ap s a predis-j
p o sitio n to en n ui and a lo w toleran ce f o r th e tediou s, a scholastic
re g im e n th a t fo rces th e d u ll au d the clever to go at the sam e pace
a n d im poses u p o n tbe capable a lo a d o f rou tin e w o rk in ten d ed only
fo r th e m ediocre elim inates m any b r illia n t persons by its very
bored om .
T h e se lectiv ity o f tbe school is co n sid e ra b ly affected by fellow ships,
thb school nsr the social process ; vertical m o b il it v 25
scholarships, a n d o th er stu d en t a id s. N e a r ly e v e ry sch o larsh ip is g ov -

‘ erned b y a str ic t set o f ru les, a n d ca n be g iv e n to o n ly a ce rta in ty p e
o f stu den t. T h ese con dition s g o v ern in g sch o larsh ip s are v e r y im p o r
ta n t fr o m the p o in t o f v ie w o f v e r tic a l m o b ility . T h e re are p o litic a l
scholarships, a th letic sch olarsh ips, d isgu ise d a th letic sch o la rsh ip s, u n
authorized a th letic sch olarsh ips, sch o larsh ip s fo r th e aca d em ica lly
able, sch olarsh ips f o r the cou rageous, sch o larsh ip s fo r th ose sh ow in g
p articu lar a h ility i n some one d ire ctio n , sch o larsh ip s f o r th e d ilig en t,
and sch olarsh ips fo r those en terin g som e p a r tic u la r p ro fessio n . S ch o l
arships are excellen t th in gs, but w h en we co n sid e r th e m fr o m
S o ro k in ’s p o in t o f v ie w w e are le d to w o n d e r w h e th e r m o d era tio n
is n ot desirable. S o m e w riters a rg u e, f o r ex am p le, th a t th e caliber o f
m in isterial stu d e n ts h as fa lle n off as the n u m b e r o f a id s f o r p r o s
pective m in isters h as increased.
I t is difficult to reconcile th e selective fu n c t io n o f th e school w ith
its oth er social fu n ctio n s. The selective asp ect o f th e ed u ca tio n al
m achine is one w h ich theorists fr e q u e n tly overlook. Y e t it cries o u t to
he in c lu d ed in a n y real reck on in g u p o f th e social m e a n in g o f the
school. T h ose w h o devise cu rric u la w ill do w e ll to con sid er the e x ist
ence o f this s iftin g an d sortin g process w h ich is in e v ita b ly associated
w ith school lif e , and th e y n eed to con sider its rela tio n to social
w elfare. Th ose w h o are in terested in th e d eb ate co n c e rn in g college
entrance requ irem en ts in h ig h school m a y u n e a rth n ew m a te r ia l b y
stu d yin g th e su b je c t fr o m th is p o in t o f view .
T h ere are som e in d ication s th a t th e role o f the school as a selective
agency is m o re im p o rta n t in p r e se n t-d a y w e ste rn civ iliza tio n th an it
has ever been before. I n th e first place, th e dem ocratic d o gm a requ ires
equ ality o f o p p o r tu n ity fo r ed u cation , requ ires, th eo retica lly , th a t
education shall be g iv e n to each m a n acco rd in g to h is a h ility . Th e
schools m u s t th erefore p la y a p a r t in d ec id in g w h a t e d u ca tio n th e
ability o f a p a r tic u la r in d iv id u a l w a r r a n ts. I n the secon d p la c e, the
low ering o f the school age a n d co m p u lso ry school a tten d a n ce h a v e
g reatly red u ced the im p o rta n ce o f th e fa m ily as a n a g en c y d e te r m in
ing the a m o u n t a n d k in d o f e d u ca tio n to be given to th e ch ild . T h e y
have red u ced th e influence of th e fa m ily b u t h av e by no m ean s
destroyed it, fo r fa m ily tr a d itio n an d b a ck g rou n d m u st a lw a y s cou n t
fo r m uch. N o r h ave fa cilities b y w h ich p a ren ts can slip m ed io cre sons
into the m o s t desirab le occu p a tio n al n iches d e c r e a se d ; i t is still, u n
fortun ately, th e reco g n ized fu n c tio n o f m a n y p r iv a te schools to p u t
boys in to college w hose a b ility does n ot w a r r a n t th e ir g o in g to college.
Since th e school p e rfo rm s th is selective fu n c tio n fo r society, it is
ohviou s th a t th e r ig id ity o r la x ity o f th e te stin g m ech an ism s whicl

I
th e school em p lo y s is a m a tte r o f g re a t social im p o rta n ce. So rok in i8j
con vin ced th at the testin g process in v o g u e in A m e r ic a is entirety
too lax .
To summarize; by increasing tbe rapidity o f production o f university

graduates; by making graduation comparatively easy; by singing hymns t
tbe great significance o f university graduation; by paying little attention t<
moral education; and by failure to place graduates in proper positions; ou
universities are preparing dissatisfied elements out o f these graduates (th
people cursing the existing regime, directly and indirectly helping its under
m ining), under emergency conditions capable o f supplying leaders fo r an;
radical and revolutionary movement. Even now, the proportion o f sympa
thizers in a radical “ reconstruction” o f a “ reactionary and plutocratic Unite
States” in this group seems to he much higher than in any other group. “ T1
saloon-socialists” and “ pink” and “ radical” elements are recruited principalis
fro m this and similar groups. To check this result o f a relative “ overprodut
tion” o f elite or tbe pseudo elite, it is necessary either to find fo r them j
corresponding place or to increase tbe severity o f the demands necessary fa
passing through college or any other social “ sieve.” Contrariwise, instead o:
a social benefit, a further increase o f graduates, B .A .’s, masters, P h.D .'s, am
so on, may lead to social harm. This may sound like a paradox, to a gre&
many thinkers, and yet, it seema to be true.1
S o r o k in 's fa c t s are n n q u estion ah le. H i s con clu sion s fro m th e fa ct

are v e r y cogent, h u t p erh ap s n o t in escap ah le. H i s discu ssion presup
poses th a t the sta b ility o f e x istin g so ciety is one o f th e en ds o f ednca
t io n ; there are v e r y m a n y w h o w o u ld q u estio n th is p resu pposition
A l l w h o h ave heen affected h y th e d o ctrin es o f Joh n D e w e y wil
q u estion i t . W e are n o t concerned w ith th a t a rg u m e n t, h u t m ere!)
w ith p o in tin g o u t th a t fr o m a n o th er p o in t o f v ie w it is desirahle thai
e d u ca tio n sh o u ld he w id ely d iffu sed , a n d th a t th ere m a y he m e a n s hj
w h ich its ev il effects can he avo id e d . B u t S o r o k in ’s in d ic tm e n t o f oui
p resen t proced u re in d icates p la in ly th a t g re a t an d c h a lle n g in g tasks
fa c e th e schools. T h ere is th e task o f p la c e m e n t a n d specialized edu
ca tio n , o f d iscoverin g a n d d e v e lo p in g a b ilities, a n d o f le a r n in g hov
h est to u tilize th em fo r the h enefit o f so ciety. A n d n o t less clearlj
in d ica ted is th e task o f m oral ed u ca tio n , su ch m o ra l edu cation as will
m ake each in d iv id u a l as satisfied as it is possible fo r h im to he w itl
h is statio n in life .
W e ca n n ot tak e leave o f th is to p ic w ith o u t n o tin g w h a t effect thi
selective fu n c tio n h as u p o n the in te r n a l stru ctu re o f the school. Somi
1 Sorokin, Pitirim, Social Mobility, p. 201. (Reprinted by permission o f Harpei
& Brothers.)
-THE SCHOOL I X THE SOCIAL PROCESS; VERTICAL MOBILITY 27
schools, n o ta h ly the state u n iversities, fe e l such a p ressu re o f stu d en ts

upon fa c ilitie s th a t th ey m u st y e a r ly e lim in a te a larg e p erce n ta ge o f
their fre sh m e n . O th er schools elim in a te in ord er to keep sch olastic
standards h ig h ; th ey elim in ate .a u to m a tic a lly and acco rd in g to
schedule, fo r a la r g e p ro p ortio n o f stu d e n ts d ro p p e d f o r p o or sch olar
ship is su p p ose d to assure h igh in telligen ce in th ose w h o rem a in and
to cause th e in d o le n t to h estir th em selves. T h e teacher c a u gh t in such
a system is su p p ose d to h a v e a ce rta in n u m h er o f fa ilu r e s at th e en d
of the sem ester, and th is lea d s h im to se t u p o h jec tiv e, h u t o fte n
h igh ly artificial, s ta n d a r d s ; he is cru cified h etw een th e n ecessity o f
having a " s c a t t e r " and th a t o f h ein g ahle to ju s t i f y h is sta n d a rd s h y
some reasonable criterion . I t m a y he dou h ted w h eth er th e se le c tiv ity
o f a school u n d er p ressu re to elim in ate is w h olesom e. I t is ce rta in
that such henefits a s it co n fe rs are ohtain ed a t a n im m e n se sacrifice
o f h u m a n v alu es. I t is ce rtain , to o , th a t p ressu re to elim in a te m a k es
teaching d ry an d fa c tu a l, o vero rga n ized , and f u l l o f a rtificial h arriers.
A ll th is is d e a d ; rea l le a rn in g is alive.
Th e h orizo n tal m o h ility o f the tea c h in g p ro fession , as th e statistic s
show, is en orm ou s. W e do n o t k n ow h ow f a r th is rep resen ts a d v a n ce
m ent, fo r statistical d ata are la c k in g , h u t w e do k n ow th a t th e sch ools
serve as a ch an nel o f v ertica l m o h ility fo r teachers as w e ll as fo r
students. T each ers rise in th e sch ools, a n d th e p a th s th ey tre a d are
well w orn h y the m a n y g en eration s th a t h ave gone h efore th em . W e l l
known, indeed, are the testin g m e ch a n ism s w h ich d eterm in e w h o sh all
enter teach in g, a lo n g w h a t roads t h e y sh all advan ce, and h o w fa s t
they sh all go. T a k in g a cue fr o m Sorokin , w e m a y th in k o f th ese test
ing devices as o f three k i n d s :
(1 ) S u ch as determ in e fitn ess or u n fitn ess f o r the w ork o f tea ch in g .

(2 ) S u ch as determ in e fitness or u n fitn ess f o r th e social p o sitio n o f
the teacher.
(3 ) S u ch as d eterm in e th e ch a n n el a n d rate o f ad va n cem en t.13
2
(1 ) T h e p r in c ip a l testin g m ech an ism s h y w h ich fitness fo r a tea ch

ing position is established are acad em ic train in g , p ro fessio n a l courses,
teachers' ex am in a tio n s, req u irem en ts fo r certification, reco m m en d a
tions, and th e s c r u tin y o f p ro sp ective em p loyers. A g oo d m a n y are
elim inated h y these h u rd les, those w ith o u t sufficient aca d em ic or p r o
fessional tra in in g , those u nahle to ca rry college courses, those ahle
to carry courses h u t n o t to g et recom m en d ation s, those u n ah le to
secure p osition s, th ose u nahle to p a ss te a c h e r s’ exam in a tio n s, etc. I t
1Cf. Sorokin, op, tit., p. 182.
|
•will be n oted tb a t th e h u rd les are chiefly in te lle c tu a l in n a tu re . Gifted
stu d en ts g et th e best g ra d es a n d the b est re c o m m e n d a tio n s; thesi1
enable them to secure the b e st p o sitio n s ava ila b le, a n d m ake i t possib]
fo r th em to fin d th eir w a y in to the a risto c ra c y o f teach in g.
A ce rta in n u m b er o f obvious m isfits a n d p erso n s w ith pronounce
d e fe c ts o f p e rso n a lity are elim in a ted b y th e sc r u tin y o f p rosp eetii
em p lo y ers. B u t m o st o f th e testin g o f the social fitness o f th e teache
fo r th e te a c h in g jo b is don e b y th e jo b itse lf. U n t il som e w a y j
fo u n d to test social fitness, th ere m u s t a lw ay s be a h igh pereentag
o f fa ilu r e s a m o n g b eg in n in g teachers. T h e s tu d y o f tea ch in g failure
in r e la tio n t o the p erso n a lities o f te a ch e rs w o u ld seem to be a moi
p r o m isin g lin e o f in v estig a tio n . I n th is con n ection it sh ou ld b e note
th a t m a n y ed u ca tors believe th a t th ere sh ou ld be’ som e w a y o f weed
in g o u t tim eservers a n d person s n o t in ea rn est a h o u t th e teacher
m issio n . S m ith goes so fa r as to su g g e st tb a t tea ch in g salaries l
re a rra n g e d , m a k in g th e sta r tin g sa la r y low er a n d the salaries o,
exp erien ced teach ers slig h tly h ig h er. T h is, h e says, w o u ld interpos
a “ sta r v in g p e r io d ” b etw een th e p ro sp ective teacher a n d th e xe;
rew a rd s o f teach in g.
(2 ) T e a c h in g is n o t o n ly a n o ccu p ation , fo r i t is a sta tu s as we
I t is in th e tru e st sense a “ p o s itio n ,” fo r th e f a c t o f bein g a teacln
p laces one n e a tly i n the w o rld . T h e p o sitio n o f teacher carries w it
it ce rta in social p riv ile g es, a n d d u ties, a n d som e w ell-k n ow n disabi
ities. M a n y teach ers w h o are p e r fe c tly co m p eten t in th eir w o rk fai
because th e y do n o t m easu re u p to the social requ irem en ts f o r
te a c h e r ’s p osition . N eg roes ca n n ot hope to h o ld p o sition s e x c e p t i|
the n eg ro schools, a n d n o t a lw a y s th ere. The doors are o n ly lea
lig h t ly closed a g a in st J e w s a n d rece n t im m ig ra n ts. R a d ic a ls canno
u s u a lly h o ld te a c h in g p osition s, a n d even m o d e ra te ly so p h istic ate
v iew s g re a tly lim it th e ran g e o f a te a c h e r ’s choice o f job s.
S c h o o l a d m in istrators desirou s o f secu rin g in d iv id u a ls w h o con fon i
to p a r tic u la r ty p e s h av e been m o st in g e n io u s in d evisin g t e s tia
m ech an ism s. I t is necessary in som e in stitu tio n s to secure conformity
in relig io n a n d in o n e ’s view s u p o n su ch social p rob lem s as th e family
or th e n e g ro question . O n e secta ria n u n iv e rsity asks the prospectiv
ca n d id a te to sign a statem en t to the effect th a t n o g oo d eviden c
h as ever b een b ro u g h t fo r w a r d in fa v o r o f th e th eory o f evolution
W h e r e b e lie fs are m ore free, social a cce p ta b ility o f a d ifferen t soi
m ay be even m ore fu n d a m e n ta l. S o m e p riv a te school a n d colleg
p resid en ts n e v e r em p loy a teach er u n til th ey h a v e eaten d in n er w it1
h im . O th ers b a v e d evised tech n iq u es o f sh ow in g a ca n d id a te a b o u t t,l’
THE SCHOOL IN THE SOCIAL PROCESS; VERTICAL MOBILITY 29
school, in tro d u c in g him to the fa c u lty , or sen d in g the in d iv id u a l to

interview fa c u lt y m em hers. I f the in d iv id u a l passes these tests, the
verdict is th a t be w ill be a u se fu l a d d itio n to the fa c u lty . I f h e does
pot pass, th e v erd ic t reads, “ I ’ m a fr a id th a t h e ’s ju s t n ot our b in d
o f fe llo w .” I f such tests w ere m ore search in g, a n d i f th ey w ere u n i
versally a p p lied , th e y m ig h t lead to m u c h w iser choices o f fa c u lty
members.
The scru tin y to w h ich th e m em b ers o f th e school b o a r d su b je c t th e
candidate con stitu tes ex a c tly th is k in d o f test. E v e r y p re ju d ic e is
likely to be g iv en a h ea rin g. " C i t y slic k e r s” fin d the g o in g difficult.
" Y o u know, ” rem ark ed an estim able la d y o f r u ra l antecedents, " W h y
you know v e r y w e ll th at a fe llo w w ith a fu n n y little m u stach e like
that c o u ld n ’t g et a c o u n try s c h o o l.” T h e c u t o f the hair, the h a n d
shake, the voice, dress, m an n ers, m a n n er, a n d m a n n erism s— a ll these
are n oted a n d evalu ated.
B a r e ly is it p e r fe c tly clear w h eth er a teach er has su cceeded or
failed in h is w ork . M o r e o ften it is a debatable qu estion . T h e o p in ion
of fe llo w teachers w eighs h e a v ily in th e fin al ju d g m e n t. P e r h a p s i t is
best th at it sh ou ld w eig h h ea v ily . T h e p u b lic h as no v e r y accurate
w a y o f ratin g the te a c h e r ; nor is th e p u h lic lik e ly , because o f certain
fu n d a m en tal a n tagon ism s, w h ich w ill be d iscu ssed later, to rate h im
fa irly . T h erefo re it is n ecessary f o r the teach er to be ra ted b y h is
fellow teachers, b u t this, too, presen ts difficulties becau se teach ers rate
teachers la r g e ly fr o m the in stitu tio n a l p o in t o f v iew . T h e y ju d g e h im
b y the w ay in w hich h is w o rk co n fo rm s to in stitu tio n a l sta n d a rd s.
A n d v e ry ra rely in d eed are th ey ahle to sep arate the q u estion o f h is
social a ccep tab ility in the teach in g g ro u p fr o m the m ore ohjective
question o f tbe success o f h is te a c h in g m eth od s. T h e te a c h e r ’s a cce p t
ability to oth er teach ers dep en d s u p o n h is adherence to the teacher
code, u p o n h is k eep in g stu d en ts at a d ista n ce a n d o b servin g the p ro p er
ritual o f aggression a n d recession in co n tacts w ith other teachers.
(3 ) T h e rate o f the te a c h e r ’s a d v a n cem en t is also im p o rta n t, a n d
it m a y likew ise be show n to d ep en d in g re a t p a r t u p o n p ersonal an d
social fa cto rs w h ich fo r th e m o st p a rt are n o t o f a str ic tly academ ic
nature. T b e te a c h e r ’s efficiency in h is w o rk does indeed h av e som e
effect u p on the le n g th o f th e in terv a ls hetw een increases in bis sa la ry .
I t is clear, h ow ever, th a t th is efficiency is defin ed a ccord in g to th e
institutional situ a tio n . A teacher w h o k eeps o rd er in h is classroom
is u su ally re g a rd e d as efficient, even i f h is in stru ction fa ils o f a n y
considerable effect u p o n the stu d en t m in d . B u t a teacher w h o o ften
troubles h is su periors w ith d isc ip lin a ry cases w ill r ig h tly be co n -
r
sidered inefficient. The ahility to discipline is the usual test. Thj

faculty of “ fitting in ," and a degree of dexterity in manipulating
the social environment, of which the most significant part is the group
of teachers, are traits which are known to help a teacher to get a heat
in his profession. Ultimately, the teacher’s advancement depend
upon his ahility to grow with his position, hut that growth must b
fully as much in social grace as in professional skill.
Personal qualities, of which the more important are intellectual ant
executive ability, rightly determine the channel of the teacher’s ad
vancement. It may also depend upon the traditions and connection
of the teacher’s family, and upon chance associations formed afte
entering the profession.
Jt is interesting to record the hclief of rural school administrator
that a teacher advances in her profession as she changes from tli
lower to the upper grades. Sometimes teachers are thus “ promoted1'
against their will. Roughly, of course, advancement from one level ol
teaching to another, as from the grades to high school, does represent
promotion.
The vertical mohility of teachers affects the social atmosphere d
the school in a numher of ways. Where there are careers there ari
careerists, and there are careers in teaching. The careerist, the indi
vidual who is overmuch preoccupied with his own advancement, mai
have a high degree of institutional efficiency, hut he may he expectec
to handle human materials recklessly, with some resultant breakage
Again, a school which contains a numher of teachers who have, ai
they think, been cheated of their advancement, has not the samt
moral tone as a school in which advancement is regular and satis
factory. Intrigue, rivalry, political maneuvering, and conspiracy also
derive their chief meaning from their relation to the vertical mobility
of teachers, Indeed, it seems a safe conclusion that, when the social
history of the present-day school is written, the careers of teachers
will make up a long and interesting chapter.
PROJECTS
1. Study some community conflict which has resulted in a change of school
policy.
2. Make a list of the suggestions publicly offered for the improvement ol
the schools during a given period. How far do these represent the activities
of conflict groups?
3. Study the groupings of children within a school. IIow far do these repre
sent the carry-over of adult groups, and how far do they cut across adnli
groups ?
THE SCHOOL IN THE SOCIAL PROCESS; VERTIOAL MOBILITY 3 1
4. Write a case history showing the influence of the American school upon
the child of an immigrant family.
5. Inquire into the motives for college attendance of twenty-five students.
How many are in college for purely economic reasons? How many for “ cul
tural” purposes? Are there cases which cannot he so classified?
6. Make a table showing the family background of twenty college students.
List such traits as occupation of father, yearly income, years in school of each
parent, etc. Contrast with occupational aim of student, probable income, etc.
Interpret.
7. Make a similar table for a group of established teachers. Interpret.
8. Construct a chart showing the relation between yearly income and num
ber of years in school for a group of adult wage-earners. (Have each member
of class contribute ten cases and then put all the data on a single chart.)
Interpret.
9. Make a table for same group showing the relation between occupation
and number of years of schooling. Interpret.
10. Tabulate all student aids, fellowships, scholarships, loan funds, etc.,
in your school. What kind of social selection do they favor?
11. Organize all the arguments for and against more rigid selection in the
schools, {liefer to Sorokin, Pitirim, Social M obility for further suggestions.)
12. Compare the I. Q.’s of a group of boys who came into college from
prep schools with the I. Q.’s of an uuselcctcd group. Compare also for social
background, as above. Interpret.
13. Make a study of a group of candidates for teaching positions, com
paring them on the basis of traits listed in the test. Show the relative stand
ings of those who did and those who did not get positions.
14. Make a chart showing the advancement of teachers in their profession.
Correlate advancement with measurable traits of personality.
15. Make a case study of a teacher who is a “ careerist.”
16. From the census reports, ascertain the national origins of teachers,
the proportion of foreign-born whites, native whites of foreign parentage,
and native whites of native parentage. Prepare a chart showing nationality
of foreign-born parents. Explain the distribution in terms of the sociological
concept of assimilation. What does tbe distribution show concerning the place
of tbe teacher in the cultural process? Would it he possible on the basis of
these figures to reach any conclusions concerning the rate of Americanization
in different nationality groups?
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) C ooley, C. H., Personal Com petition, American Economic Association,
Economic Studies, Vol. IV, No. 2. Reprinted in C ooley, C. II., S ocio
logical T heory and Social Research.
(2) C itbbekLiEY, E. P., P u blic E ducation in the United States, Chapter VI.
(3) D awson ", C. A., and G ettys , W. E., A n Introduction to S ociology,
Chapters VIII to XIII.
32 the sociology oh teaching
(4 ) L e w is , E. E., Personnel P roblem s o f the Teaching Staff, Chapter*

X I I I to .X V I I .
(5 ) L jn dem an , E. C., Community Conflict.
(6 ) M a r tin , E . D ., The M eaning o f a Liberal Education.
(7 ) O gburn , W . F ., Social Change.
( 8 ) P ark , R . E., and B urgess, E. W ., A n In trod uction to the Science o,
S ociology, Chapters I X , X , and X I.
(9 ) S orokin , P itik im , Social M obility.
C hapter IV
THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY: GENERAL
O n e w ho th in k s abou t the r e la tio n o f th e sch ool to the co m m u n ity

which su p p o rts it w ill soon com e u p o n questions o f p u b lic p o lic y
which it w o u ld take an E in ste in ia n g ra sp o f th e calcu lu s o f fe lic it y
to answer. D iffic u lty arises hecause the aim s o f the school a n d th e
com m u n ity are o fte n d iverg en t. I t is v e r y w e ll to say th a t the sch ool
should serve the co m m u n ity, h u t it is difficult to decide w h a t o p in ion
should govern w h en school a n d c o m m u n ity differ. T h e lig h ts o f the
school a u th o rities are o fte n b etter t b a n those o f th e c o m m u n ity in
general. Sch ool m en h ave g iv en som e stu d y to th eir o w n p roblem s,
and cou ld reason ab ly be ex p ected to k n o w m ore abou t them th an
outsiders do. Y e t the c o m m u n ity is o ften w iser th a n the school, hecausc
the co m m u n ity is whole an d the school is fr a g m e n ta r y . T h e school, as
a fr a g m e n t o f th e com m on life , is a p r e y to in stitu tio n a lism . I n s ti
tu tionalism causes the school to fo r g e t its p u r p o s e ; it m akes the school
give ed u cation fo r ed u cation a n d tea ch in g fo r teach in g, p erh ap s fo r
te a c h e r s ; in sh ort, it m akes a n end o f w h a t is lo g ic a lly o n ly a m ean s
to an end. T h is vice tbe c o m m u n ity escapes because the c o m m u n ity is
whole, because i t is not sim p ly a p lace w b ere teach ers teach and
ch ildren learn . T h e c o m m u n ity is w hole because w hole m en live in it.
A n d the c o m m u n ity is som etim es w ise w ith a kn ow led ge o f the co m
plete life th a t su rpasses the k n ow led ge o f the schools. I t becom es, then,
one o f the im p o rta n t questions o f p u b lic p o lic y as to h o w fa r the
co m m u n ity sh o u ld determ in e the p o lic y o f th e school a n d b o w fa r
the school sh ou ld be self-d eterm in in g . W e h av e n o t y e t the fo r m u la .
A com p lication o f a d ifferen t ord er arises fr o m the fa c t th at com
m unities in gen eral, p erh ap s esp ec ia lly A m e r ic a n com m u nities, have
chosen to use the schools as rep ositories fo r ce rta in ideals. T h e ideals
which are su p p osed to h ave th eir stron g h o ld in the schools are o f
several d ifferen t sorts. Th e b e lie f is a b roa d th a t y o u n g people o u g h t
to be train ed to th in k tbe w o rld a little m ore b e a u tifu l a n d m u ch
more ju s t th a n it is, as th ey o u g h t to th in k m e n m ore h on est and
w om en m ore v irtu o u s th an th ey are. A bigh -sch o ol stu d en t m u st learn
that h on esty is a lw ay s th e best p o li c y ; p e rh a p s h is fa th e r secretly
33
helieves th a t he k n ow s h e t t e r ; p e rh a p s the h o y h im s e lf m a y he le a rn ,
in g so m eth in g q u ite d ifferen t in the w o r ld o f h usiness, h u t it does the
h oy no h a rm to sta rt w ith th a t assu m p tio n . W e ca n teach h im enough
h on esty to keep h im out o f ja il a ll h is l i f e ; la te r he can m ake such
am en d m e n ts to ou r p rin c ip le s as seem n ecessary to h im . A l l m u st
le a rn th a t the U n ite d S ta te s is the g reatest a n d hest o f all th e n ation s
o f h isto r y , u n e q u a lle d in w ealth or v ir tu e since tim e hegan. P erh ap s
it does n o h a rm fo r stu den ts to th in k th at th e w o r ld is g e ttin g h etter
an d h etter, th o u g h th is is a v e r y d a n g ero u s d o ctrin e i f one th in ks
a h ou t i t v e ry lon g.
A m o n g these ideals are those m o ra l p r in c ip le s w h ich the m a jo r ity
o f a d u lts m ore or less fr a n k ly d isav ow f o r th em selv es h u t w a n t others
to p r a c t ic e ; th e y are ideals fo r the h elp less, ideals' fo r ch ildren an d
fo r teachers. T h ere are other ideals w h ich are n e a rly o u t o f p r in t, be
cause p eo p le do n ot helieve in th e m a n y m o re. T h o u g h m o st ad u lts
h ave le f t such ideals h eh in d, th e y are n o t w illin g to d iscard th em
fin ally . T h e school m u st keep th em alive. T h e school m u st serv e as a
m u se u m o f v irtu e.
W e h av e in ou r cu ltu re a h ig h ly develop ed sy stem o f id ealism fo r
th e y o u n g . T h e y o u n g h ave n ot y e t com e in to co n tac t w ith a w o rld
th at m ig h t soil th em , and w e do w h a t w e can to keep the y o u n g
u n su llie d . T h ere are certain th in g s th a t are n o t f o r the y e a rs o f the
y o u n g . T h ere are certain fa cts ahou t h u m a n n atu re th at th ey m u st
n ot learn . T h ere are certain h its o f r ea lity th a t th e y m u st n o t touch.
T h ere are certa in fa c ts o f h isto r y th a t we th in k it hest n o t to teach
th em . T h ere is an idealized w o rld v iew th a t it is th ou gh t hest to
pass on to adolescents. T h e n o tio n th a t it is n o t p ro p e r to tell the
w hole tru th is o fte n carried o ver in to college teach in g, and it affects
m a te r ia lly the p o in t o f v ie w o f m a n y u n iv e r s ity p ro fesso rs. T here
is ju s t en ou gh a p p a ren t w isd o m in the p o licy o f h id in g difficult fa c ts
fr o m th e y o u n g to ju s t i fy it in th e p o p u la r m in d as a general p o licy .
F o r it is o ft e n a rg u e d th a t ch a racter tr a in in g m u st h eg in h y the
in c u lc a tio n o f a n im possible v irtu e, in ord er th a t th e in d iv id u a l m a y
have a su rp lu s o f v irtu e to trad e u p on . T h e w o rld , o f course, is
th o r o u g h ly co m m itted to the p o lic y o f n o t te llin g th e w hole tr u th to
y o u n g ste rs, to the p o licy o f te llin g them fa lse h o o d s w h ich w ill m ake
the w o r ld m ore a ttra ctive or th em selves m o re tractab le and virtu ou s.
T h e co n ven tion al h elief, as w e have n o te d , is th at the y o u n g m u st
he sh ield ed fr o m contact w ith the u n p le a sa n t an d am oral aspects o f
the u n iv erse a n d th at th ey m u st be k e p t in an u ltra -co n serva tiv e
e n v iro n m en t. These ideals m a y he ju stifie d h y the fa c t th a t they
■ THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY; GENERAL
preven t the dem oralization o f the y o u n g ; as to th at w e h ave p re fe rre d

to keep an open m ind. B u t i t is ce rta in th a t th e necessity o f serv in g
as the rep o sito ry fo r these id eals lim its th e la rg er u tility
school. F o r i f it is the p u rp ose o f edu cation to p rep a re fo r life in th e
•world, th en the school m u st g iv e its stu d en ts th a t w o r ld in o rd er th a t
35
o f the
they m a y g et th em selves r e a d y f o r liv in g in it. A c t u a lly it can n ot

give stu d en ts the w orld , b u t o n ly an im ita tio n or a rep resen tation o f
the w o r ld ; in a n y case, i t sh ou ld he a n accu rate im ita tio n or a fa i t h f u l
representation i f th e tr a in in g w h ich the stu d en t receives in school is
to have a n y v a lid ity . T h e loss the d isco n tin u ity h etw een the life o f
the school a n d the life o f the w o r ld o u tsid e, th e h etter w ill h e th e
tra in in g fo r life w hich the school g iv es to its stu d en ts. A n y id eal
which cuts d o w n th e a h ility o f the school to rep ro d u c e re a lity in te r
feres w ith its r e a l fu n c tio n o f p r e p a r in g stu d e n ts fo r life . T h e u tility
o f such id eals m a y even be d isp u te d fr o m the m oral p o in t o f v i e w ;
the a rg u m e n t a ga in st th em is the good one th a t the in d iv id u a l u p o n
w h om w e h ave fo iste d off a too id ealistic w o r ld view w ill be m ore
rea d ily d isorg an ized b y con tact w ith a f a r fr o m p e rfe c t w o rld th an
w ill a n in d iv id u a l w h o h as a lrea d y h a d som e experien ce o f th e w o r l d ;
it is th e o ld p rin c ip le o f inocu lation. I n alm ost a n y case, i f a school
m an believes in th e p o lic y o f tr a in in g y o u n g person s to he v ir tu o u s
hy n ot te llin g them th e tr u th , he sets v e r y definite lim its to h is ow n
co n tin u in g influence u p o n those w h o com e in con tact w ith h im . T h ere
is reason fo r the h itter je st th a t a school teach er is a m an h ire d to
tell lies to little hoys.
O u r an a lysis o f the relation betw een the school a n d th e c o m m u n ity
has so fa r heen v e r y general. T h e p ossib ilities o f such a n alysis are
lim ited. W e m a y hope to achieve an a n a ly sis w h ich w ill h ave greater
concreteness hy h asin g it u p on the connections w h ich are m ade hetw een
the school an d the co m m u n ity h y th e liv es o f in d ivid u als. I f w e w ish
an analysis th a t w ill bite in to r e a lity w e m u st stu d y the roots w hich
persons in v o lv e d in school life h ave in the c o m m u n ity at larg e an d
attem p t to discover the in tercon n ection o f th eir lives w ith in an d
w ith ou t the sciiool. E ach in d iv id u a l rep resen ts a reciprocal ch an nel o f
influence, a n influence o f th e c o m m u n ity u p on the school a n d an
influence o f the school u p o n the co m m u n ity. T h erefo re w e m u st stu d y
the relation o f the school a n d the co m m u n ity h y stu d y in g person s an d
a ttem p tin g to lea rn w h at h u rd e n s th ey c a r r y as th e y go back an d
fo rth betw een the co m m u n ity a n d th e school. W e tu rn n o w to a n
analysis o f th is sort.
The place o f stu d en ts as the y o u n g o f a co m m u n ity w e h ave a lrea d y
36 THE S0C10E0GY OF TEACHING
noted. Toward young persons the community in general has the con
ventional attitude of the elders, an attitude of protection mingled with
regulation. Children live in glass houses. There is the desire to shield
the young from all contaminating contact with the world, and this is
one reason for the multitudinous restrictions upon the teacher in the
community. Every older person tends to take a paternal interest in
the young of the community, whether he has progeny or not. The stu
dents in a public school thus have a very definite place in the commu
nity, and the community conception of this place materially affects the
kind of school which the community maintains.
But it is not enough, and it is not nearly enough, to say that the
young occupy a peculiar position in the community. Each child has a
position that is his and only his, and views life with 'unique perspec
tive. A group of children leave the school house in late afternoon.
A few ride off on bicycles toward the hig houses on the hill; the rest
walk toward the poorer section down by the railroad track. Social
and economic differences separate the two groups. Some of the children
make their way toward the mean houses and narrow streets where
black people live ; the white man’s attitude toward them cuts them and
him apart. One child turns to the left toward the Polish settlement
while another turns right for “ Little Italy.” Ultimately each child
fin ds his own street and his own family. His roots are in his family,
and he lives always against the background of that “ unity of inter
acting personalities.” 1 Even within the family, each child has his
own particular place, for no two children can ever occupy the same
space. Diverse, indeed, are the environments of school children, and
their personalities are diverse; but teachers are supposed to treat
them all alike.
Differences o f position in the community determine important dif
ferences in tlie school. The child’s status as the son of a particular
person affects his status in the school and his attitude toward school.
The daughter of an influential man in the community does not expect
to be treated in the same way as an ordinary child, and yet it is
dangerous for a teacher to make exceptions. Thus arise many problems
to perplex the teacher. Typical of these was the following:
The three-hundred-pound daughter of a member of the school board was
also in that class—a daughter of the member in fact who allied himself -with
“■The student should understand the influence of the family upon personality.
Excellent treatments of the subject are to be found in :
(1 ) Mowrer, Ernest R., The Family.
(2 ) Reuter and Runner, The Family.
(3 ) Goodaell, Willystine, Frobletns o f the Family.
THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY: GENERAL 37
the man who hated me so. She bad an inferiority complex of some sort,
probably due to her size, and it was coupled with an insufferable conceit.
She was a good student but you had to learn how to handle her. It was a
nuisance too. She made trouble of some sort nearly all the time. The only
thing to do, as I saw it, was to let her alone till she got over it.
For one project I had the class make pajamas. The heavy-set. daughter
of the school-board member got mad immediately. She refused, I insisted, she
told her mamma and mamma said she didn’t have to, that she wouldn’t al low
her to wear them, wouldn’t have them around, etc., for six volumes. Above
all things, I tried to cooperate with the parents, and especially in that class,
for the townspeople were poor. I told her she had to make two nightgowns
instead of pajamas. Her work was always in late. I was at my wit's end to
know what to do with her. She had the idea, somehow, that the school was
run for her convenience. She was a Junior until midyear. After Christmas,
as Senior sponsor, I had ber on my hands, and a sore problem it was when
wo came to give the Senior party.
To return to the sewing class. We finished in fine style, having a beautiful
exhibit, of all the work, with the room decorated very attractively. I had to
threaten flunking to get my heavy-set pupil to bring in all her work. She
would stand and argue and argue. I'd turn her off kindly but it did no good.
I was rude to her more than once, trying to make her quit. She would get
inad and go off and talk ahout me. Then she would try to bring me around
by cutting me. If she knew how we laughed at her. She was so very adolescent
and she thought she was so very mature. (Autobiographical document, My
First Tear of Teaching, furnished by a woman teacher.)
It, is not unknown that such a tieup between the child’s parents and
the teacher should win for the child differential treatment that he
does not desire. The daughter of the most prominent hanker in a
Binall town relates with some disgust the story of the favoritism shown
her by different teachers; in her case it would seem that a teacher
lost her respect and good will more thoroughly through favoritism
than she could ever have lost it through impartiality.
The attitudes of students make very clear the cruel distinction
between rich and poor. Many children attain an easy and unhealthy
leadership through the use of the economic resources of their parents
or merely through their parents’ reputations. It is upon the basis of
such distinctions that many of the cliques and social clubs of high-
school children are formed; the competition is not a healthy one be
cause it is not based1upon the merits of the persons competing. Many
parents who have the misfortune to he well-to-do or famous have
longed to remove their children from this atmosphere. The private
school presents a way out of the situation. In Washington it is no
3S THE SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING
distinction to be a Congressman; in a private school it is not usually

a distinction to have wealthy parents; competition must therefore
ascend to a different plane.
The children of poor and humble parents experience the situation
with the opposite emphasis. They are those whom the teachers do not
fa v o r ; they are the ones excluded from things exclusive. These poorer
children frequently drop out of high school because of their inability
to sustain themselves in social competition with the children of
wealthier parents.1 Clothes make the student. Teachers sometimes
take unusual pains with children who have few cultural advantages
and little economic backing at borne, and tbese efforts occasionally
bave remarkable and heartening results.
Students may likewise stand out as individuals.' The high-sebool
athletic hero achieves much distinction in the school, and his prowess
is usually bruited about the community as well. Brilliant students
may likewise achieve desirable status in the school, with some carry
over into the community at large. The girl who becomes implicated in
any scandal is singled out for special attention both in the school
and the community. Frequently the attention is an attempt to injure
her, and it usually succeeds.
Such is the influence of the community upon the school, as medi
ated through the personalities of students. The opposite process is
fu lly as significant. The school, through its influence upon individuals,
exerts a tremendous influence upon the community. This is a process
which has often been dwelt upon in the literature, and we need give
it here but passing notice. The long-term influence of the school may
be very great. Perhaps the school can have but little effect upon the
inner make-up of tbe children who pass through it, but it can have
a great effect upon certain specific beliefs. Thus the advocates of tem
perance strove wisely to get their doctrines incorporated into the
curriculum of the schools. Perhaps it seemed futile at the time to
show little children pictures of ulcerated stomachs and badly deteri
orated livers, but when those children grew old enough to vote, they
put prohibition into the Constitution. Likewise the representatives of
the public utilities have chosen to make much o f their propaganda
easily available for teacbcrs in the form of lessons ready planned;
some have gone to the extreme of offering to grade the teacher’s papers
for him. The process of cultural diffusion has sometimes been hastened
through the lessons of the schools; a particularly good example of
1Of. The Lymla, Middletown, p. 38.1, Hareourt Brace and Co., New York, 1929.
THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY: GENEBAL 39
this has heen furnished by the rapid spread of the toothbrush in

America in the last quarter of a century.
But the school does not always have to wait until a new generation
comes into power before it can make its influence felt. Sometimes
children seize upon particular doctrines and spread them with a mis
sionary zeal which proves embarrassing to their teachers. The tendency
of children to set their parents right on certain matters by reference
to what the teacher says is well known. Some of the most effective
work of the schools has resulted from enthusiastic teaching of such
simple but important matters as personal cleanliness and methods of
hygienic living, with a subsequent rapid spread of those doctrines
from the just converted students as radiant centers. Occasionally
sharp conflicts arise between parents and children on the basis of
what the children have learned in school. Sometimes these conflicts
destroy the effectiveness of the home as an agency of control. Par
ticularly unfortunate is the immigrant, home. The children have the
advantage of schooling, and they rapidly become better adapted to
the superficial aspects of American culture than their parents. They
consider themselves, therefore, wiser than their parents in all respects,
and a divisive conflict results which destroys the value of the home
as an agency for the imposition of moral and ethical standards. This
break in the process of social control may come about without any
direct conflict between the school and the parents on moral matters;
the school trains the children in a universe of values with which the
parents are unfamiliar, and the children then emancipate themselves
from their parents. Children are more rapidly drawn into the main
current of American life than are their parents, and the children
therefore leave most of their ethical and religious codes behind;
unadjustment, is produced by a differential rate of diffusion to suc
cessive generations.
On occasion, the doctrines of the school and the community come
sharply into conflict. The result is that some members of the com
munity attempt to discipline erring members of the faculty. Instances
like the following could be multiplied without end.
In studying Caedmon, I asked them to read the Biblical version of the crea
tion story and compare it with his. I especially reminded them that I wanted it
read as literature and compared on that basis. 1 called lor the papers the
next day. Only three were available. I nonchalantly gave them the same
assignment and an additional one. No papers came in. I reminded them of
tbeir neglect. Finally, after another day or two, I began to get papers of a
distinctly sectarian version of the story. It was not what I wanted and I told
them so. 1L could not he used to the same purpose.
One night after school a rap came at the Assembly room door. There stood
three very indignant ladies, one of whom I recognized as the mother of oua
of my girls. She asked me icily if “ The Professor” (everyone called him that)
was in. Innocence itself, I took them to his office in my most gracious manner.
Miss V and I laughed about how someone surely was going to get their
everlasting, for those ladies were mad. Little (lid .1 dream 1 I was thoroughly
surprised when, the nest day, the superintendent told me what a terrihle
time he had convincing them that I was not trying to corrupt their daughters’
morals. (Autobiographical document, My First Tear of Teaching, from
a twenty-five-year-old woman teacher.)
This incident leads naturally to a consideration of community school

relations centering in the personalities of teachers. We may state our'
two most important generalizations concerning the relation of teachers'
to the community in this form: That the teacher has a special position
as a paid agent of cultural diffusion, and that the teacher’s position]
in the community is much affected hy the fact that he is supposed to]
represent those ideals for which the schools serve as repositories.
Teachers arc paid agents of cultural diffusion. They arc hired to
carry light into dark places. To make, sure that teachers have some
light, standard qualifications for teachers have heen evolved. Not only
must, the teacher know enough to teach the youngsters in the schools
competently according to the standards of the community, hut he
must, usually, he a little beyond his community. From this it follows
that the teacher must always he a little discontented with the com
munity he lives in. The teacher is a martyr to cultural diffusion.
it does not matter where a teacher starts, he must always take just
enough training to make him a little dissatisfied with any community
he is qualified to serve. And it docs not matter much how far he
goes, for there is, fo r most of us, no attainable end. A farm er’s
daughter decides to teach. It seems to her that a rural school would
he just right; she is used to country life and it pleases her well. But
she must be a liigh-school graduate before she is qualified to teach
in a rural school. When she has finished her training in the nearby
village she is no longer enthusiastic about teaching in a rural school.
She goes to a normal school, and learns to live in a cultural center of
that level. Then she can teach in the high school of a small town. She
goes to a state university, which is a first-rate center of learning.
What she learns there makes high-school teaching a little dull and life
in the smaller community difficult. University teachers and puhlicl
school teachers in the large cities are partial exceptions, but for the
rest there is rarely an end to the process. The teacher must always
know enough to make his subject matter seem commonplace to him, or
he does not know enough to teach it. He must always have received,
teaching a grade higher than he can give. He must always have
adjusted his possibilities to a center of learning one size larger than
the one he serves. The teacher must take what consolation he can
from the fact, made much of hy inspirational writers, that he is a
carrier of the cultural values.
This nearly universal maladjustment is not without its effect upon
the standards of success in the profession. The successful teacher
makes progress; that is, he moves occasionally, and always to a larger
community. That is one reason why teachers stubbornly go to school.
They hope some time to make tastes and opportunities coincide. But
the fact that they rarely succeed accounts in part for the fact that
teachers rarely take root in a community. They hold themselves fo r
ever ready to ohey that law of gravitation which pulls them toward an
educational center equivalent to the highest center they have had
experience of. That is partly why teachers are maladjusted transients
rather than citizens. Although the stair steps of primary groups o f
children no douht have more to do with it than the attitudes of
teachers, this unadjustment of teachers may help to account for the
fact that schools of each level ape the schools of the next higher grade,
the grade schools imitating the high school, the high schools pretending
to be colleges, and colleges trying to become graduate schools.
One may disagree as to the interpretation of the prevalent dissatis
faction of school teachers with the community in which they live, but
the fact itself seems indubitable. Over and over again, teachers, asked
to tell the stoiy of their experiences in certain communities, relate the
same story. Especially keen is the disappointment of the teacher in his
first school. The young teacher comes fresh from the training school
to his first position. He has accumulated a great fund of idealism
during his training; he is enthusiastic over his work and the self-
fulfillment it will represent. He is usually elated over the prospect of
at last receiving a salary for his services. When he arrives at the
scene of his lahors, which he has pictured with a certain glitter, as
having upon it some of the tinsel of "Utopia, he secs that which gives
him pause; the community seems barren, sordid, uninspiring; the
school itself is uninviting. “ The school huilding displayed that
peculiarly drab and unpicturesque deterioration which comes from a
generation or so of school children, as if the huilding, too, were
42 THE SOCIOLOGY OP TEAOHING
su llen a n d u n h a p p y hecause o f the u n w illin g ch ild re n who en tered it,

I t m ad e m e th in k o f a ta ttered , o ld -y o u n g w o m a n , fr o w sle d a n d down,
a t-th e-h eels, w o rried fr o m the care o f so m a n y c h ild r e n .” B u t tin
tea ch er str u g g le s to keep u p h is c o u r a g e ; h e is d eterm in ed to he
pleased . T h is is a ty p ic a l situ a tio n . A w o m a n te a c h e r ph rased it briefly
t h u s : “ T h e tw o w eeks h efore school o p en ed w e re n o t q u ite so appeal,
in g to m e as I h ad hoped. H a d I heen d isillu sio n ed a fte r m y v isit U
th e to w n ? I trie d to keep u p m y cou rage, a n d sa y , ‘ I t ’ll he bettei
th an you t h in k ,’ ” But there is no m ista k in g th e fa c t th a t dis
illu sio n m e n t h a s a lrea d y set in. I t needs n ow h u t a row w ith the school
hoard, a set-to w ith a p a ren t, a n d a w r a n g le w ith a colleague, p lu s
p erh a p s, a fe w weeks o f fo llo w in g th e cou rse o f stu d y , a n d th e dis
c o v e r y th a t th e c o m m u n ity does n ot a p p ro v e o f h is p rogressive m e t l
o d s o f ed u ca tio n , to m a k e a d isco n ten ted p ro fe ssio n a l o f the erstwhik
en th u siastic am ateur.
T h is is th e th em e o f m a n y o f th e n o v e ls th a t d e a l w ith life in tbc
sch ool. T h e teacher goes ou t w ith a v ig o r o u s id ealism , d eterm in ed to
p ass h is v a lu e s on to oth ers, eager to fin d h is ow n p lac e in the giv*
a n d tak e o f th e un iverse. B u t h e fin d s th e w o r ld w ith o u t com prehei,
sion o f h is v alu es, u n re a d y to receive th em , in terested i n coarser th in g
m a n a g e d h y d u lle r, h a rd e r m en. H e tries to h e g in a t th e h eg in n in ;
a n d e x p la in h is v a lu es to those a h o u t h im . H e fin ds this v ery difficult
He str u g g le s in vain a ga in st d isillu sion , fin a lly y ie ld s to it. Tin
M essian ic sp irit dies, his own g ra sp u p o n h is id eals is en feeb led , anc
h e sinks in to a stuhborn a n d u n re a so n in g d iscon ten t. Som etim es the
hero o f these n o v els is so w eak a n d so s e lf-p it y in g th at one fin d s it
difficu lt to sy m p ath ize. Chimes is a stu d y o f such a feehle p ersonal it}
v e r y su re th a t he has received th e lig h t— a t H a r v a r d — a n d wanly
d esirou s o f th e society o f others w h o h a v e received the sam e light.
H e is sw a m p e d in the u p su rg e o f n e w th in g s at the m id western
u n iv e r sity , p re su m a b ly the U n iv e r sity o f C h icago. H e is h le a k ly urn
h a p p y , a n d m ore th an a lit t le rebelliou s, h u t never does a n y th in g ahout
it. H e is fo r e v e r m isu n d erstood , fo r e v e r lo st, fo r e v e r bitter, a n d pro
f o u n d ly u n h a p p y hecause others are n o t as he.
A tru e r p a th o s a p p ears in the str u g g le s o f teach ers to “ keep u p .”
Y o u n g teach ers fa n the little s p a r k h u r n in g fe e h ly in th e ir bosoms
to keep i t alive. R e a liz in g th eir iso la tio n fr o m the m ain strea m of
c u ltu ra l develop m en t, th ey f a l l in to a so rt o f in te lle ctu a l valetu d i
n a ria n ism w h ere re a d in g a good book or a serious m a g azin e acquires
a re lig io u s significance. T h e tr a g e d y o f th ose w h o strain to keep u p is
th a t th e y w ere n e v e r “ u p .” O ue h as m o r e difficu lty in sym pathizin g
with those specialists w ho d em an d n o t m e re ly th a t th ey sh all p a ss

their days in th e society o f cu ltu re d m en, h u t th a t th ese m e n sh all
k ave ex actly the sam e k in d o f le a rn in g th a t th e y th em selves have,
jsfot th at th e specialist is p a r tic u la r ly h a p p y iu h is rela tio n s w ith
those in bis ow n field, f o r riv a lrie s sever h im fr o m th em . T h e college
professor criticizes one h a lf o f h is colleagu es, as a w it t y fr ie n d su g
gests, hecause th ey bave w ritte n hooks, an d th e oth er h a lf becau se
they have w r itte n none. T h e c u ltu r a l isolation o f the n ew tea ch er
is fu rth er com p licated h y th e h reak in g o f person al tie s in tr a n sp la n ta
tion, h y a conflict o f u rh a n a n d r u r a l h eh avior n orm s, a n d h y th e
teacher’s statu s as a new com er.
O u r secon d m a jo r g en eralization is th a t th e teach er is su p p o se d
to represent ce rta in ideals in th e c o m m u n ity , These id eals differ so m e
what fr o m one co m m u n ity to anoth er, h u t there is an u n d e r ly in g
sim ilarity. T h e en tire set o f ideals in th eir m o st in c lu sive fo r m is
clearly stated in the con tract w h ich teach ers in th e p u h lic schools o f a
certain south ern co m m u n ity are asked to sign . T h e c o n tra c t fo llo w s :
I promise to take a vital interest in all phases of Sunday-school work,

donating of my time, service, and money without stint for the uplift and
benefit of the community.
I promise to abstain from all dancing, immodest dressing, and any other
conduct unhecoming a teacher and a lady.
I promise not to go out with any young men except in so far as it may he
necessaij to stimulate Sunday-school work.
I promise not to fall in love, to become engaged or secretly married.
I promise not to encourage or tolerate the least familiarity on the part of
any of my hoy pnpil3.
I promise to sleep at least eight hours a night, to eat carefully, and to
take every precaution to keep in the hest of health and spirits, in order that
I may be better able to render efficient service to ray pupils.
I promise to remember that I owe a duty to the townspeople who are paying
me my wages, that I owe respect to the school board and the superintendent
that hired me, and that I shall consider myself at all times the willing servant
of the school board and the townspeople.1
The c o n tra c t qu oted above is so extrem e tb a t it w ill seem in cred ib le
to persons w h o are n ot fa m ilia r w ith th e m o ra l q u a lifica tio n s w h ich
teachers in g en eral are su p p osed to fu lfill. Those a little closer to the
facts w ill he w illin g to cred it its litera l tru th . In a n y case, th e con tract
itself is so e x p lic it th at com m en t u p on it is un necessary.
The d em an d s m ad e b y the sm a ller c o m m u n ity u p on th e tim e an d
k y T. M in ehan , “ T h e T each er Goes J o b - H u n t i n g ,'’ T h e N a tio n ,
V ol. 124, p. 606. (R e p r in te d by perm ission, o f T h e N a ti o n .)
m o n ey o f the teacher are u n re m ittin g . T h e teach er m u st be availabl ■

f o r church fu n ctio n s, lodge fu n c tio n s, p u b lic occasions, lectu re coursJ
a n d e d ify in g spectacles o f all sorts. N o t in fr e q u e n tly he is expected
to id e n t ify h im se lf closely w ith som e p a r tic u la r relig io u s grou p LI
to becom e active in “ church w o r k .” S ch o o l execu tives o ccu p y a n eve]
m ore exp osed position th an do u n d e rlin g s. Y e t som e u n b eliev in g supeJ
m te n d e n ts in v e r y sm a ll co m m u n ities h a v e b een able to w o rk ou t J
p ro m ise s th at satisfied th e c o m m u n ity a n d y e t in v o lv ed n o sacrifit
o f th eir own convictions. O n e ta c t fu l a gn o stic declin ed to a tten d an
ch u rch services at a n y tim e , b u t m a d e it a p o in t to be presen t at aj
ch u rch su p p ers, “ so ciab les,” and o th er n on -relig iou s cerem onie
feuch a p o lic y w o u ld n eed to be cou p led w ith a g re a t deal o f sk ill j,
evasion a n d p u ttin g off i f it w ere to w o rk s u c c e s s fu lly ; the teachp
m u s t n ot o n ly avo id the issue a n d w e a r o u t th ose who u rg e cburst
a tten d a n ce u p o n h im , b u t h e m u st d o it w ith o u t g iv in g offence ot
g e ttin g h im s e lf classed as a n a d h eren t o f th e d ev il. T h e teacher is ah)
u n d er considerable pressu re to co n trib u te to good causes. T h e d ifl
c u lty is th a t he is n ot a lw ay s p e rm itte d to ju d g e o f the goodness ct
badness o f a cause. Q u ite aside fr o m a n y such fa c to r o f judgm ent
th e v e r y m u ltip lic ity o f the good causes to w h ich th e teach er is ei
p ec te d to con tribu te m a y m ak e th e m a h e a v y d r a in u p o n h is re
sources.
. ^ e s e dem an d s are o ften resen ted, a n d w ith reason . B u t an in teres

m g d ile m m a presen ts its e lf in th is con n ection . A p a rt o f the solution!
o f the p rob lem s o f the teach in g p ro fe ssio n d ep en d s u p o n th e assim ij
la tio n o f teach ers to the c o m m u n ity . Is not th is con scription o'
teach ers fo r e d ify in g occasions a step i n th a t direction ? W h e r e th<
p a rtic ip a tio n o f the teach er is q u ite u n fo rc e d , as it som etim es is, ii
w o u ld seem th at su ch dem an d s w ork o u t fa v o r a b ly . Y e t such p a rtici
p a tio n w ill n ever re a lly assim ilate th e tea ch er to the c o m m u n ity , be-
cause it is n o t th e rig h t k ind o f p a r ticip a tio n . T h e teacher participates
as a teach er, a lw ay s fo r m a lly a n d ex officio, too o fte n u n w illin g ly ano
y fo rce. W h a t is n eeded is p a r tic ip a tio n b y the teacher as an indi
v id u a l in co m m u n ity grou p s in w h ich he is interested. I f th e teacher
is ever r e a lly to helong, he m u st jo in in lo c a l g ro u p s as J o h n Jones
a n d n o t as the su p erin ten d en t o f schools.
. T h e m o ra l req u irem en ts th at go w ith school tea ch in g are extrem elj

im p o rta n t. A colleague som etim es says, h a lf in je st, th a t the schools of
A m e r ic a arc p r im a r ily agencies fo r m o ra l a n d relig io u s instru ction
If an yon e accepts the challenge laid dow n b y th at p ro p o sitio n he
p o in ts o u t the fa c t th at th e m ost co m p lete ineffectiveness as a teacher
does not a lw ay s con stitu te a v a lid g ro u n d f o r d ism issin g a teach er

from his p osition , w hereas detection in a n y m oral d erelictio n causes
a teacher’s con tract to be broken at once. U n d o u b te d ly the fa c t th at
teachers m u st be m o d els o f w h a tever sort o f m o r a lity is accepted a s
orthodox in the c o m m u n ity im poses u p o n th e teacher m a n y disqu alifi
cations. W i t h re g a rd to sex, th e c o m m u n ity is o fte n v e r y b ru ta l indeed.
I t is p a rt o f th e A m e r ic a n credo t h a t school teach ers rep ro d u c e b y
budding. I n no other w a lk o f life is it reg ard ed as even fa i n t ly r e p r e
hensible th at a y o u n g bach elor sh ou ld look abou t fo r a w ife , b u t there
are indication s th at cou rtship is n o t ex a c tly good fo r m in the m ale
teacher. Th e c o m m u n ity p r e fe r s its m a le teach ers m a rried , b u t i f th ey
are u n m arried, it fo rb id s th em to go abou t m a r r y in g . W i t h reg ard to
the conduct o f w o m en teachers, som e co m m u n ities are u n b eliev a b ly
strict. Y o u th an d b e a u ty are d isad v an ta ge s. H u s b a n d -h u n tin g is th e
unpardonable sin. T h e a b su rd ity o f th is c u sto m a ry a ttitu d e, as w e ll
as its com plete social u n sou n dness, sh ou ld h e a p p a r e n t fr o m its m ere
statem en t; it becom es a ll the m ore sign ifican t th a t, in p re se n tin g the
subject o f sex p reju d ic e a ga in st school teach ers, one m u st u su a lly go
ou to p o in t ou t th at th is is a situ a tio n a lm ost w ith o u t p a ra lle l in
m odern life . W o m e n teachers are ou r V e s ta l V ir g in s .
C onduct w h ich w o u ld pass u n n o tic ed in a y o u n g business w o m a n
becomes a m a tte r o f m o m en t w hen th e y o u n g w o m a n is a teach er.
R arely does a n en tire c o m m u n ity pau se to in q u ire in to th e affairs o f a
nin eieen -year-old sten og rap h er, b u t i t can, as th e fo llo w in g in c id en t
shows, becom e tr em en d o u sly ex cited a b o u t th e affairs o f a n in eteen -
year-old school teacher.
During the summer when Mr. Blank, our superintendent, was on vacation,
Miss Jones came to apply for a position. Miss Jones was a very good looking
young lady, nineteen years of age, and just graduated from a small sectarian
university. She, herself, belonged to the sect. The school hoard had one
fellow sectarian, and, as the principal remarked, two others who were sus
ceptible to good-looking young women. Miss Jones was hired. Mr. Blank had
intended to fill her place with a young man.
Miss Jones, being the only member of the high-school faculty belonging to
'his sect, chose to room alone. From the first it was noticeable that the
young men frequented Miss Jones’s room in the mornings and noons before
school had taken up and after school evenings. That started talk. The story
was passed around that Mr. Blank hadn’t wanted her in the first place and
that she had better be careful. Some of the teachers passing through the
hall or otherwise near her classroom reported that she had noisy classes.
Several of the teachers talked to her in order to get her to confide in them.
Then the rest of the teachers were informed of what had occurred. She
remarked that there "wasn't a single man in town that she hadn't dated
Several times she had accepted rides with high-school hoys. If she walked
up the street with one of the hoys at noon this was further cause for gossip,
One teacher was reported to have said that she had better leave her gentle
man friend alone or she would scratch her eyes out.
One of the mathematics teachers was on hall duly right outside Miss Jones1'
door and each day she had something to report about Miss Jones.
The first six-weeks examination time came. The examinations were sent t,
the office to he mimeographed. Miss Jones’s questions were considerably re
vised. Naturally she heeame hitter. She remarked that she knew that tin
superintendent and principal were out to oust her. Her conduct was reported
as worse and worse. The teacher on hall duty reported that she had hean|
the principal chase a number of hoys out of her room. It was decided^
noticeahle that the principal and superintendent were ■in the hallways a
great deal of the time.
Every move she made was watched and catalogued. A teacher told the
others that at one of the class parties some hoys had come up to her anl
politely inquired as to how she had enjoyed the party, then turned to Mian
Jones and asked her to go riding with a group of them after the party.
Toward the end of the year she started keeping company with a young
man reported to he of questionable character. It appears that a memher oi
the school board remonstrated with her, telling her she shouldn't he so®
with him. As Miss Jones stated in her own words, she “gave him to under,
stand where he should head in.”
By established custom, public dancing was not allowed among the teacher!
Miss Jones was seen numerous times at puhlic dances.
Once she told a group of teachers that she was not cut out for a teacher
and that she was not coming hack.
The school teachers, principal, and superintendent were all brought force
fully to the attention of the puhlic through this unfortunate affair. The towi
took sides on the question, which disturhed the entire school and the entirt
community. (Document submitted hy a school teacher.)
M iss Jon es, perh aps, m erits sca n t con cern . B u t hers is a sto ry that
repeats itse lf ev ery y ea r o r ev ery fe w y ears in a lm ost every city and
v illa g e o f the nation. I n other instan ces som e p a rtic u la r p o in ts would
sta n d ou t more clearly. Cases cou ld ea sily h e fo u n d i n w h ich much
g re a te r in ju stic e was w o rk ed u p o n th e in d iv id u a l teach er a n d a much
less ch aritable attitu d e tak en h y th e c o m m u n ity at large. T h is com
m u n ity h a d some cause to he con cern ed. T h ere w ere nu m erous com pli
c a tin g fa cto rs, in clu d in g the y o u n g w o m a n ’s relig io n , her isolation
fr o m the other teachers, a n d th e h a d h loo d h etw een her a n d them.
B u t this case w ill serve to sh ow h ow a storm m a y descend u p o n the
THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY; GENEEAL 47
head o f a n adolescent g ir l w ho is a teach er a n d w h o neverth eless be

haves as a n o th er adolescent g ir l m ig h t h ehave.
This story calls to m in d m a n y others o f a sim ila r n atu re. T h ere is,
for exam p le, the n ot u n co m m o n case o f the teach er w h o is qu ite effi-
X n t in h er w o rk a n d quite discreet in h e r relation s w ith stu d en ts, h u t
inclined to le a d a som ew hat e m a n cip a te d life outside the school room
and the circle o f school con tacts. T h e efficient teacher w ho som ehow
^ t s the re p u ta tio n o f h e in g " f a s t " o fte n becom es a storm cen ter
too. Som etim es th is rep u tation is fo u n d e d u p o n n o th in g m ore ta n
gible th an th e f a c t th at th is teach er p r e fe rs to liv e in a h otel th a n in
a private h om e, th a t she does n ot go to ch u rch , th a t she p la y s cards, or
that she o cca sion a lly takes w eek en d tr ip s. T h e lis t o f tahoos is e n d le s s ;
the p re sid e n t o f a ce rta in te a c h e r 's college i n the south is re p u te d to
look w ith th e u tm o s t d is fa v o r u p o n a n y association outside o f school
between h is m a le a n d fe m a le teach ers, th o u g h he does n o t disap p ro ve,
apparen tly, o f oth er a rran gem en ts th e y m ake i n th eir love life . T h is
seems a fine d istin ction . S m o k in g is an issue o f im p o rta n ce. I t is
som etim es d isa p p ro v e d even in m en, a n d th e con servative m em bers
o f some com m u n ities still th in k w ith h orro r o f “ the teach er who
d oesn 't th in k a n y th in g o f w a lk in g d o w n th e street w ith a h ig cig ar
in bis m o u t h . " T h e p referen ce o f such co m m u n ities is v e r y defin itely
for m en w h o do n ot sm oke, b u t th eir sen se o f m o ra l o u trage is n o t so
keenly a ro u sed h y sm o k in g in m e n as b y a sim ila r in d u lg e n c e in
women. A n o t u n p ro g ressiv e eastern c o m m u n ity w as rece n tly th ro w n
into a war o f w o rd s h y th e m o ra l issue o f w o m e n teach ers w h o sm oked.
The p resid en t o f a te a c h e r ’s college in M ic h ig a n n o t lo n g a g o a n
nounced h is in te n tio n to refu se to reco m m en d a n y g ir l w ho sm oked.
This w o u ld p ro h a b ly p rev en t su ch a g ir l fr o m ever obtain in g a teach
ing p osition . A lu d icro u s exam p le h as heen rep o rte d fr o m a state
university o f th e m id d le w est. A n u m h e r o f fa c u lt y w ives sm oked at
a m eetin g o f th e fa c u lty d a n c in g cluh. A fa c u lt y h u syh o d y rep o rte d
■the inciden t to th e p resid en t, a n d fu r n is h e d a list o f nam es.
PR O JECTS
1. Recount a dispute hetween school authorities and community leaders

over some question of school policy. Analyze the implications of the dispute.
2. Tell the complete story of the campaign made hy a school executive to
introduce a needed school reform in a particular community. Interpret.
3. State the code of morals to which the children of a given community
are expected to adhere. Be explicit. Compare with the working moral code
of the adult community.
THE SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING
48
4. Secure statements from a group of teachers on the question, “When is it

necessary or desirahle to lie to children ?” . . „
5. Make a case study of a young man who has absorbed the cynicism an
older man. Interpret your material.
6. Determine hy observation of cases what happens to the idealist when
he meets disillusion. What principles of school policy do your conclusions
6S7. Descrihe and compare the home environments of ten unselected school
Analyze the membership of a high-school social cluh. How much heat,

mg has the economic status of parents upon admission to membership?
9. Make a list of the recent changes in our customs in which you believe
school instruction played a part.
10. Do you know of high schools with “varsity" teams? What does this,
Shl l ^Make observations to check upon the generalization that the discon.
tent of school teachers is partly produced hy the teacher’s peculiar position
in the process of cultural diffusion.
12. Tell the story of a teacher who lost his position hecause of unprotea
sional” conduct. Interpret.
13 Keep a record for one month of the demands made hy the community
upon the time {outside of school hours) and the money of a small-tow
^ T ^ i t politic for a teacher to engage in church work? Support you

contention with concrete evidence. . , (i, f 1,
15. Analyze the personality of a teacher who is reputed to be too fast.
How did he get this reputation? Interpret.
16. Find out the attitudes of twenty unselccted adults toward smokinr
by men and women teachers. Interpret your results.
17 “ Describe some community you have known where teachers are ieco*
nized as the elite." “ Descrihe some community where teachers are regardeil
as an inferior class." (Quoted from Clow.)
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) H art, J. K ., A Social Interpretation of Education, Chapters Y I I to XI,
(2 ) H errick , R obert, Chimes.
(3) L y n d , R. S. and H. M., Middletown.
(4 ) P ark , R. E., and M iller, H . A , Old World Traits Transplanted.
(5 ) S teiner, J. F., The American Community in Action.
(6 ) S teiner , J. F ., Community Organization.
(7 ) W issler , Clark , Man and Culture.
( 8 ) Y oung , K im b a ll , Social Psychology, p p . 347-52.
CHAf'fEK V '
TEACHERS IN THE COMMUNITY
E w o u g h lias teen said to mark out the general position of the

teacher in the community. It will he readily understandable that the
teacher is usually more or less isolated in the community in which he
jives. He is isolated because he is often an outsider hired to mediate
certain skills and certain specialized lores to the young of the com
munity. He is mentally isolated from the rest o f the community by
his own set of attitudes. But, most important o f all, he is isolated
because the community isolates him. This the community does by
making him the carrier of certain super-mundane values, and by im
posing upon him certain humbling restrictions. The community can
never know the teacher because it insists upon regarding him as some
thing more than a god and something less than a man. In short, the
teacher is psychologically isolated from the community because he
must live within the teacher stereotype.
The teacher stereotype is a thin but impenetrable veil that comes
between the teacher and all other human beings. The teacher can
never know what others are really like because they are not like that
when the teacher is watching them. The community can never know
what the teacher is really like because the community does not offer
the teacher opportunities for normal social intercourse. The cessation
of spontaneous social life at the entry of the teacher, and the substi
tution for it of highly artificial and elegant conversation, is very evi
dent in the following record:
I was list,fining to a group telling jokes customarily heard in a harher

shop, when a man approached the door. At once the harber stopped working
and said, “ Sh! Sh! Boys, the principal of the high school is coming in.”
All was quiet. The principal entered and sat down. The harher hroke the
spell hy saying, “ Well, I suppose, professor, you are glad school will soon
be out?”
“Aes,” he replied.
The barber remarked, “I f you are as anxious as that boy of mine is for it
to let out, why it can’t be too soon." The principal had come to pay a hill.
He started out. The barber said, “Professor, you need not hurry off. There
49
is just one ahead of you and then you're next. Won't be over twenty
minutes.”
“ Oh, I’ll he hack later,” the principal remarked.
“All right, come in about twelve-fifteen. Business is lax at that time ajy(
I can fix you out right away.”
After the principal bad left tbe barber turned to the group and sail
“Boys, I enjoy a good story myself but this is a public place and we've gaj
to treat such men as the one that left with respect. Besides that I have mmy
•women customers. It is embarrassing to them and, too, it throws the respol;
sibility upon me. You understand what I mean. All right, now go on wi(J
your jokes and stories!” The barber laughed. (Unpublished manuscript ly
Charles Zaar, The Social Psychology of the Barber Shop, stenographic n.
port of conversation.)
The constant use of the title "Professor," the obviously artificial
conversation, the lack of interest of the teacher in those banal remarks
that he had heard so many times before, the assimilation of the teach^
to the female character ideal, the suppression of normal activity whoa
the teacher entered the room—all these things make the above staus
out as an interesting and significant incident. It has heen said thal
no womau and no negro is ever fully admitted to the white man's
world. Possihly we should add men teachers to the list of the exclude1
But it is not only in his public appearances that the teacher feels thi
gulf hetween himself and other men. When the teacher must live ini
private home, the teacher stereotype still isolates him from the peopi
with whom he lives. A woman teacher narrates the following incident
Soon supper time came and tbe family and I were seated at tbe tab!
There was a small boy of three in the family and much conversation m
directed to him in which the mother and the father remarked that he nms
behave because the teacher was watching him. The fact that I was the teacM
seemed to be foremost in the minds of these people. That barrier hetweel
the teacher and the rest of society was much in evidence. I was tbe teacher,
Towards me there was a somewhat strained attitude. I didn't see much ol
the family, for as soon as they were through eating they had chores to A
and when the chores were finished they all went to bed. (Student paper
My First Year of .Teaching.)
The ohjective side of the isolation of teachers in the community

has nowhere received a hetter statement than that of the Lynds i:
Middletown:
Indeed, few things about education in Middletown today are more notf
worthy than the fact that the entire community treats its teachers casually
These more than 250 persons to whom this weighty responsibility of ti-aminf
TEACHERS IN THE COMMUNITY 51
fjje young is entrusted are not the “wise, skilled, revered elders of the group,
jn term® of the concerns and activities that preoccupy the keenest interests
0f the city's leaders, they are for the most part non-entities; rarely does one
jjjj! across a teacher at the weekly luncheons of the city’s business men
nssembled in their civic clubs; nor are many of them likely to be present at
the social functions over which the wives of these influential men preside.
Middletown pays these people to whom it entrusts its children about what it
pays a retail clerk, turns the whole business of running the schools over to
a School Board of three business men appointed by the political machine,
and rarely stumbles upon the individual teacher thereafter save when a par
ticularly interested mother pays a visit to the school “ to find out how Ted
is getting along.” The often hitter comments of the teachers themselves
upon their lack of status and recognition in the ordinary give and take of
local life are not needed to make an observer realize that in this commercial
culture the “teacher” and “professor” do not occupy the position they did
even a generation ago.1
In smalLer communities the teacher’s difficulty in finding a place

in the community is ohjectified in his difficulty in finding a room in
which to live. Much hinges upon the choice of a rooming place, and
much upon the choice of a hoarding house, for the teacher, although
he has no value as a person in the community, may acquire a sym
bolic value on the chesshoard of community factions and antagonisms.
A story with some unusual features and many common ones is the
following:
About this time my rooming problem had to he settled. I couldn't stay
where I was. The house was too small, having only one bedroom and a bed
in the dining-room. After a time I grew used to coming to breakfast and
eating in the same room where the over-grown, twelve-year-old daughter of
the house lay sprawled across the bed in regal slumher. There was a time,
later in the year, when the man of the house (a perfect giant of a fellow
who worked on a railroad gang) was ill, and then we ate all three meals
for days on end with his huge form draped on the bed. No, I couldn’t stay
there. That girl got on my nerves, and everyone’s else. When I was in my
room she kept up a continual going in and out. She did it merely out of
curiosity. I could not stop her, for that was the only bedroom and all of their
things were in there.
The superintendent tried his best to get me to stay with some member of
the numerous X------family, if they would condescend to keep me. I found
out he didn’t stand well with that faction and wanted to use me as a “ club.”
1 refused, and yet there seemed to be no place to go. Finally, Mrs. C., the
first- and second-grade teacher, asked me to room there. I was delighted.
1The Lynda, Middletown, p. 209. (Reprinted, b y permission o f Hareourt, Brace
b Company.)
She and her hushand appealed to me as very fine young people and of a
type unusual in that town.
The room was large and full of sunshine. They had a lovely home wifi
grand piano that appealed to me. I found it to be sadly out of tune, lij
the rest of the place, underneath, but it was far hetter tban nothing. ] had,
stove in my room. At first an oil heater that nearly asphyxiated me o(
Sunday afternoon when I took a nap. Another day it smoked and blacken,
up the new wall paper upstairs and all my clothes. It nearly set the hoi,
afire. The bathroom wasn't heated. One week end I returned from a vil
borne to find tbe lavatory bad been blown clear across the bathroom. It y4l
a long time hefore we bad water after that. We bad to get it from a wt]1
I kept two stew kettles full in my room. They put up a trash burner f,„;
winter. It burned cobs and tbe cobs brought mice galore. I couldn’t slJ
for the noise they made. Until January, when he left, 'Mr. G. came up ai|
made my fires in the morning. It bothered me at first, but I got over thi
along with a lot of other things.
When I first went to live with the C.'s I saw that a separation was inei
table, hut I didn’t think it would come for a year or so at least. She maj
no home for him. The bouse wasn’t even clean most of tbe time. It had,
stale and musty odor. I kept my room well-aired and cleaned to counterae
it. There was no need for her to teach. She herself was wealthy. She pm
away every cent she made, making her husband furnish everything for th
bouse, even postage stamps. She kept the roomer’s rent till the year I can
and then be decided he was going to keep it.
She talked incessantly. How it got on my nerves I Always telling of he
“sacrifices” for Mr. G. Time and time I beard such remarks as, “I alwnjij
take tbe milk that’s a wee bit sour, Peg, and give him the sweet. True low
like that, Peg.” I got so I stopped up my ears and let my sixth sense no,
my bead at tbe proper intervals.
Then her father was eternally coming in. He came in before hreakfes
again after breakfast, as soon as it was time for school to be out, befoi
supper, and a couple of times after supper. I f she wasn’t borne after sebo)
when be thought she ought to be be gave me no peace till she arrived, comir.j
in and out or calling up (after Mr. C. insisted on having a phone put it
so he wouldn’t have to go over to tbe old man's every time be wanted til
phone). There was a terrific battle over it, aad Mrs, G. alternately pout®
and snapped for days over it.
I bad to be decent to the old gentleman because he was on tbe schot
board. He used to quote scripture to me by the yard, and especially affr
the trouhle began to break out. I used to think I was religious, but be cure!
me. Every time be came over be would shout upstairs at me. He talked in
cessantly. I soon learned to make excuses to get up to my room when If
arrived. He didn’t like it, but I smoothed it over by saying I didn’t wan!
to intrude.
Prom the first there was a constant hickering at tbe house. There wen
strained silences, slammed doors and all the rest that goes with it. I ignored it
best I could, keeping to my room. Mr. C. began staying out later each
jjght and then failed to come borne at all one night. And wbat an uproar
that caused 1
jfrs. C. was always complaining of ber heart. I beard heart symptoms
until I didn’t see how anyone dared even to walk fast. They still bother me
tfhen I suddenly discover that I have run up a flight of stairs. Of course,
l bad to he very sympathetic. After nine months of it, day in and day out,
( »ot so 1 didn’t care if her father was on the school board.
jl’ bad heen just heart symptoms I shouldn’t have complained. As she
began to realize he was definitely slipping away she tried other hits of
strategy. One was falling downstairs in a sort of stupor. She begged me
Mver to tell a soul about it. What brought this symptom on, she said, was
the finding of a note which he had written to the fifth and sixth grade
teacher, a Mrs. B. She regularly went through his pockets, saying, “ That’s
the only way I have of keeping track of him, Peg.”
More trouble developed when he refused to speak to her. He talked to me
and so did she; also she talked to him. She tried to get me to talk to him
and find out wbat the difficulty was -as if any woman with a grain of sense
couldn’t see it! I refused to be drawn into it. Then ber father begged me
to talk to him. Night after night I came in from supper to witness terrible ■
scenes by Mrs. C. and hear her beg me to talk to Mr. C. and find out what
the trouble was. Over and over they told me tbeir side of it and asked me
if they’d done right. I dreaded coming home.
I bad troubles of my own. I began actually to fear that hig old bridge
across the angry river down the road. I was going to resign. The superin
tendent told me he couldn’t recommend me if I did. He tried to force me
to move, for hy now gossip was getting around the town. I couldn’t find
any place to go. No one had a room or wanted a roomer. Also, I feared to
leave because of what Mrs. C. might then say. I f I left she’d say she had
to ask me to move because she bad begun to be suspicions of me. Althongh
I refused to take sides in the case, that very fact made her suspect me,
I think. He left in January, telling ber that be was getting a divorce. I can
hear that scene yet. One other night when he was there (be came back to
keep up the fires) she asked me to go in and talk to him. I refused. She gave
me a push that sent me flying into the room.
She began to talk, and how she did talk! The whole town was abuzz before
I knew it. I would come borne from a long hard day at school to spend the
time until late at night bearing ber rant and tear and moan and groan. I
went to sleep to the noise of that every night. It did no good to try to talk
to her.
She spied on the bank to see if “ the other woman” was there. I recall one
night she got me to walk up and down the one main street of the town with
her for that purpose. I soon learned better. He and she played in the town
baud. She insisted that I go to practice with her so that she would not have
to go alone. Dreading to stay all alone in that big house, I went. She got & |
she stayed over at her folks' home evenings and I was glad to get out eyei
on such an excuse.
The superintendent told me to quit going to hand practice with her.
said that people were talking horribly about her and that they "looked side.
wise” at me for going out with her. I protested that it got mighty lonely nig^
after night in that big house. It made no difference, so I stayed at home.}[
made Mrs. C. angry and more suspicious than ever, for again she though
her husband had come to sec me. He did not; but she had the lady next doot
watch every move I made while she was away. I saw her in the yard one niglij
looking at my windows. Heaven knows I didn’t want that man.
I went home nearly every week end. Mrs. G. always slept in ruy bed whm
I left, even asking company to sleep with her. When she was gone Mr, (J_
slept in my bed, 1 discovered. This was after he quit staying at the hnust,
One Monday morning the superintendent came in and said, "I hear you hail
company over the week end at home." I looked aghasl. and denied it. Mrs. C.
had gone up to the city with me on the same train to visit a friend. She had
told several, and the news had travelled that I had asked her to visit my hoija,
He said everyone was talking and that he couldn’t understand why I hud
done such a thing. I was mad as blazes.
The same morning he said someone started the tale that I was going lt
marry "Tabby," her brother. Their folks were redecorating their house and
the townsfolk had it that I was going to marry him. I didn’t even go will
him. The superintendent’s wife told me late in the spring that if I ’d ere
gone with him alone once, I ’d have had to leave town.
All the time the talk and sentiment grew steadily worse. I went on hj
way as serenely as I could. I refused to talk with anyone about it in spilt
of pumping. I knew more of the straight facts than anyone in town. Tfe
rest got only what Mrs. C. wanted to tell to help her case along. I was afraid
to speak to folk on the street for I didn't know which side of the story they
believed. Ho one ever snubbed me, however. Not even the bully on tie
school board.
Mrs. C. thought, she found more and more convincing proof of Mr. C.’s
and Mrs. B.'s affair. She told mo all the dirty details over and over till i
could say it all backward. I tried not to take sides. She thought I did under
neath, and behind her back, and treated me accordingly. However, to ml
face she couldn’t he sugary enough. She started weird talcs. She talked ter
ribly of Mrs. B. Finally that madame, after many trials, got Mrs. C. cornered
one night after school and told her what was what and threatened a law suit.
That squelched the open work of Mrs. C. for fear of court. It didn’t stop
the underground work, however.
It was painful at school. Mrs. B. paid no attention to Mrs. C., hut Mrs. G
went miles out of her way to avoid Mrs. B. Mrs. C. pestered the third and
fourth grade teacher nearly to death, telling her all about it, over and over,
I had a school orchestra. Mrs. B. and Mrs. C. were in it. Each was bound
TEACHEES IN THE COMMUNITY 55
the other was not going to run her out of it. It made the atmosphere very
. strained. Finally, Mrs. G. pled “much work" and stopped. Then Mis. B. was
ill and dropped out. Mrs. C., after much questioning me, returned. She
always insisted upon sitting in'the front row, aud, as she played the saxo
phone, it was awkward. Their changing about was hard on the orchestra, for
it was small enough at best.
By this time all the students knew of the turmoil and watched it with
interest. In spite of everything, hits of gossip would stray out in my sew
ing elass. The girls used it as a clearing house for town gossip. I tried at first,
to stop it. Then I decided that it was hard enough to hold their interest in
school, so as long as they talked quietly and worked I let them alone, I
think very much more is accomplished in a class like that if easy, friendly
relations are established. . . .
The preacher was a nice little old fellow, hut his wife did more harm
than his preaching could ever rectify. She and Mrs. C. got together and
between them told such tales on me as are impossible to print. I didn’t know
about it until a day or so before I left, in fact, I heard of it in the midst
of the rush and worry of the last day of Senior play practice. I thought I
couldn’t find strength to go on. Just before I heard of it the preacher’s.wife
asked me to come over to dinner. I had no boarding place then, as the lady
with whom I boarded had had to go out of town for the week, I accepted
and was sorely condemned for it. Another evening I was passing, and she
asked me to come in ■and sit down a minute. No one called on them and
she wa3 very lonely. !■ knew she was trying to pump me every time she
saw me for inside news of the C. trouble, but I was lonesome so I decided
to ignore all reference to the C.’s and slop for a while. No word was men
tioned of them. The next morning the superintendent’s wife stopped me
en. route to school and told me the preacher’s wife had gone up to her house
afler I loft, to a committee meeting. She let it be understood that I came
for'counsel, and talked things over with her. The superintendent’s wife
wanted an explanation, and she said that that woman was not, my friend.
I denied that one word had been mentioned of the C. affair. It got so the
superintendent’s wife stopped me every morning with some new develop
ment, some new rumor in connection with the C. trouble. It made a fine
starter for the day. It remained for me to get myself in hand, for the day,
(luring the time which it took to eat breakfast, what little I could eat after
that, and walk the block to school. (Autobiographical document, My First
Year of Teaching, furnished by a twenty-five-year-old woman teacher.)
This story lias some unusual features, but it also serves to illustrate
some common mechanisms. A further sidelight on this case is that the
school board had been divided as to the advisability of hiring a music
teacher, and that bitter dissension had arisen. This young woman
had become a bone o f contention in the community before she
was asked to sign a contract; she bad already acquired an unusual
56 THIS SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHJLNG
value in terms of a community conflict. The attempt of the superb,

tendent to use her as a stopgap in his own political fences by inducing
her to room with a member of the X ------ family, if it were possible, ia
typical of a certain level of political machination. In the family with
which she finally decided to room, she stepped again into a conflict
situation. Accordingly her symbolic importance as the focal point e{
one community conflict became reenforced by a like concentration of
attention upon her through her connection with the C ’s. Were it not
for her exposed position at the crossing of all these lanes of machine,
gun fire, her sudden prominence in the community would seem fan.
tastie. It is noteworthy that her attempt to be neutral alienated the
members of both factions from her, and made them all the more wifi,
ing to listen to gossip about her. Typical, too, were those who at
tempted to extract information from her aud, failing in that, invented
a story according to their own ideas. Perhaps the most trying of all,
for the person living through such a crisis, are those self-appointed
mentors, those warners and talebearers o f the community who come
to one witli reports of gossip, thereby increasing the sense of their
own importance at the cost of the unhappy individual who is the sub
ject of the tales they carry. Interesting, too, are the revelations made
by some of the words and phrases which recur in this young teacher’s
story. It was “ the preacher’s w ife,” “ the superintendent’s wife,"
etc., throughout the story. One judges that the union of tho woman
and her husband’s official position is not, in these isolated, small com.
munities, a mere formal connection, but an intermingling of parts
resembling, almost, a chemical combination.
I d view of the reluctance of communities to receive teachers into
fellowship with them as human beings, the tendency of teachers to
form cliques is not surprising. In the society of other teachers, at
least, the teacher can he spontaneous and relatively unreserved (sup
posing these other teachers to be intimate friends and equals). Them
are limits to the freedom one may have in the society of teachers, but
that society usually offers the teacher his best opportunity to he ac
cepted as a person. Therefore the teacher group comes to constitute a
close-knit in-group, a fellowship. (This tendency is increased by the
fact that all the teachers in a system are engaged in a common strug
gle against those enemies of the social order, the students.) This
group stands out very clearly against the background of the com
munity in general; its members are young, well-educated, mostly un
married, transient, and discontented. They are strangers.
The teacherage, a community-owned home fo r unmarried teachers,
serves a useful purpose in supplying to these unattached members of

the community reasonably good quarters and relatively pleasant sur
roundings at a minimum price. It is interesting that in many com
munities something more or less akin to the teacherage springs up
spontaneously. Some home is thrown open to one or two teachers,
who report favorably upon it, and soon all the teachers arc rooming
and hoarding at the same place. This arrangement has its uses, but it
strengthens the tendency of teachers to form themselves into a clique.
Where one or more of these unplanned tcacherages spring up, they
often become tbe headquarters of hostile factions on the faculty. A
relatively harmless example of this was the following:
When I arrived in the town where I taught, I seeured a room, at the
bouse where three other high-school teachers roomed. The rest of the lady
higb-school teachers, who did not have their homes in the town, roomed at
the place where nearly all the high-school teachers took their meals. My
intentions were to be friendly with all the teachers, as I had been given this
advice. I came in contact with the teachers rooming at the hoarding house
more than with those who took only their evening meal there. I noticed
almost immediately that the teachers where I roomed began to crab the
teachers at tbo boarding house. Miss F. was so dumb. Really she was repul
sive to them because of her lack of intelligence. They gave Miss F. some
pretty nasty snubs. “Poor thing,” they said, “she was the kind who went to
ebureh, merely because she didn’t know any better.” Miss F. and Miss J.
had been in college together, and Miss F. hadn’t been able to make a
sorority because she was so dumb. Then Miss S. was pretty, but she was also
dumb. Some better than Miss F., but not much. They couldn’t bear Miss M.
because she was so homely. Finally, they told me if I wanted to run with fhe
other group to go ahead, but I couldn’t be one of their members if I did.
Then our landlady deluded to give us breakfast there and I became more
intimately associated with the rooming-house group, and so without any
intention on my part I was considered of that group and not of the boarding
house group. (Life history document furnished by a teacher.)
The tendency of teachers to associate with teachers has its advan

tages. Unquestionably these associations help to make life bearable
for the teachers in the less hospitable communities. And in the com
pany of teachers, the teacher feels less any stigma that attaches to
his calling in the popular mind. Bagiev even champions these asso
ciations on the ground that they foster the craft spirit. The primary
group of teachers gives a sub-group sanction to the attitudes of the
teacher toward students and community; they support him in his
struggle for mastery, comfort him in defeat, and advise him as to ways
and means of further struggle. But from this very fact arises the
danger of these groups to education as service to the community,

where the ties hetween those helonging to the personnel of an insti.
tution hecorne more important than the relation of those person^ to
the community the institution serves, institutionalization rapidly
ensues. The teacher teaches for teachers and thinks that school is for
the school men. But as a court poet once implied, the palate may be
better served if one does not dress his meat for cooks.
Concerning the low social standing of teachers much has been
written. The teacher in our culture has always hecn among the persons
of little importance, and his place has not changed for the hetter in
the last few decades, F ifty years or more ago it used to he argued that
teachers had no standing in the community because they whipped
little children, and this was undoubtedly an argument that contained
some elements of truth. But flogging, and all the grosser forms oi
corporal punishment, have largely disappeared from the modern
school, and as yet there is little indication that the social standing of
the profession has. heen elevated. It has also heen argued that the
social standing of any profession is a pretty accurate mirror of its
economic standing, and that therefore the low financial rewards of
teaching are a sufficient cause of its being considered one of the less
honorahle pursuits. This, however, is an explanation that may not be
pushed very fa r ; it holds some truth, but there are other facts that
limit it.. In the smaller communities, the superintendent of schools
often occupies a financial position far superior to that of most of the
villagers, and yet the villagers hoth pity him and condescend to him
(the while, perhaps, they envy him his easy means of livelihood). And
it happens that the group among the teachers who are most respected
in the world at large, ike college and university professors, are hut
little hetter-to-do in most cases, and in some cases are much poorer,
than secondary school executives, who nevertheless, except in the
larger cities, have less social standing. The Lynds have a simpler sori
of economic explanation, which is that there is simply no place in this
commercial culture for the teacher and the professor.
In analyzing the opinion people have o f teachers, it is necessary
to reckon with the teacher stereotype which partly reflects and partly
determines that opinion. This stereotype apparently represents a cari
cature of the methods used hy the teacher to maintain control over
children, and of the personality worked out by the teacher as a solu
tion for the problem of control. This prohlem of control arises, of
course, out of the supposed necessity of conducting schools along the
lines of teaeher domination and pupil subordination. From the means
which the teacher has to use to obtain control and to keep it arises a
generalized conception of the school teacher which perdures in the
minds of all the graduates of the school. This is an idealized and not
a factual portrait, hccause the meiqory will not hold all the flesh and
blood of human hcings for so long a time; the general impression
remains, but details fade. The idealized conception tends to become a
caricature, and an unpleasant and helittling caricature, hecause a real
enmity exists hetween teacher and taught, and this enmity transmutes
the work of memory into irony. In accordance with this theory, each
generation of teachers pays in its turn for the sins of the generation
that has gone hefore; it would require some decades of sensihle and
friendly teaching to remove the stigma from the occupation. There
are some indications that this process has already begun, hut antago
nism toward teachers is still widespread. It is a hostility not unmixed
with a certain respect, hut it is a real hostility, and apparently it is
as universal as is the school itself. A passage in The Mood Back,1 in
which the mayor and some other villagers endeavor to make the new
teachers drunk, might well have heen, with certain changes, a passage
in The Hoosier Schoolmaster.
Teachers lack respect in the community because of the teacher
stereotype which comes hetween them and other persons. The stereo
type is something of a caricature, and its distinguishing features
arise from the fact that the teacher must he a despot ruling over the
petty concerns of children. Wlicre the relation between the teacher
and the taught is unfriendly, the caricature may be sharp, and this
is one hasis for the argument that popular opinion of teachers will
rise as the schools come to use less arhitrary and cruel means of en
forcing discipline. However sound this reasoning may be, this prin
ciple has only a limited applicability, for there is another cause, and
a deeper one, that operates to cut the teacher off from commerce with
his fellow men. And the more successful the teacher is, the more he
is cut off. The teacher must live in a universe of adolescent attitudes
and values. He can teach, it is true, and remain essentially adult, hut
to do that he must interpose hetween himself and his students an
immense distance, and then the teacher-pupil relationship hecomes one
of dominance and subordination in its strictest form. I f the teacher
is to control nndcrstandingly it must be hy the sacrifice of some of
his own adulthood. This is not to say that an individual with suffi
cient insight might not he ahle to have his cake and eat it too, in this
‘ Remarque, Erich Maria, The Road Back (translation), pyi. 227 IT., Little,
Brown, & Co., Boston, 1931.
case, to make adjustments to boys on a hoyish level, and to adults on I

a slightly different level; hut this is insight which is rare, and it could >
lead to the complete isolation, in feeling, o f the individual from
society.
The teacher must talk to boys of the things in which boys are inter
ested. He must understand adolescent, roles, and live vividly roles of
his own not wholly incompatible with the roles of adolescence. The
persons who are happiest in these roles, and perhaps most successful
in playing them, are individuals who have never wholly made the
transition from their own adolescence, the college heroes, the foothal!
players, the track stars, and the dehaters who have never quite for
gotten their undergraduate conception of themselves. These persons
are ahle to live adolescent roles vividly hecause there is no discon
tinuity in those roles in their own lives. More introspective teachers
may resent the parts they have to play. But the teacher must, always
take very seriously the social system designed for the edification and
control of children. He must speak seriously and even prayerfully of
examinations, grades, credits, promotions, demerits, scoldings, school
rituals, making good, etc. And it is difficult fo r the teacher to take
such things seriously and yet keep them from entering his soul. In
the main, the hetter a teacher he hecomes, the further they will enter,
It is not only that the teacher must have social traits which enable
him to enter a little way into the society of hoys, hut that these same
traits exclude him from the society of men. A hanker and a lawyer
may converse together with interest and profit, hecause they live in
the same universe of values, hut any contact hetween either of these
and the professional teacher must be more difficult. Of what is the
teacher to talk? When teachers meet they talk shop, hut that is
excluded when the teacher and the hanker meet. After the introduc
tory commonplaces, the conversation may go on to platitude, possihlv
to politics; very likely it languishes. Individual teachers learn to
transcend these boundaries, but for teachers as a class they continue
to exist.
The situation is made somewhat worse by the fact that much of the
communion of men in general is on the level of certain vices, or cer
tain sporting interests which are more or less tahoo fo r the teacher.
One who does not smoke, drink, swear, or tell risque stories is excluded
from the confraternity of men in general, from all harher shop, pool
room, and men’s cluh fellowship. Now the mere possession of vices
may seem a poor recommendation for any person as a human heing,
hut the fact remains that these vices are very important in determin-
ing the friendly opinion of other persons; they are important hecause
they open the portals of personal contact. Some teachers realize that
these vices are important, and have set themselves to cultivate an
indulgence or so. They are not nicotine addicts, as they explain it, hut
they relish a good cigar once in a while. It is heart-rending to watch
them relishing a good cigar.
A further element in the popular prejudice against teachers, fo r
the disrespect in which the profession is held amounts to that, is that
teaching is quite generally regarded as a failure helt. There is some
justice in this belief. A popular epigram of a few years ago had it
that teaching was the refuge of unsaleable men and unmarriageahle
women. The epigram is unjust to many individuals, as any generali
zation so sweeping, but it mirrors accurately a general helief. Unjust
or no, the low social standing of teachers, and the helief that teaching
is a failure helt among the occupations, which is a part o£ that low
standing, contribute much to make the personnel o f the profession
represent a lower gradus of the general population than would other
wise be the case. These social handicaps of teaching eliminate some
undesirable teachers, but it could hardly he gainsaid that they also
shut out many individuals of pronounced character who would be
very useful in t.he schools if they could be induced to take up or to
continue teaching. As to the truth or untruth of the statement that
teaching is a failure helt, that is a question which we must leave
unanswered. Certainly for many teachers it is a failure helt, for they
think of teaching as an unpleasant or horing occupation from which
they are unable to extricate themselves. For them, it is the occupation
of second choosers.
It remains to note one other factor of great importance in determin
ing the low standing of the teacher in most communities. Teachers
have usually a very insecure tenure in their positions. It is not only
that this insecurity causes them to he more suhservient and less self-
assertive in their relations with influential persons, and not only
that it forces them to kowtow to business men and others who are
permanently established in the community. Important as is this neces
sity for toadying to keep one’s position in destroying the teacher’s
self-respect, and consequently the respect of others for him, there is
another aspect of the teacher’s feehle hold upon his position which is
even more significant. That is that the teacher is often unahle to re
main long enough in the community to make the transition from
categorical to personal (otherwise called sympathetic) contacts. There
is, as we have said, a teacher stereotype, and in the absence of actual
62
the SO CIO LO G Y of T E A C H IN G
“ rr her'r
prevalent stereo^pe. It f t e l l , ' “ ‘ “ I ^ * «»
**•J
gradually huilds up about him a set of l0ne, ™ “ B' oup' V
though the teacher stereotype infiuen f pers° nal imPressions, aJ
tendency fo r the human B ™ these .™Pressions, there J ’
increase in value while the steôtTOed'elem^V!! th°Se hnpressions to
Jones enters a community as a * ^ “ 7 V lecreases' Wbe» J«W
see him at first almost altogether as a t i n t0Wnsmen tend t,
quamted with his neighbors they tend to ^ grOWS ac
person; when they have come to n r f f hlm m°re and more aSfl
happens to be the supILtendent T “ Jdhn Jo“ - 4
mtendent of schools who happens tob In n0t aS the supl]
bon is complete. But if John Jones r e L ^ n u °neS' the transi‘
year or two, his acquaintance will be C t e d or °*4 a
capacity, and his fellow townsmen will , ^ hy hls
arrive at a just estimate of his qualities a ^ “ °Pp0rtuni^ to
from categoric to personal contacts will rev" ^ transiti°j
standing of teachers then is nartl n 6 made' The 1()w J u i
never put their roots down i/parti C1 ° ndltl0ned by the fact that the*
^ u n i t i e s th erefore n ever lea rn th eir 7 ^ 7 ™ “ ^ th ° KC C(,ra
t!o n o f the p ro b lem p resen ted h v theT i f i>Cl™ - Apartial sola
m g m a y be obtain ed b y a d d i n i X ™ ^ 0^ S0Clal sta n d in & o f teach
teach er stereotyp e is p e c u t l ^ T t * * 7 ^ ° “ that tbe sch ™
r a r e ly r e m a i n i n g a n d . th a t the teache,
stereo ty p ed con tacts. Up t0 su b stltoiLc person al for
r e w a rd in g , an d ît w i l T h a ^ s p S d l S f i ^ ^ ° f the str a n * cr

is g o in g to a sm a ll tow n. T h e L a n m w ^ ^ teacher who
the co m m u n ity , b u t i t is n ot a i ? hSVe g re a t lm Portance in
im p o rta n ce o fte n d e r i v e s f r o m ^ V ran gel
is w h y confidences come easily to the , ! , L a p e r s o n i tPat
sp ec ia l v a r ie ty o f stran g er B lu m n , 1, af eeri The n ew c o m e r” is a
co n tra d ictio n betw een atfentiona p“ d * 7 “ ppar»“ ‘
person al u n im p ortan ce W h e n the -n com er a n d h is actual
toon p a id h i m l e ^ L u e Z Z Z T P V 3 * teaCher’ the a « “ >-

w ith cu riosity as to his cu ltu ral n ■ °T ^ p ositlon com pounded
lia ritie s £ e h a l t * ? ^
sp en d s i n his n e w c o m m u n itv tSL i f dayS th a t the teacher
hint fu r t iv e ly a n d ” p tZ a Z S ? ° f ' he ™ J
m in d s as th ey s p y u p on l i m f„ * ^ ” , " “7 'Jl" f ' » ns * ™ in th eir
“ c u rta in e d w in d ow s a n d q u iz the
children f o r n ew s o f h is d o in g s. W h a t n ew c u ltu r a l goods are offered

this year ? W i l l the new teach er stir u p u n p le a sa n tn ess and becom e a
center o f c o m m u n ity s t r ife ? O r w ill he he th a t lo n g -a w a ite d p a r a g o n
ffho shall s a tis fy all the dem an d s o f the c o m m u n ity , c u ltu re d , b u t n o t
too cu ltu red, e d ify in g in ton e, h u t a lo n g th e established ch an nels,
pleasant b u t n o t too p lea sa n t, en th u siastic over h is m ission , b u t n ot
inclined to create a d istu rb a n ce ab ou t i t ; w ill h e, cru sh in g o u t a lto
gether any im p u lses o f h is ow n , liv e th e life the c o m m u n ity has la id
out fo r h im ? I t fo llo w s th a t the sta tu s o f the teach er as a stra n g e r
and a n ew com er is n o t in con sisten t w ith lo w sta n d in g as a p erso n .1
The d istrib u tio n o f tea ch in g p o sitio n s co n d ition s the in se c u rity o f
tenure o f the teacher. Sch ool b o ard s a n d in d iv id u a ls m a y deal h a r sh ly
with the teach er, f o r th e y k n ow th at he w ill th e n h ave to rem ove h im
self fr o m th e co m m u n ity. A m e rc h a n t m u st be a little c a r e fu l h ow
he dism isses clerks, f o r the u n ju s t ly u sed em ployees w ill rem a in in
the c o m m u n ity a n d as lo n g as th e y rem a in th ey w ill con tin u e to be h is
enemies a n d th e y w ill con tin u e to raise o th er enem ies u p a g a in st h im .
B u t the sam e m e rc h a n t as a m e m b e r o f the sch o ol b o ard can tr e a t
other em ployees o f a m u c h h ig h er gra d e w ith m u c h less co n sid eration ,
fo r he know s th a t th ou g h th ere m a y be som e h a rd fe e lin g at th e tim e ,
it w ill subside w h en th e teach er lea ves tow n . A n d the teach er m u st
u su ally lea ve tow n , or q u it teach in g, fo r no oth er tea c h in g p osition s
are available in th at co m m u n ity. I f teach ers w ere a ccu stom ed to re
main in the com m u n ities w h ere th e y lo s t th e ir p o sition s, school h oards
would be m u ch m ore r e lu cta n t to d ism iss th em . (T h is con clu sion is
su bstan tiated b y th e fa c t th at h om e-tow n teach ers u s u a lly h ave a h et-
ter h old upon th eir p o sition s th an im p o rte d o n e s.) M any o th er
elements en ter, o f course, in to the e x p la n a tio n o f the in se c u rity o f th e
teach er’s ten u re o f office. T h ere is th e fa c t o f tra d itio n , f o r it is tr a d i
tional in som e co m m u n ities to ch an ge teach ers fr e q u e n tly , a t lea st in
the resp on sible position s. T h ere is the u n a d ju s tm e n t o f the teachers
themselves, w h ich m akes it difficu lt fo r th em to p u t th eir roots dow n
in a p a r tic u la r place. T h ere is the f a u lt y h u m a n e n g in e e rin g o f th e
schools, as a r e s u lt o f w h ich the school ex ecu tiv e is p u t in a p osition
to m ake m a n y enem ies and fe w frien d s. T h ere is the fa c t o f fr e q u e n t
dissensions a m o n g th e fa c u lt y th em selves. T h ere is a lw a y s the In flu
ence o f teachers w h o are u sin g tea c h in g as a te m p o ra ry o ccu p ation ,
for th ey h old th eir p o sition s lig h t ly , a n d c o rre sp o n d in g ly decrease
die h o ld w h ich other teachers have u p o n th eir positions. T h ere are
^Suggested readings on this topic: Park and Burgess, Introduction, to the
aeififire o f Sociology, pp. 294-398, 322-327. Blumanthnl, Albert, Small Town
Muff, p p . i 2 i e .
th e v e r y difficult m o ra l a n d social q u a lifica tio n s o f th e te a c h e r ; ^

som e co m m u n ities th ey are so v e r y str ic t th a t it seem s th at th e moat
d o c ile a n d co n fo rm ed o f a ll th e sain ts cou ld n o t h av e fu lfille d thein,
I t is som etim es p ro p osed to rem e d y th e lo w social sta n d in g o f the
te a c h in g p ro fessio n b y m a k in g tea ch in g a real p ro fession . L e t it
k n o w n th a t teach in g is a difficu lt a rt, a n d one th a t requ ires y e a r s oi
e x p e n siv e tr a in in g , say th ose w h o a rg u e fo r th is rem ed y, a n d tie
p eo p le w ill esteem th eir teach ers a c co rd in g ly . A s a p a r t o f th is pro.
g r a m , it is u su a lly p roposed to increase th e a m o u n t o f teach er train,
in g n ecessary fo r o b ta in in g a tea ch in g p o sition . T h is savors a little of
the cu ra tiv e p rin c ip le o f “ the h a ir o f the d o g th a t b it m e .” F o r it ia
p a r tly th e fa ilu r e o f teach ers to re g iste r a s h u m a n heings which
a cco u n ts fo r th e lo w op in io n w h ich th e ir con tem poraries h a v e of
th em , a n d th is fa ilu r e to m a k e anim p ression as h u m a n b e in g s J8
p a r tly d u e to th e fa c t th a t th e n arro w social a n d in tellectu a l training
o f teach ers h a s d estro yed som e o f th e ir essen tial qu a lities o f human
b e in g s. P e r h a p s th e solu tion is to be fo u n d in th e v e r y opposite pro
c e d u r e ; p e r h a p s w h a t w ill do the teach er m o st g oo d w ill be f o r him
to h a v e a n o p p o r tu n ity to tak e leave o f h is p ro fe ssio n , b oth d u r in g hip
tr a in in g a n d a fte r he h as b eg u n to p ra ctice h is trad e, a n d to mingle
w ith h is fe llo w m e n as an equal.
S p e c ia l m e m b ers o f the tea ch in g staff h ave a sp ecial relation to the
c o m m u n ity . T h e responsible h eads o f th e school sy stem stan d often
f a i r l y close to the c o m m u n ity , a lw ay s on th e n eg a tiv e side a n d some
tim e s on th e p o sitiv e side as w ell. T h e c h ie f school execu tive must
w ork w ith th e school hoard, w h o are th e rep resen tative s o f the com
m u n ity , a n d so m u st o fte n those m in o r ex ecu tiv es w h o stan d a t the
h ea d o f p a r ts o f the lo c a l school system . T h e su p erin ten d en t o f schools,
a n d th e p r in c ip a ls o f th e v ariou s schools, h a v e fr e q u e n t con tacts with
p a r e n ts o f stu d e n ts a n d so-called “ p a tr o n s ” o f the schools. I n the
lis t o f th ose m em h ers o f th e fa c u lty w h o sta n d in a special rela tio n to
th e c o m m u n ity we m u st b y a ll m ean s in clu d e th e coach, who is, to the
sp o r tin g elem ent in th e co m m u n ity , th e m o st im p o rta n t in d iv id u a l in
th e sch ool, a n d u su a lly , to th e a lu m n i, th e hero o f a ll th e p o ol rooms
w h en he h as a w in n in g tea m , a n d h a r d p u t to it to d efen d him self
a g a in st the w o lves o f th e h arber shop w h en h is tea m loses.
T h e crisscrossin g p a tte rn o f social rela tio n sh ip s hetw een com m unity
a n d school h ecom es even m ore c o m p lica ted w h en teach ers are involved
w h o are tea ch in g in th eir h om e c o m m u n ity . S u c h teachers usually
o c c u p y a v e r y solid position h y reason o f lo n g acqu ain tan ce i n the
co m m u n ity, h y reason o f fr ie n d sh ip s th ere, a n d fa m ily allian ces, a n d

the influence o f k in s m e n ; p erh ap s g re a test o f all th e a d va n tag es w h ich
the h om e-tow n teach er e n jo y s is sim p ly h is m em bersh ip in th e com
m u n ity as an in -g rou p a n d in .p a rticu la r sm a ll g ro u p s o f the com
m u n ity. T h ese ad va n tag es are p a r tia lly balan ced b y th e fa c t th a t such
a teacher is also su h jeet to rivalries a n d fa m ily fe u d s w hich are o ld er
and stron g er th an he. A fu r th e r d isa d v a n ta g e o f n ote is th e u n
w illin gn ess o f those w ho h av e k n ow n a p erson as a b o y ever to realize
th at he is n ow becom e a m an . A n d th o u g h the sm a ll-to w n co m m u n ity
in cludes a ll w h o liv e in it, b a rrin g n on e because he is a fo o l, i t is
relu ctan t to h on or a n y v e r y m u c h ahove the oth ers, so th a t the h om e-
talen t teach er u su a lly lacks the p restig e th a t w o u ld he h is i f h e w ere
an outlander. B u t on the w hole, th e h om e-tow n teacher e n jo y s a
fav ora h le p osition . F o r the fo re ig n -h o rn su p erin ten d en t, these n a tiv e
teachers are o fte n a th o r n in the flesh. I n th e first place, su p e rin
ten den ts are o ften h a n d ica p p ed , or th e y o fte n fe e l th at th ey are, in
their efforts to d evelop a r e a lly efficient school sy stem because o f
the fa c t th at school h oard s o verrid e th e ir recom m en d ation s a n d e m p lo y
or retain "h o m e -t a le n t ” teach ers o f v e r y lim ite d qu alifications. H o m e -
talen t teachers, also, are v e r y fr e q u e n tly in v o lv e d in p o litic a l in trigu es
affectin g th e position o f the su p erin ten d en t. T h e ir acqu ain tan ce in
the c o m m u n ity m akes in tr ig u e easy fo r th em , a n d th eir possession o f
a place in the c o m m u n ity n o t d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e su p e r in te n d e n t’s
good w ill m akes th em less lo y a l to the su p erin ten d en t th an tr a n s
p la n ted teachers. T h e y fr e q u e n tly are stron g er in the c o m m u n ity th a n
those w h o ra n k above th em in the school sy ste m , sim p ly because th ey
are m ore p erm an en t. O n the h asis o f th eir su p erio r p o litic a l influence,
they o fte n d em an d fa v o r s w h ich th e school execu tive fin ds i t difficult,
in fa irn e ss to oth er teachers, to g ra n t. T h e p o sitio n o f th e teach er w ho
is th e su p erin ten d en t o f schools in h is hom e c o m m u n ity is also one o f
special interest. H e h as at h is co m m a n d a g re a ter personal fo llo w in g
in the c o m m u n ity th an the alien ex ecu tiv e, b u t h e h as also a g reater
assortm ent o f rivals a n d enem ies. F u r th e r m o re , his p o sition is som e
what m ore lik e ly to he o w in g to the p o litic a l influence o f person al
connections, so th a t he does n o t h ave q u ite so free a h a n d in deter
m in in g school policies or a d m in iste rin g d eta ils as a d eterm in ed m a n
who stood u n d er no such o b lig ation s m ig h t have. O n th e w hole, w h en
one con siders the fa c t th at a person does n ot secure a d u lt statu s in
his hom e co m m u n ity u n til he is q u ite old, an d th a t th e n a tiv e su p e r
inten den t o f schools is som ew hat m ore u n d e r fire th an an ou tsid er h y
reason of the jealousies and personal spites that follow him into
office, one must conclude that the situation o f such a person is not
enviable.
There are certain devices by which those individuals who occupy
positions worthy of some wire-pulling usually endeavor to maintain
their hold upon the community. One of the greatest of these is church
work, and unquestionably activity of this nature immeasurably in
creases the teacher’s prominence as a person and enlarges the follow
ing that he is ahle to gain in a community. Where the churches are the
rallying point of local factions, however, as is so often the ease, a
teacher may lose as much as he gains by identifying himself closely
with such a group. Particularly is this true if the right people belong
to one church and the wrong ones to another; the teacher must then
belong with the right people or he must not belong at all. Other men
use lodge connections as an outlet, and lodge work has the twin ad
vantages of giving the teacher an opportunity to mix with his fellows
on a common human basis and of giving him a highly organized group
of backers in the community. On a smaller scale, teachers may attempt
to ingratiate themselves by judicious “ entertainment,” and by such
social activities as are open to them in the community. The personal
techniques of flattery and deference are devices which some teachers
are ahle to use with convincing effect upon influential individuals.
PROJECTS
1. Begin a street-comer conversation with a stranger. Lead him to express
himself as freely as possible. Midway of the conversation, remark that you
are a school teacher. Record results. Repeat the observation. Interpret.
2. Record the comments made by members of a community about teachers.
Interpret.
3. Give examples of “made” talk between tradesmen and teachers. Con
trast with freer conversation of same persons. Interpret.
4. Tell the story of a school-teacher's clique. Analyze.
5. Tell the story of your relations with some family in which you boarded
while you were teaching. Analyze.
6. Describe some community conllict centering around a particular teacher.
Interpret.
7. Have a group of teachers living in a small community make lists of
their closest friends, noting occupations. Do the same for a larger community.
What conclusions do you draw?
8. Analyze the social contacts of a. teacher. Is the teacher a “ stranger” ?
9. List the occupations of the members of the leading men’s clubs of a
small city. How many are teachers? Interpret.
10. Gather statistics on dismissals of teachers in a particular school system

over a period of years. Interpret.
11. Take notes on the shop talk of teachers. How much of it concerns the
"universe of adolescent attitudes andi values” ?
12. Analyze the personality of an athletic coach. Upon what things, judging
from his conversation, does he chiefly pride himself? Keep a record of
community cornmerits upon him. Analyze and interpret.
13. Analyze the hold upon the community of some prominent teacher who
is secure in his position.
14. Write a case history of a teacher illustrating the transition from
categorical to sympathetic contacts.
15. Write the history of a campaign for a new school huilding.
16. Tell in detail why some school superintendent lost his position.
17. Analyze the situation of a "home-talent” teacher.
IS. Analyze the relation of a particular school superintendent to the mem
bers of the school hoard.
19. Analyze the teacher’s position as a "newcomer” in the community.
Read Blumenthal, Alhert, Small Town Stuff, pp. 122 S.
20. How many incompetent teachers can you name who continue to hold
their johs although their inefficiency is known and conceded? By what tech
niques do they hold their jobs ?
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1 ) B l u m e n tk a l , A lbert , Small Town
Stuff.
(2) P ark , R. E., and B urgess, E. W., An Introduction to the Science of
Sociology, Chapter V, particularly pp. 294-298 and 322-327.
(3) S lm n e r , W. G., Folkways.
(4) Y oung, K im b all , Social Psychology, Chapters XVII, XVIII, and XIX.
(5) Y oung, K im ball , A Source Book f o r Social P sych ology, Chapter XVI.
C hapter VI
PARENTS AND TEACHERS
A m arked la c k o f clear th o u g h t and p la in sp ea k in g exists in the

litera tu re tou c h in g the relation o f p a ren ts and teachers. F r o m the
id eal p o in t o f v iew , p aren ts and teach ers h ave m u ch in com m on, in
th a t both, su p p osed ly , wish th in g s to occur fo r th e best interests of
th e child ; b u t, in fa c t, parents and teach ers u su a lly live in a condition
o f m u tu al d istru st and en m ity. B o th w ish the ch ild w ell, h u t it is
such a d ifferen t k in d o f w ell th a t conflict m u st in e v ita b ly arise over it.
Th e fa c t seem s to be th a t p a ren ts an d teach ers are n a tu ra l enemies,
p red estin ed each fo r th e discom fiture o f th e other. T h e chasm is fr e
q u e n tly covered over, fo r n eith er p a ren ts n or teachers wish to adm it
to th em selves th e u n co m fo rta b le im p lic a tio n s o f th eir a n im osity, but
on occasion it can m ake its e lf clear enough.
T h e reason s fo r th is r a r e ly a d m itte d e n m ity are n o t h ard to find.
T h ere is th e fact, a lrea d y m en tion ed , th a t p a ren ts and teachers wish
the child to p ro sp er in different w ays, th at th ey w ish h im well accord
in g to d ifferen t stan d a rd s o f w ell-b ein g. P aren ts and teachers w a n t to
do d ifferen t th in g s w ith the child. T h e teach er, perh aps, w ish es to fu r
th er th e in tellectu al developm en t o f th e ch ild h y vig oro u s or u n p le a s
a n t m e a su r e s; this the p a ren t resists because he h as b efore his eyes the
w hole child, an d sees th a t the child is m a d e u n h a p p y h y the sacrifice
o f one ph ase o f his developm en t to another. B u t p a ren ts are supposed
to su p p o rt the school, and con scien tious p a ren ts m u st o ften have
some d ifficu lty in a rrivin g at a ration al a ttitu d e tow ard the p rogram
o f the schools. I n a sense, this is the in d iv id u a l side o f th e old conflict
betw een the in stitu tion and the com m u n ity, T h e teach er, as a m em ber
o f the in stitu tio n a l fa c u lty , desires the sch olastic w e lfa r e o f ch ildren
even at the exp en se o f other aspects o f th e ir d e v e lo p m e n t; p arents
u s u a lly tak e th eir sta n d fo r a m ore h a rm on iou s developm en t, ('th is
is n o t to say th a t there arc n ot cases en o u g h w h ere the opposite situ a
tion p resen ts itse lf. P a re n ts are p a r tic u la rly u n reason ab le w here th eir
ow n ego fe elin g s, or th eir ow n i>rojceted a m bition s, h ave becom e in
v o lv e d in the scholastic stan d in g o f a p a r tic u la r c h ild .)
T h is fu n d a m e n ta l conflict hetw een the school a n d th e p a r e n t is
accen tu ated b y the fa c t th at p a ren ts a n d teach ers are in v o lv ed in
68
TAItENTS AND TEACHERS 69
different a lig n m e n ts o f g ro u p life a ffe ctin g th e ch ild . F o r th e p a ren t,

the ch ild is a fe llo w m e m b er o f the closest o f all the p r im a r y g ro u p s,
and a w a r m ly personal a ttitu d e tow ard h im is the resu lt. B u t th e
teacher, h ow ever m u ch he m a y striv e to do h is d u ty b y th e ch ild , still
sees h im m a in ly as a m em b er o f a sec on d a ry g ro u p over w h ich th e
teacher m u st exert con trol b y th e m e ch an ism s o f secon d ary grou p
life. Th e p a re n t, fu r th e r , is b u ttressed in h is p erso n a l a ttitu d e tow ard
the child b y his in v o lv em en t in v ariou s social g ro u p s in w hich th at is
the c u sto m a ry attitu d e to take to w ard ch ildren. T h e teacher is in
volved in the gro u p o f teachers, an d the in d ica ted a ttitu d e in those
gro u p s is im p erson al. F r o m th is arises th e essen tial fu t i li t y o f p a ren t-
teacher w o rk as it is u su a lly ca rried on. P a re n t-te a ch e r w ork has
u su ally been directed at secu rin g fo r the school the su p p o rt o f paren ts,
th at is, at g ettin g p a ren ts to see ch ild re n m ore or less as teachers see
them. B u t it w ou ld he a sad d ay fo r ch ild h ood i f p a ren t-tea ch er w ork
ever rea lly succeeded in its ob ject. T h e con flict betw een p a re n ts an d
teacher is n a tu ra l and in evitable, an d it m a y be m ore or less u sefu l.
I t m a y be th at the child develops b etter i f he is treated im p erso n a lly
in the schools, p ro v id e d the p a re n ts are there to su p p ly the n eeded
personal a ttitu d e s ; th a t is at least the th e o r y u p on w h ich th e school
practice o f our tim e has heen based. B u t it w o u ld a ssu red ly be u n fo r
tunate i f teach ers ever succeeded in b r in g in g p a re n ts o v er co m p letely
to th eir point, o f view , th a t is, in o b ta in in g fo r th e schools the com p lete
and u n d iv id ed support, o f ev ery p a r e n t o f ev ery child. T h is is n o t to
say th at p a ren t-tea ch er w o rk o f a ce rta in k in d m ig h t n o t be v e r y h e lp
fu l. I f p a ren ts an d teach ers cou ld m eet o fte n enough a n d in tim a tely
enough to d evelop p r im a r y g ro u p a ttitu d e s to w ard each other, and i f
both p a ren ts a n d teachers m ig h t h ave th eir sa y u n re serv ed ly , such
m odifications o f school p ractice a n d p a re n ta l u p b r in g in g m ig h t take
place as w o u ld revolu tion ize the life o f ch ild re n everyw here.
The a n ta g on ism betw een p a re n ts a n d teach ers is som etim es overt,
and in such cases it p resen ts som e d elicate p ro b lem s. W i t h p a ren ts o f
some edu cation the a n tagon ism to w a r d teach ers still exists, h u t it
appears in d isgu ise d fo r m . S o m e v e r y in te r e stin g c ry stalliza tio n s an d
oppositions o f a ttitu d e a p p ea r at tim es. T y p ic a l are those described in
the fo llo w in g n a r r a t iv e :
One of the most troublesome phases of my private-school life concerned

tutoring. . . . What I always objected to was the fact that if I tutored a
boy his parents, and be, would expect that he would then pass the course,
even if thereafter he neglected to do his work. I felt also that tutoring was
slightly degrading, and that the hoy i was tutoring felt that he had the upper
hand of me by being able to hire me to do the unpleasant job. And I felt

quite sure that the parents, who had contributed a few extra dollars, felt
that they had a claim upon me for all time to come. I therefore developed a
technique for keeping tutoring at a minimum. It was not to my taste. It was
dull enough teaching classes, hut it was ten times worse to spend hours on
some of the more stupid students, repeating again and again the simplest
explanations and things that a hrighter hoy could have learned from a text.
In the typical case, things would happen about like this. A dull, but
perhaps not altogether hopeless boy would neglect his Latin for a few days.
I would “get after him” at once, hut not always with a good effect. Perhaps
he picked up for a day or so, hut he would fall behind again more rapidly
than before. Perhaps he was ill for a few days and could not attend class;
that gave him a douhle task. I would see the hoy’s faculty adviser, and he
would exhort the boy to do his hack work in Latin. Things would go on that
way for a month or two, and hy that time the hoy would be hopelessly
liehind the class. I would be ready to have him drop out, because I realized
that just a few weeks in a rapidly moving language class is a hopeless
handicap.
A little more time would drag hy, and then the routine reports would go
to the boy’s parents. His parents -would eome out to have a talk with me
about the boy's failure in Latin. They promised to “put pressure on the
hoy” to make him bring up his Latin. By this time I would begin to be
wearied of the whole affair, and eager to have done with it, hut I dared
not say so. I would promise to give the hoy every ehance, which I must say
that I always did. The next couple of days the hoy would prepare his lesson
diligently, hut without the least understanding of what it was about. At the
end of the month he would fail more miserahly than hefore. I then gave him
up as hopeless, quite. Too soon, perilaps, hut after all there were others to
worry ahout.
When the second failing report went home, the boy’s father would write
back and ask if there could not he some special arrangement for Tommy
to do special work in Latin in order to overhaul the rest of the class. Tommy’s
adviser would then call me in and ask if I would care to do the tutoring.
I was hardly in a position to refuse point-blank. I would have the adviser
write a letter to the hoy’s father, explaining my position with regard to
tutoring. It became somewhat formalized. I stated first that I was willing
to do the tutoring if the boy’s father wished it done, hut that I felt that in
general such tutoring was inadvisable. In the first place, tutoring was a
crutch which a hoy ought not to come to depend upon; it would injure his
morale iu most eases. In the second place, tutoring was expensive, and one
could not by any means be sure that it would produce the desired effect.
I could go over the work of the course with the hoy, hut unless he found
some extra time for studying, and worked diligently on his own account, no
particular improvement would he forthcoming. One could buy a suit of clothes
if he had the money to pay for it, but one had to pay for academic advance-
PARENTS AND TEACHERS 71
meat ia another coin. I would want all this explained to the hoy beforehand
if I were to tutor him. If he could he made to see that tutoring represented
merely an additional opportunity to hring up his work, and not a means
of having me make his credit for him, I would undertake to go over the
work of the course with him.
If these formalities were complied with I would do the tutoring. Usually
I would have two or three hoys at the same time who would he asking me
to tutor them in beginning Latin. I would get them together and hring them
over the material they had missed in as short a time as possible, but usually
that would he long enough to run up a good-sized tutoring bill at best. I
would write a letter to each parent, informing him that the tutoring had
hegun and would continue until the hoy had brought up his hack work in
Latin, or until the attempt proved hopeless.
When we had finished, I failed to send in a hill for my services. Sometimes
payment was offered (not often), hut I finally came to refuse payment in
nearly all cases. I found that those accounts were always difficult to collect,
hecause the parents really felt that such special tutoring should have been
included in their tuition fee, which was.fair enough except for the fact that
ours was not a tutoring school, and did not pretend to he one. So I did not
really sacrifice much money by refusing payment for tutoring, and I gained
a great advantage over those parents in my dealings with them. They, at
least, could never again ask that I tutor their youngster, and they could
not again ask any sort of special dispensation for him. Since the number
of parents who Insisted upon tutoring was small in any case, this seemed
to he the host way out. It did not take a great deal of time. I had to tutor
perhape one group of boys every semester, and I felt that the expenditure
of time was more than justified by the results.
In general, I adopted toward the parents a somewhat reserved and cold
attitude. I felt that if they cultivated me they did it with the intention of
getting favors for their children, and I resented that. I therefore adopted a
pose toward them that was at once respectful and aloof.
The victory was not always -with me. Some parents, in fact all who made a
determined attempt, were able to hreak through my shell. I must admit
that -whenever they did I always adopted a more human attitude toward the
child; in those cases I always assumed with the boy the role of the friend of
his father. I did not win always on the tutoring, not even there, where I had
worked out my defences so elaborately. The fact was that I was contending
with parents who were accustomed to getting their way in husiness and
politics, and an insignificant teacher was hard put to it to preserve his
integrity against such assaults as they could make upon it. The direct assault,
by telling me what was what, what I should do about a particular hoy, how
I should run ray classes, etc., always failed, hecausc I was then ahle to fight
the battle on my own ground. But an indirect assault might win. For in
stance, some parents got around my refusing payment for tutoring, perhaps
correctly evaluating my attitude for what it was, a defence against patronage
72 THE SOCIOLOGY OJP TEACHING
in personal relations and against any further demands on their part. Under
standing this, they sometimes tried to wipe out the obligation by making
payment in the form of presents, invitations, etc., making it difficult for
me to refuse.
Some of the parents were able to manage me in spite of my attempts to
retain control by remaining aloof. 1 might know very well what they were
doing, and yet be unable to keep them from having a considerable influence
upon my attitudo toward their child. I might explain that I always felt that
I should resist such influences because I needed to be impersonal with stu
dents in order to maintain discipline, and because I always desired to be
fair with all students, something which I knew I could not do if I established
intimate relations with some of them. I feel now that 1 was mistaken in
both these attitudes, but I was very young and very teaehcrish at that time.
The most crushing and the most pleasant defeat that my policy of isola
tion suffered was administered by a famous physicist who was the guardian
of a boy who entered our school as a Senior. The boy’s name was Reiman,
and he anil I came to be at sword's points the first week of school, and con
tinued in that state for some time. lie insisted upon enrolling in my third-
year Latin, and although he had the necessary credits, I knew that he was
not really prepared to carry the work of the class. I advised him to drop out,
but be elected to continue and take his chance. I decided to show him how
little he actually knew, and began to ride him unmercifully.. Since it was a
very small class, ho had no chance to slip by. i corrected his every error,
and they were very numerous. I assigned make-up work to him, and de
manded that he complete it in jig time. He had a very thick shell, and that
very shell exasperated me, and urged me to make even more determined
assaults upon it. I wanted to make him admit that he was not prepared to
carry third-year Latin. I could have flunked him, of course, but he managed
to do work that was on the margin arid I did not wish to be unjust.
The upshot of it all was that I drove the youngster so hard that I began
to grow a little ashamed of myself, but he still maintained his defiant attitude
and left me no choice but to continue in the same course. But just the same
I felt rather badly about the boy; I knew I must be making him somewhat
unhappy and my conscience hurt me over it. Just before Christmas, his
guardian, happening to he in the city, came out to the school to visit us
and the boy. I heard that he was on the campus, and made myself hard to
find; I did not relish the possibility of being called to account for my
treatment of Reiman. I should have had a defence, of course, that I was
trying to make him work, but I should not have believed that defence myself,
and could hardly expect anyone else to helieve it.
But they caught me. Just after dinner the superintendent came over and
told me that Reiman’s guardian was here and was inquiring especially for
me. "With fear only partly concealed beneath the aloof manner, I went over
to meet him. There was no smile on my face. I expected to hear a vigorous
complaint. We were introduced. The guardian was a fine, jovial gentleman,

nnd he seemed genuinely glad to see me. He said,
"So you’re Keiman’s Latin teacher?” I braced myself for a scolding.
He continued, “ Well, I’ve been wanting to meet you ever since Reiman
began writing home about you. You’ve done more with that hoy than any
teacher he ever had. I believe you are the first person who has ever scared
him enough to make him work since he has been going to school. I congratu
late you. Keep it up and you will be doing a service to all of us.”
That was all, but it was enough. I expanded under the influence of that
man. It changed things for Reiman, too. It gave me an excuse for making
a slight break in my policy with him. I still made him work, but it was a
friendly driving now. I do not ascribe all the change to the intervention of
tbe guardian, for I was, as I said, already looking for some way of
ameliorating my discipline with regard to that particular boy, but that
intervention marked a turning point. I made a mental note as to how I
should handle the teachers if I ever had a boy who went away to a private
school. Other parents used a similar technique, and it was never wholly
without effect. But so far as I know, no parent ever made me change my
policy by making a direct issue of it with me.
There was an army officer in tbe school who was particularly fine at
handling parents. One day he gave me one of the best demonstrations of
practical psychology that I have ever seen. One of the boys in the school
had a somewhat irascible mother, and on occasion she told off the teachers
or administrative officers to the queen’s taste. My friend had disciplined her
son quite severely a day ot so before, and apparently he was expecting her
to call him to account. He and I were sitting in his quarters one afternoon
listening to the radio. Suddenly he jumped up, pulled on his coat, and
started looking for Ids overcoat. I asked him why he was in such a rush,
lie said, "There comes Mrs. H.” I sympathized. I thought he was going to
make a run for it; I think that is what I should have done. Imagine my sur
prise, then, to see him walk right out of the house and go toward Mrs. H .!
They talked for a moment or two, and then he tipped his hat and walked on.
Later I asked him for an explanation of his conduct. He said, "I wanted to
catch her before she got set. i f she just happened to run onto me on the
campus, we could talk about her boy’s problems just in passing. But if I
lot her come in here and walk up to my door, she would have to get set for
a quarrel with me. She’s coining over to lodge a formal complaint. She has
to get ready for a fight. And I have to defend myself accordingly. But I
caught her before she got set, and we hail no quarrel, but a little friendly
chat. I was in a hurry because every step that she took toward my quarters
made her get a little angrier.” (Life history document.)
Th e a b ove d o cu m en t seem s to con tain som e fr a g m e n ts or a sou n d

and rea listic e m p iric a l p sy c h o lo g y . I t s m ean in g fo r o u r im m e d ia te
purposes is q u ite clear.
A good tech n iq ue fo r h a n d lin g ira te p a ren ts is a n essen tial tor

success in a n y responsible p o st in th e school syste m . T h e ira te paren ts
is n o t a m e re crea tu re o f lit e r a t u r e ; he is one o f th e fa c t s o f the social
li f e in w h ich teach ers are in v o lv ed . T h e m a n y jo k e s ab ou t the conflict
betw een p a r e n ts a n d teachers sh ou ld be ta k e n as sh o w in g the reality
o f th e con flict situ a tio n . S u ch con flicts o cca sio n a lly a rise concerning
th e s u b je c t m a tte r a n d th e p o in t o f view o f th e school cu rric u lu m , and
w e h a v e a lr e a d y allu d ed to su ch an in sta n ce. B u t b y fa r th e m ost
f r u i t f u l source o f d isagreem en ts betw een p a r e n ts a n d teach ers is the
m a tte r o f school d iscip lin e (i n w h ic h a re in c lu d e d aca d em ic re q u ir e
m e n ts, w h ich a re d ea lt w ith i n m o re or less th e sa m e m a n n er as dis
c ip lin a r y p r o b le m s ). H e r e the a ttitu d es o f p a r e n t a n d teach er come
in to th e ir m o s t irrecon cila b le o p p osition . T h e te a c h e r' m u st see the
ch ild a s a p a r t o f th e school g ro u p , a n d m u s t tr e a t h im as one o f m a n y
in v o lv e d in th e school s itu a t io n ; he m u s t tr e a t th e ch ild m ore or less
im p e r so n a lly , a n d m u st p e rh a p s in flic t som e h a r d sh ip u p o n h im fo r
th e sake o f m a in ta in in g a con sisten t sta n d w ith refe re n c e to other
stu d en ts. T h e p a r e n t stan d s o u t fo r th e im m e d ia te w e lfa re o f the
p a r tic u la r ch ild as th e p a ren t sees i t . T o som e e x te n t it is th e old
co n flict b etw een th e w h ole c o m m u n ity a n d th e school as an in stitu tio n ;
th e te a ch e r sees th a t fr a g m e n t o f th e ch ild w h ich is in v o lv e d i n the
school situ a tio n , a n d m u st ju d g e him fr o m t h a t p o in t o f view , w h erea i
th e p a r e n t is tr y in g to see the w h ole ch ild o f w h ic h th e school p er
so n a lity is a p a r t ; th e teach er rep resen ts th e school a n d the p a ren t
r ep resen ts th e co m m u n ity . A lo n g -te r m p ro cess o f a d ju stm e n t betw een
sch ool a n d co m m u n ity tak es p lace, a n d th e con flict o f p a re n ts and
teach ers is p a r t o f th e lo n g -te r m process.
I t is n o t en ou gh to d evelop a p h ilo so p h y o f c o n flic t; w e m u st atten d
to th e d eta ils o f th is person al in tera ctio n a n d o f th e tech n iq u e by
w h ich it ca n be co n trolled i f w e a re to offer a n y th in g o f v a lu e to those
w h o w ish to u n d e r sta n d the school. T h e school ex ecu tiv e m u st learn,
i n th e first p lace, to m eet d isg r u n tle d p a tro n s w ith a poised and
fr ie n d ly a ir th a t effectively discourages th e ir d efin ition o f the situ ation
as a p erso n a l q u a rrel. T h ere are m a n y d isa r m in g devices w h ich m a y
b e a d o p te d f o r th e p u r p o s e ; th e c h ie f o f th ese is a w illin g n ess to
g ra n t th e o th e r p e r s o n ’s p o in t a n d a n a tte m p t to d ra w h im in to a
co o p erative a tte m p t to w ork o u t a solu tion fo r a situ a tio n . Som etim es
a fine lin e m u s t be d r a w n ; it is c e rta in ly desirable th a t a co m p la in a n t
sh ou ld b e received in a fr ie n d ly m a n n e r an d th at h e m u s t be assured
o f a f a i r h e a rin g fr o m th e outset, b u t it is f a t a l fo r th e teacher i f ha
sh ow s a n y sig n c f fe a r or a n y ten d en cy to fa w n u p o n an influ en tial
but d is g r u n tle d p a re n t. (G o o d ex ecu tiv es need stab le vaso m o tor

s y s t e m .) T h is ca n p erh ap s be su m m ed u p b y sa y in g th a t th e p erson
wbo m u st h ea r co m p la in ts m u st le a rn to receive th em w ith th e u tm ost
poise and b a la n c e ; he m u st seem .g la d to listen , b u t th ere m u s t b e n o
in d ication th a t h e is su rre n d e rin g h is o w n p o in t o f v iew . T h e cau se
should c e rta in ly be h eard , a n d it sh o u ld b e h e a rd in d eta il. M a n y
executives h av e h a d good success in h a n d lin g a n g r y p a re n ts b y th e
sim ple tech n iq u e o f a llow in g th e m t o sit d o w n a n d p o u r fo r th th eir
w hole s t o r y ; w h en th e story w as to ld , th e p a re n ts h a d ex p erien ced a
catharsis a n d th e ir a ttitu d es to w ard tb e sch ool w ere ch an ged f o r th e
b e tte r ; in som e cases, som eth in g a p p r o a c h in g th e a n a ly tic ph en om en on
o f tran sferen ce too k p lace. T h ere is a lw a y s a d a n g e r, o f course, th a t
a p erson i n su ch a case w ill be ca rried o n b y th e u p ru sh o f em otion
and w ill sa y m a n y th in g s th at h e w o u ld n o t s a y in h is ca lm er m om en ts,
an d then, h a v in g com m itted h im self, be m o re a n ta g o n istic th an ever
before. A s a corrective a ga in st th is, it is d esira b le th a t a fr ie n d ly
rap p ort b e establish ed i f possible b e fo r e th e in terv iew . T h is m a y
som etim es be don e b y th e m a n n er o f rec e iv in g th e co m p la in a n t, or b y
sm all ta lk b e fo r e th e in terview reaches its p o in t.
T h ere w ill be n u m ero u s cases, how ever, i n w h ich a n y a tte m p t to
get th e a n g r y p a r e n t to assum e a ra tio n a l a n d co o p erative a ttitu d e w ill
be fr u itle s s . I t is, a fte r a ll, a severe e m o tio n a l u p se t th a t b r in g s a
paren t a w a y fr o m b is d a ily p u r su its to re m o n stra te w ith a teach er or
a school ex ecu tiv e. T h e teach er sh o u ld a b ove all avo id a llo w in g h is
own em o tio n s to becom e arou sed in th e p rocess. I f the te a c h e r ’ s o w n
em otions a re in v o lv ed , th e p ro ced u re w ill d egen erate into a p erso n a l
q u arrel, a n d possibilities f o r a co n stru c tiv e attitu d e on either side w ill
be im m e a su r a b ly decreased. W h ile th e a n g r y p a r e n t states h is g r ie v
ance, the tea ch er sh ou ld r e m a in silen t, re sp e c tfu l, sy m p a th etic en ough
to allow the ca th a rtic p ro ced u re its f u l l em otion al v a lu e fo r th e o th er
person, b u t a lo o f enough to p r e v e n t b ec o m in g p erso n a lly in v o lv e d in
the situ a tio n . A n in terv iew er sh o u ld i n ev ery case a void jo in in g issu e
on p a r tic u la r p o i n t s ; no m a tte r h o w absu rd th e ch arges th a t a re m a d e ,
they sh o u ld n o t be co n troverted at th is tim e. H e sh ou ld bear in m in d
tbat h e is tr y in g to w in h is p o in t th ro u g h a p sy ch o lo g ica l te ch n iq u e
and n o t th ro u g h a rg u m e n t, a n d sh ou ld r e fr a in fr o m even th e m o st
te m p tin g o p p o rtu n itie s to ta k e u p th e th re a d o f the a rg u m e n t. R e a d y
eon fu ters do n o t m a k e g oo d “ p e a c e -ta lk e r s.”
W h e n the c o m p la in in g p a r e n t h as at le n g th stated his g riev an c e
fu lly, th e in terv iew er sh ou ld a tte m p t to b r in g th e d iscu ssion arou n d
io th e q u estion o f w h at is to be done. ( H e th u s su b stitu te s a f r o m -
THE SOCIOLOGY OE TEACHING
7fi
th is-p o in t-o n orien tation fo r the p ra ise a n d b la m e o rien tation which

p r o m p te d the c o m p la in t.) T h is m a y in v o lv e d isre g a r d in g w h a t has
gon e b efo re, th ou g h th is should n ot he ohviou s to the oth er person.
T h e in te r v ie w can then he ch an ged into a calm d iscu ssion o f fu tu re
p olicies in stead o f a heated dehate co n cern in g w h a t is irrem ed ia b ly
p a s t ; it can g r a d u a lly acquire th e ton e o f a co o p erative attem p t to
a rrive at a p o licy fo r the fu tu r e . S u ch a discu ssion w ill give tbe
teach er an o p p o rtu n ity to in tro d u ce in d ire c tly a n exp lan a tio n o f his
p o sition b efore th e p u b lic, a n d a statem en t o f th e aim s o f the school
as he sees th em , togeth er w ith some in fo r m a tio n co n cern in g the p r o b
lem s o f the teach er, the school problem s o f a p a r tic u la r child, or other
m a teria l ca lcu lated to w in over o r to im p r e ss th e parent. A f t e r a
d iscu ssio n o f th is sort, w hen p a ren t an d teacher h ave arrived at some
a greem en t co n cern in g general m atters, or at least som e m u tu al u n d e r
sta n d in g con cern in g w h at each th in k s to be in v o lv e d in th em , the
in terv iew m a y a g a in he directed at the p erso n a l issue, w h ich m a y v e ry
lik e ly he reso lv ed easily.
T h e m istak es w hich teachers u su ally m ake in su ch situ ation s are in
the lin e o f a llo w in g them selves to hecom e p e rso n a lly in v o lv ed in the
situ a tio n . T h e y fe el th at an a tta ck h as heen m ade u p on th em an d th at
th ey m u st m eet th e attack at once. T h e y feel th a t u n ju s t a n d p r e
p o sterou s ch a rges have been h rou g h t a ga in st th em or th e ir school,
an d th at the on ly possible answ er is a d ire c t r e fu ta tio n o f those
charges. T h e y see fo rce a rra y ed a ga in st th em , an d fe el th at th ey
ca n n ot w ith due re g a rd to th eir ow n d ig n ity m eet th a t force w ith
a n y th in g h u t fo rce. A h o v e a ll, th e y are a fr a id th at b y a llo w in g the
oth er p erson to speak in a n g er w ith ou t th em selves sp ea k in g in th e
sam e v e in th e y w ill lose control o f the situ a tio n . T h e y are q u ite w ro n g,
o f course. T h e in d ivid u al w ho co n trols such a situ a tio n is tb e in d i
v id u a l w ho retain s h is poise. S ta b ility , a n d a fr ie n d ly h u t ju d ic ia l
a ttitu d e , a re g reater ad van tages in such a situ ation than all th e anger
in tb e w o rld . I t is r e a lly od d th at th e p o lic y o f a rg u in g d isgru n tled
cu sto m ers in to bein g satisfied cu stom ers h as p re v a ile d so m uch m ore
w id e ly in tea ch in g th an in a n y other m ode o f life . B u sin ess lo n g ago
realized the v alu e o f the in itia l a ssu m p tio n th a t “ the cu stom er is
a lw a y s r i g h t ,” a n d o f a tech n iq ue th a t w a s d ire cted first at fin d in g
o u t th e c u sto m e r ’s g riev an ce a n d then at tr y in g to w o rk out a satis
fa c t o r y com p rom ise. A n u m b er o f fa c to r s h a v e op erated , o f course, to
m ake teachers, a n d th e school execu tives who m eet the p u blic fo r
th em , u n reaso n ab le. T h ere is th e fa c t that, the school is an artificial
social sy ste m m a in ta in ed b y th e fo r c e o f a fe w p erson alities, there-
fore an a rb itr a ry system to be d e fen d e d b y a rb itr a ry tactics. T h ere is

the fa c t th a t teachers develop a tech n iq ue o f c a r r y in g th e ir p o in ts
by a rb itra ry m ean s in th eir dealin gs w ith s tu d e n ts ; le a v in g aside th e
question w hether those m ethods' are desirahle in any case, th ey cer
tainly are n ot to be recom m ended f o r d e a lin g w ith those who are a d u lt
and equal. T h ere is, fu r th e r , th e fa c t th a t th e teacher has such a
lim ited sta tu s in th e c o m m u n ity th at a n y a tta ck u p on h im m akes him
rally to a d esperate defen ce. H e h as n o t confidence enough in the
essential sec u rity o f his position to a llo w attacks to he m ad e u p o n i t
w ithout at once sen d in g out a p u n itiv e ex p ed itio n . T h e n there is th e
fa ct th at m a n y o f those to w h om th e d elicate p ro h lem o f h a n d lin g
public relation s is en tru sted are th em selv es p ro h lem cases, a n d b ristle
w ith in d ig n a tio n at the sligh test su gg estion o f a p erso n a l affront.
I t rem ains to note som e special ca'ses, an d some qu alification s and
corollaries o f our gen eral p rin c ip les. A special case i s th a t o f t.he
school ex ecu tiv e h earin g a co m p la in t ahout the con d u ct o f one o f the
teachers w o rk in g u n der h im . T h is case p resen ts som e problem s. T h e
tradition o f the school requ ires th at th e su p erior d efen d the su b o rd i
nate. T h e u n w ritten law o f teachers is t h a t “ th e su p erin ten d en t m u st
back M s teach ers u p .” T h e fa c u lty o f a school m u st presen t a u n ified
fro n t to the p u b lic. On t.he w hole it is a good ru le, fo r w ith ou t such
backing the teacher is h o p elessly lost. M a n y excep tion s are m ade. The
school execu tive m a y op en ly re p u d ia te th e a ctio n o f the teacher,
fr a n k ly sa v in g h is ow n sta n d in g a t t.he cost o f th a t o f tb e su bord in ate.
O r he m a y , and th is is fa r m ore com m on , lea d th e person co m p la in in g
about the action o f th e teacher to u n d e rsta n d th at he does n o t h im se lf
endorse th a t action hut, th a t he m a y h ave to seem to su p p o rt th e
teacher. T h u s h e saves his own fa c e h y u n d e r c u ttin g th e u n d e r teach er,
a procedure v e r y com m on a m o n g those execu tives w h o strive to please
everyhody. A device fr o m w h ich ex ecu tiv es derive hoth ego g ra tific a
tion a n d p o p u la r ity is th a t o f m u ltip ly in g rules, ste rn ly fo r h id d in g
subordinates to m ake excep tion s, a n d then m a k in g exception s. Th e
executive g ets the th rill o f m a g n a n im ity . T h e recip ie n t o f the fa v o r
goes a w ay fe elin g th at u n d e rlin g s are a lw ay s u n reason able w h ile
h igh er-ups are h u m an, and th is again is ju s t w h at the executive w an ts.
The execu tive m u st he rea d y to h ear co m p la in ts, an d he m u st hear
them r e sp e c tfu lly . H e m u st go as fa r as he can to w ard sa tisfy in g
them. B u t he m u st also, i f he is to reta in the lo y a lty o f h is teach in g
force, d e fe n d his teachers before th e co m m u n ity . H e m u st fo llo w a
subtle p o licy , h u t he m u st not arouse the a n ta g on ism o f either o f th e
conflicting p a rties or le t either o f th e m su spect th at he is fo llo w in g
a su b tle policy. S om etim es, b y a ll reason able sta n d a rd s, th e teacher

is b a d ly in the w ron g. H e r e is a case t o r the u tm o st in diplom acy.
T h e best so lu tion seems to he a con feren ce in w h ich the executive
h old ly takes hold o f th e situ a tio n an d d ire c ts it in to w h a t seem to him
the p rop er channels.
T h ere n eed he n oth in g u n m a n ly in a recep tiv e a ttitu d e tow ard com
p lain ts. A w illin gn ess to hear th e other p e r s o n ’s p o in t o f view , and
an u n w illin g n ess to quarrel u n til one k n ow s w h a t he is qu arrelling
about, an d is reason ably su re th at the other p erso n know s also—
these q u alities do n o t denote an absence o f m o r a l filler. One does not
com p rom ise h is ow n position b y a llo w in g another p erso n to state b is;
u s u a lly a p o sition seem s stron ger i f it can he m a in ta in ed h y con cedin g
m u ch to th e p erson attackin g it. N o r sh ou ld either 'a teacher or a
school executive fe e l th at he con victs h im se lf o f cow ardice b y being
slow to take personal offence. He w ill do w e ll, th en , to overlook
p erso n a l a ffro n ts in order to p e r fo r m h is official fu n c tio n s p rop erly,
T h ere are cases in w hich, in sp ite o f th e m o st fr ie n d ly and reason
able a ttitu d e on the p a rt o f the teacher, th e p a r e n t persists in q u a rrel
lin g , cases en ough , in m ost com m u nities, to give the m ost h eroic a
chance to dem on strate the stiffness o f th eir spines. W h e n he meets
such in d iv id u a ls, th e teacher m u st as fa r as possible avoid p a rticip a t
in g in a v u lg a r q u arrel, b u t he m u st also stan d his grou n d. Such
teach er-baiters are w e ll k n ow n in th e m o d era te-sized co m m u n ities and
are u s u a lly u n p o p u la r. M ore th a n one y o u n g tea ch er has fo u n d
th a t he h a s qu ite su d d en ly and u n e x p e c te d ly g ain ed sta n d in g in
th e c o m m u n ity hy su ccessfu lly resistin g the to w n b u lly,
PROJECTS
1. Analyze the demands made hy parent and teachers upon you as a
student. In what way are these demands alike and in what are they
inconsistent t
2. Assemble the comments of a group of parents about teachers, and the
comments of teachers about these same parents.
3. Tell the full story of a quarrel or dispute between a parent and a
teacher. Analyze and interpret.
4. Induce a group of teachers to talk about calls that irate parents haye
paid them. Record and analyze their techniques and results.
5. Outline a program of parent-teacher work.
6. Discover b y observation of cases whether teachers’ attitudes toward chil
dren are modified by acquaintance between parent and teacher.
7. Analyze the devices which teachers work out for defending themselves
from parents.
8. Make observations upon the manner in which complaints are .handled

by department stores, telephone companies, power companies, etc. How can
you apply this technique in teaching?
9. What verbal formulae have successful school executives evolved for
meeting complaints? Analyze these formulae.
10. Certain people are said to he "disarming.” Observe them closely and
analyze their disarming qualities. Contrast with people who arc not disarming.
11. Describe the social situation which resulted in some community when
a superintendent failed to support his teachers.
12. Wliat is poise? Determine hy observing and analyzing persons con
sidered to have poise. What is its value in a disagreement?
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) B in g h a m , W. V. D., and Moo hi;, B. V., H ow to In terview , Chapters VII
to IX.
(2) B utterworth, J. E., The Parent Teacher Association and Its Work.
(3) Ch apm an , J. C., and C ounts , G, S., Principles of Education, Chap
ter XIII.
(4) H art , H ornet.Tj, The Scien ce o f Social R elations, Chapter XVTIT.
(5 ) O fpe n h e im e r , J. J., The Visiting T eacher M ovem cjit.
(6) P eters , C. C., Foundations o f Educational S ociology, pp. 290-293.
(7) S cott , E leanor , TEttr A m on g Ladies.
(8 ) S h ekm an , R ita , A M other’s L etters to a Schoolmaster.
(9) Y oung, K imball, S ource B ook f o r Social P sych ology, pp. 374-379.
C hapter VII
THE FRINGES OF THE SCHOOL
We h a v e elsew here n oted th at the sch ool c o m m u n ity con tain s some
h an gers-on , som e m a r g in a l m em h ers w h o fr o m one p o in t o f v ie w are

m em bers o f the school as a social hody a n d fr o m a n o th er are complete
o utsiders, som e p erso n s w ith ou t a n y fixed le g a l sta tu s in th e group
bu t o fte n w ith a good deal o f influence. These m a r g in a l m em h ers of
th e school c o m m u n ity are o f p a r tic u la r im p o rta n c e in determ ining
the r e la tio n o f th e school to the co m m u n ity .
T h e ja n ito r is a p erson o f n o little im p o rta n ce in a n y school sys
te m , a n d in sm a lle r com m u n ities h e m a y he a p o w e r. T h e ja n ito r has,
i t is tru e , a v e r y lim ite d th eoretica l sta tu s, b u t h is a c tu a l influence
is o fte n out o f p ro p ortio n to th is th eoretica l p lac e in th e school sys
tem . L a r g e ly th is d isp ro p o rtio n a te im p o rta n ce o f the ja n ito r is de
r iv e d fr o m the fa c t th a t the ja n ito r is a lw ay s a m em h er o f th e local
c o m m u n ity , w h ereas teachers belon g r a th e r to the outside w orld. The
p r im a r y g ro u p s and com pact social u n its o f th e c o m m u n ity stand
beh in d the ja n i t o r ; alth ou gh these g ro u p s are n ot a lw a y s p ow erfu l,
th ey are som etim es m ore th an a n y the teach er ca n m obilize in his own
in terest. Th e ja n ito r is im p o rta n t, too, as a taleh earer. O fte n he re
g a r d s h im se lf as an official loo k o u t f o r the c o m m u n i t y ; it is his to
see w h at he can an d to rep o rt w h at he ohserves to h is fr ie n d s and
connections h y w a y o f gossip. In large school system s, ja n ito rs have
been kn ow n to serve as stoo l-p ig eo n s fo r p rin c ip a ls a n d su perin ten d
ents. In sta n ces o f s p y in g h y ja n ito r s can he m u ltip lie d w ith o u t end.
T h a t th e ja n ito r som etim es exerts a veto p o w e r u p on school policy
is sh ow n h y the fo llo w in g s t o r y :
Another New England school center was nearly wrecked in the launching
by an old janitor with a large local following who worked openly to discredit
everything it did. He stood in the hallways and insulted the patrons; he
locked school rooms and refused to open them even when ordered to do so
by authority'; and on the occasion of the first big neighborhood gathering,
he locked up the stereopticon and hid the cables, nearly breaking up the meet
ing. He hoastcd that the school authorities would not dare to discipline him
because he had too many friends in the neighborhood, and he was right.
When the authorities threatened to try him under civil service rules, several
80
THE FRINGES OF THE SCHOOL 81
prominent neighborhood leaders made a couuter-threat to boycott the center.

Personal loyalty was stronger than public spirit.
The difficulty was solved for a time by the appointment, as supervisor,
of a woman who bad even a stronger neighborhood hold than the janitor.
She knew her people and bided her tirhe. One day when she had the trouhle
maker conspicuously at a disadvantage, she suddenly turned on him with a
tongue-lashing that held him wild-eyed and speechless; when he turned to
the neighborhood for sympathy, he found most of the sympathy already
aligned on the other side. But a year later the supervisor married. Her suc
cessor knew nothing of the neighborhood line-up; the janitor easily worsted
him and disrupted the center again. ( From Barrows, E. M., “Backyard Bat
tlefields,1' The Survey, Vol. 61, Oct. 15, 1923.) (By permission of The Survey
Associates, Incorporated.)
The keepers o f school stores an d th ose cu sto m a ry “ h a n g -o u t s " fr e

quented h y grade a n d high-school stu d en ts figure o fte n and p r o m i
nently in the life histories o f stu d en ts. These in d iv id u a ls are rarely
of a high social ty p e , and th eir influence u p o n stu d en ts is fre q u e n tly
a fa cto r in cases o f ju v en ile d elin qu en cy. S om etim es th ey take an
active p a rt in co rru p tin g the y o u n g , o h ta in in g incom e and p ersonal
satisfaction h y p u r v e y in g to y o u n g sters co n trab a n d a rtic le s; som e
times they are re la tiv e ly inn ocen t and m e re ly allow th eir p rem ises to
be used hy g ro u p s o f stu d en ts w h o get into m isch ief qu ite on th eir
own in itiative. T h e influence o f these m a r g in a l persons u p on stu d en ts
is som etim es g re at, f a r su rp a ssin g the influence o f teach ers an d occa
sionally o u tw e ig h in g th e influence o f p a ren ts. A n e x p la n a tio n o f this
power is n o t easy to find, fo r it m a y rest u p o n su btle a n d co n tra
dictory fa cto rs. T h e h ard -h oiled resta u ra n t keeper o f the u n iv e rsity
com m unity, a figu re presen t arou n d n e a rly every u n iv ersity , is o fte n
a more im p o rta n t person th an the p resid en t o f the college. I n one
such case it w a s possihle to m ake d eta iled observations o f his te c h
nique in d e a lin g w ith hoys an d to a rrive a t som e ten tative conclusions
concerning the n atu re o f the influence w h ich h e exerted over them .
Phil B.’s restaurant was one of the famous spots in the recent history
of Blank University. It was just a little hole in the basement of one of the
business buildings near the university, but it was a hole which many visited
and all remembered. “ Phil’s” was so tiny that it could seat only twelve per
sons at one time, hut its hahitues preferred standing in line there to imme
diate service in one of the larger eating houses located round ahout the uni
versity. Phil's was always steamy, it was usually dirty, the floor was filthy
and the dishes were not so clean as they might have been. Customers elbowed
each other at the counters and got spots on their clothes when they sat down
in the chairs, But the steady customers always came back. It was amazing.
THE SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING
r
82
One of the great drawing cards was the fact that Phil served a good!
plain, nourishing meal at a low price. It helped also that tipping was not
encouraged. But the chief attraction was Phil. Phil had been a bartender ip
the old days, and he had that combination of rough and ready camaraderie,
rohustious lewdness, sympathy, pugnacity, and quarrelsome joviality that
used to make some bartenders known the world over as “characters.” He
still had the paunch, and he still wore an apron rather than a white coat,
lie was equally ready to tell a vulgar story, to make a wager, to give aii
insult, or to lend his money to a person who happened to be in trouble.
Small wonder that boys who had found no other warm and human place ahout
tbc university campus swarmed about Phil for snch companionship as was
to be had from him and in his place.
Phil's manner of giving service to his patrons was unique. When a cus-
tomer entered, Phil would ask him gruffly, “ Well, what’s yours?” No smile
was on his fat, round face.
I f there was any delay in giving the order, Phil would walk over to the
customer, stand over him pugnaciously and inquire, “ Well, well, make up
your mind. Make up your mind. What the------do you think this is, a cloth.
ing store?”
One had to be wise to the ways of “Phil's” or he would call down a storm
on his head, and this was equally true whether it was a member of the
faculty or the greenest freshman who made the break. So innocent a ques
tion as, “How’s your soup today, Phil ?” would throw Phil into a pretty
good imitation of a rage. He would answer, “ Well, bow the — ---------------
do you suppose it is? Do you think I’d be serving it if it was poison!
Several guys has had some already today and I ain’t seen none of ’em
dying from it.”
But Phi] was as ready to take as to give abuse, and he received a great
deal of it from students who thought themselves sharp tongued. He heard
the same stories over year after year, and as politely as he heard any stories
at all. He was a great sportsman, and not only made many bets of his own,
hut acted as intermediary and stake-holder in many others.
Many students borrowed money from Phil, or used the credit which he
freely extended as a means of tiding themselves over for a few weeks or eves
months. Nearly everyone used Phil as a bank, and he cashed hundreds of
dollars worth of checks for every dollar’s worth of food that he sold. This
was a real service, for students often have difficulty in cashing checks. Phil
always cashed them without question. Several times a year he would get a
bad cheek. He never prosecuted, and he never complained to the university
authorities. "Why should I complain to those guys?” he would say. “That
would just get the hoy in trouhle and wouldn’t get me my money. I’ll get
the money if I have to break the —------------------ ’s neck.” Though there was
no memory in the community of bis ever having resorted to such violent
means of collection, he usually got his money.
Phil's "was the place where many of the students really lived. It was the
place of all places about the campus where they relaxed and entered com
pletely into tho situation. The boys took a great delight in “kidding Phil,”
and revelled in the torrent of obscene ahuse that a direct hit would set off.
It was plain also that many of the students made of Phil a father sub
stitute But it was no ordinary father substitute; it was rather a father
substitute with whom one could be perfectly familiar, a father substitute
that could he cursed out roundly, deceived, imposed upon, and belittled
with perfect impunity. It seemed Phil’s function to fill this place in their
lives, to enable them to have their father near, but at the same time to he
free of all the repressive aspects of his personality, perhaps to even up old
scores. Phil’s personality was also very interesting to the hoys because of
the fact that he represented an offshoot of the sporting world, a world with
which their upbringing bad kept them from being familiar, but about which
they were very curious.
At Phil's the hoys could be perfectly free; they were known there,
and they were included. It was perhaps the most human place that
any of these students had found on the campus. This is the greater
part, apparently, of the explanation of P h il’s influence over his
customers. But as has been suggested, the man had also a certain
influence hecause he represented a harmless and easily martipulable
father substitute; he enabled youngsters to maintain an emotional
rapport with the older generation and at the same time to even scores
with it.1
There is a custom aro u n d u n iv ersities a n d colleges o f h irin g a n
elderly w om an t o act as “ house m o th e r ” or “ m a t r o n ” in a ll u n i
versity d orm itories. Th e a lm ost o p en ly avow ed p u rp ose o f th is w o m a n
is to serve as a m o th er su b stitu te, so m eth in g w hich h er statu s as a
high-grade serv an t and, u su a lly , h er la c k o f social b a ck g rou n d enable
her to do w ith less th an in d iffe re n t success.
The cam p us p olicem an is a person age o f gre at m e a n in g in stu d en t
eyes. S tu d e n ts engage in fr ie n d ly conflict w ith h im , b u t kn ow th a t
they can cou n t on h is sy m p a th y i f th e y n eed it. A lu m n i o f N e w Y o r k
University, according to a recent article in th e New York Times,
always inqu ire fo r J o h n th e Cop w h en th ey r e tu rn to the cam p us.
In all schools o f h ig h -sch oo l ra n k an d over, the a lu m n i exert a real,
though p rob lem atic, influence. Th e in terest o f the a lu m n i is u su a lly
in the ath letic w e lfare o f th eir alm a m a te r, an d the b u lk o f the hen e-
factions, as w ell as o f th eir a tte m p ts to d ictate p o lic y , relate to th is
more sp ecta cu la r aspect o f the life o f th e school. N o r u n iversities and
’ P o p J e n k g , k e e p e r o f " T h e S u g a r B o w l ’ ’ i n t h e c o m i c a trip , a p p e a r s t o o c
cupy a s im ila r p o s i t i o n i n th e a d o le s c e n t g r o u p c e n t e r in g a r o u n d H a r o l d T e e n .
colleges, an d fo r p r iv a te p re p a ra to ry schools, the alu m n i are very

im p o rta n t in th at th ey fu r n ish both en d ow m en ts an d enrollments,
V a r io u s a tte m p ts are th erefore m ade to cu ltiv a te them , th ro u gh such
devices as a lu m n i jo u rn a ls, a lu m n i d ays, class reunions, anniver-
saries, etc. P u h lic h ig h schools m a y also a tte m p t to cu ltiv a te their
a lu m n i, h u t th e y do n o t u su a lly succeed in m a in ta in in g the interest
o f a n y b u t the m o st recent.
In d e e d , th ere seem s to he an in h e re n t n ecessity t h a t the b e tte r sort
o f a lu m n i, the m ore intelligent, a n d the m ore su cc essfu l, sh ou ld always
elu d e th e ten tacles o f the a lu m n i secre ta ry . T h ere are exceptions, of
course, h u t th e ru le seem s to hold. W h e n a m a n g oes hack to h is alma
m a te r f o r a reu n io n , w h eth er th a t a lm a m a te r he a p rep school oj
one o f th e m o st advanced p ro fessio n a l schools, he does it. fo r a taste
o f th e jo y s th a t w ere h is w h en he w a s a y o u n g s te r i n school. But. if he
h as a tta in ed a sa tisfa cto ry a d ju stm e n t o f h is life on the a d u lt level,
he w ill n o t be lik e ly to h an k er f o r a r e v iv a l o f adolescent associa.
tion s. T h u s i t is the u n a d ju ste d a n d th e fa ilu r e s in life who are in
g en eral m o st enthusiastic ahout k eep in g u p th eir sch o ol connections]
i f th ey h a v e a d ju ste d th em selves to a d u lt life th e ir in terests and
d esires w ill h av e m o v ed on irrev o ca b ly fr o m th eir sch ool-day mem
ories. In d e e d , it m a y he a rg u ed th a t a m a n who a fte r five y e a r s still
p ersists i n te llin g stories o f h is college ach ievem en ts has fa ile d in
life . H e m a y n o t have fa ile d to secure p o sitio n , or p rofession al ad
v an cem en t, or w ealth , h u t i f h is em otion s a n d h is in tellect h ave not
becom e involved in situ ation s o f life fa r m ore in terestin g th a n those
old situ ation s o f school, he has fa ile d in life . I f n o th in g else keeps
th em a w a y, the m ere press o f en g ag em en ts in a f u l l an d interesting
life suffices to p rev en t those alu m ni w h o m one w o u ld like to see from
g a th e rin g w ith the others arou n d the b a n q u e t h oard at the reunion.
So i t com es ahout th at those who p la n and en g in eer reu n ions and
g a th e rin g s o f th e clan are d isap p o in ted n o t o n ly in those w ho stay
a w a y b u t in those w ho come. B u t a w hole a rt, an d a difficult one,
con cern s the use o f a lu m n i connections. In d iv id u a ls use such devices
fo r p o litic al and business a d va n cem en t, and schools use th e m for
g e ttin g stu d en ts an d m oney.
T h ere is som e difference b etw een the active a n d in terested alumni
o f a college a n d those o f the h ig h school o r p r e p a r a to r y school. Those
w h o rem a in interested in th e adolescen t ath letic and social activities
o f the p rep -sch ool lev el are a lm ost sure to he o f a low er gra d e than
those w h o are interested in c a r r y in g on th e ath letics o f a college. For
one th in g , the h ig h er-g ra d e alu m ni o f th e h ig h school go on to col-
lege, and becom e th ereh y a lu m n i o f a c o lle g e ; it is o n ly n a tu ra l

that, in la ter y e a r s th ey sh ou ld p r e fe r to id e n t ify th em selves w ith th e
more distin gu ish ed in stitu tio n . I t is those w h o rem a in q u ite adoles
cent who care m o st fo r th e recogn ition an d a p p lau se th ey can get
from being one of th e active a lu m n i o f th e p r e p a r a to r y school. I n
the alu m ni o f the p r e p school, as co n trasted w ith th e a lu m n i o f th e
college, th is sta tu s m o tiv a tio n is clea rer a n d less m ix e d w ith other
motives, an d as the life o f th e school in w h ich th ey w ish to shine is
more ju v e n ile , th e ir activities verge m ore d efin itely u p o n the fe eb le
minded. A college, too, is a h ig g er th in g to be interested in , and
college life is a fte r a ll the life of young a d u lts, som etim es y o u n g
adults a t the m o st lih erated a n d creative p e rio d o f th eir liv e s ; no
stigma sh ou ld a ttach to th e blam eless a tte m p t to h old fa s t to the
values o f u n d erg ra d u a te d a y s— som e sh o u ld p e rh a p s a tta ch t.o the
failure to fo r m o th er a ttach m en ts. W h i l e we are a tte m p tin g to g en
eralize abou t a lu m n i, we sh ou ld state th a t there seem s to he a con
siderable difference betw een those a lu m n i w ho m e re ly hold to the
values o f school life because th at w as the m o st in terestin g tim e o f th eir
lives, a n d those alu m ni w h o h reak a w a y , are in d u c te d into a r a p id ly
expanding w o rld o f a d u lt interests, a n d a fte rw a rd s en co u n ter th eir
alma m a ter in th e ir ex p a n d in g social w o rld . F r o m th is la tte r grou p
are gath ered those excellen t in d iv id u a ls w h o, th ou gh w eigh ed dow n
by a th ou sand and one o th er in terests, p ersist in se rv in g th eir alm a
mater as a m ean s to a w id er social service. F r o m this la tte r class are
I recruited those la y a d v isers and a d m in istra to rs w ith o u t w h om it
would he v e r y difficu lt to co n d u ct th e w o r k o f a n y school.
In every c o m m u n ity are ce rta in in d iv id u a ls w h o take it u p on th em -
fielves to sta n d sp o n so r fo r the school a n d th e teachers. P a r t ly th is is
a pose which identifies th em w ith the so -ca lled fin er th in g s o f life ,
with the c u ltu ra l valu es w h ich the school is su p p ose d to ca rry . T a r t ly
this attitu d e reflects a rea l in terest in th e school an d in the w ork
which it is d o in g in th e co m m u n ity. S om etim es the desire to sponsor
the schools assum es the fo r m o f a p a te r n a l or p ro te ctiv e interest in
the teachers or in a p a rtic u la r teach er, w h ich m a y he due to a real
affection or to a desire to bask in his reflected glory. It is n o t u n co m
mon th at these in d iv id u a ls, w hile p r o te c tin g the teach er fr o m any
onslaughts m ade u p on h im b y oth ers, sh ou ld p r iv a te ly tr y to d o m i
nate h im . O fte n en ou gh th is sp o n so r is a m em h er o f th e school h oard,
hut he docs not. a lw a y s h ave an official con n ection w ith the schools.
The fo llo w in g n a rra tiv e fu rn ish e d b y a teach er w h o h as h a d exten sive
86 the sociology op teaching
experience in rural communities brings out some aspects of this

situation very elearly.
One situation which existed throughout 'Williams's teaching career both

gratified and emharrassed him. This was the circumstance where an individual
of the district adopted a paternal attitude toward Williams as the teacher.
This person, the “ teacher’s pappa” as Williams jokingly called him, took
it upon himself to look after Williams much as a father, mother, or fond
relative might. Williams was never completely decided whether to he joyfu]
or chagrined over the relationship thus set up between teacher and patron.
He wondered if other teachers were fathered in a similar fashion. It Was
flattering enough to ohtain so much attention from a middle-aged or influ.
ential adult of the district, and it was often very helpful to he told the atti
tudes of the community, hut at times this fatherliness was like a bridle to
a young colt,
Walt Maxson, of the Mart School District, was the first to take up tba
paternal role toward Emmet Williams as a teacher. Williams was teaching
his first school then, and it was some time before the full portent and
potency of this relationship heeame clear to him. Walt was fifty years of
age, a small man, a moron, and the father of seven children, four of whom
were in school. Walt had not been successful as an independent farmer and
was reduced to the level of working for the other men of the community.
He was a great conversationalist, hut since he, incapable of having many
valuable thoughts and opinions of his own, had become an artist at putting
together the talk he heard from others to make up his own wise-sounding
speeches, none of his neighhors accredited any importance to what he said.
Walt had never fathered a teacher hefore, though he had often tried.
The new teacher, however, inexperienced in the ways of the school teacher’s
world, readily accepted Walt’s definition of the situation. This was Walt’s
chance. What prestige, what status it gave him, this close contact with the
teacher, this privilege of talking intimately and confidentially to the teacher
whenever he saw him, this husiness of helping the teacher along and look
ing after him I
Williams knew the four older Maxson children hefore he heeame the Mart
School teacher, hut he had never met Walt. The first indication Williams
had of the attitude Walt was going to take was the Saturday before school,
when Walt scraped an acquaintance with him in a nearhy town.
“ Say, you’re Emmet Williams, ain’t you? Well, my name is Walt Maxson.
You know my hoys, and I know your dad. We live out in the Mart School
District. My kids'll go to school to you, you know. Boy, that’s a hard
school! They’re tough down there. Why, them kids had a fight with jack-
knives last spring. . . . But, ohl They ain’t had ltids; the teacher didn’t
keep ’em husy. That’s the big trouble, Then there are two bunches of kids.
The Marts and the Sistons, all related to each other, ganged up against
THE FKIITGES OF THE SCHOOL 87
the other kids. I f you can handle the ringleaders, you’ll be all right. Anyway,
we all expect you to get along fine.”
Williams had heard rumors hefore, hut here it was first hand. He carried
Walt’s words to school with him the nest Monday morning and all through
the year. As a result, ho vigorously attacked the problems that arose, kept
order in the school, and won a reputation as a disciplinarian, Walt was
an excellent mouthpiece for the community. Every time he saw the teacher,
he would stop and talk. From his talk Williams gleaned the neighborhood
attitudes toward the school, and he got also both sympathy and encourage
ment. When Williams learned of Walt’s standing in the community and Walt
had told Williams’s own father in a proud way how he was trying to help
the teacher, Williams hegan to resent Walt’s attitude. Then, too, when the
community gathered at the school house or when the teacher was in town,
it was more or less of a nuisance to he subjected to an attempt at conver
sational monopoly on the part of Walt Maxson. But a teacher cannot he rude
toward his patrons—especially hefore his reputation has been established,
and when the patrons arc as good hearted and helpful as Walt Maxson was.
When Williams needed furniture from a homo to use at school, Walt fur
nished it. When Honidays were going to take their children out of school
because the teacher didn’t keep them from playing with those dirty Farney
children, Walt passed the low-down on the situation to the teacher. When
Williams was looking for a hoarding and rooming place with a family
that was neutral, as far as the two school cliques were concerned, Walt
mentioned Kraders. In several other instances Walt functioned in a helpful
manner and gradually .established himself through this fatherly role as a
hanger-on of the school.
The next experience of Williams as a teacher was in the Arizona School,
four miles from the Mart School, The Arizona neighborhood was strongly
organized ahout its school. Williams had now spent a year at a university
and was the upper teacher in the two-teacher grade school of this well-
organized village community. His year’s experience in teaching, his relation
ship with Walt Maxson, his college training, and his position as upper
teacher, all combined to make him less susceptible to the fatherly overtures
of a patron of the school. Nevertheless he was fathered. John Speck, a con
genial old fellow, usually looked after the Arizona teachers hecause his
home was the customary hoardings and rooming place for the teachers of
the village. Williams and his younger sister, who was the lower teacher,
drove an. antomohile each day from their home six miles away, and this
left John Speck out of it. The “school teacher’s pappa” this year must neces
sarily he someone else. Strangely enough it turned out to he a woman, a
Mrs. Ed. Wiser, a lady of no small physique and personality. Mrs. Wixer
mothered the lower teacher more than she did Williams, hut he came in
for Ms share of her maternal attention on occasion.
Before her marriage Mrs. Wixer had been head nurse in a hospital.
Now her duties as a farmer’s wife, though he was the outstanding man of
the community, did not sufficiently take caro of tier executive drive. She,
therefore, transferred her interests to her daughter Betty, who attended the
Arizona school, to the teachers of the school, to the sehool itself, and to
the neighborhood in general. She mothered everything and everyone in the
village. Well, she had been taken away from wbat had heen her life, and
introduced to a life which was unsufficient and had to he supplemented by
some sort of paternalistic, philanthropic, pseudo-social welfare work, Mr,
Wixer was a school-board member, and through him Mrs. Wixer, having
heard of Williams’s reputation as a handler of unruly children, and his sister’s
reputation as a teacher of little folks, almost forced the community to hire
the two Williams teachers. Then she had to justify her ehoice. She visited
the school frequently and told the community of its good work. Thus while
the Williamses were in the school her transferred interests centered around
them. She was a go-between sho acquainted herself with, the work of the
school and sold the school and the teachers to the neighborhood. She did not
convey the true attitudes of the patrons of the sehool to the teachers; she
brought them only words of praise. What she heard averse to the school she
discounted. Her sehool was perfect.
Praise was Mrs. Wixer’s technique. “ Oh, you two children,” she would
say, “what a wonderful school you do have. Why, I never saw anything like
it. When I was a child, wc never did all these things. It just rests mo to sit
and W£ieh Miss Williams teach. She does it so easily. And Mr. Williams
goes about it so systematically. Now you two must come down to supper next
week. Mr. and Mrs. MeGinty will he there.”
She didn't suggest, as did Walt Maxson (who had moved into the Arizona
district, and would have suggested again if the energetic Mrs. Wixer had
not eclipsed him as the “ teacher’s pappu” ), but she praised, and she inspired
by presenting the teacher to himself as an ideal. A teacher cannot disappoint
(.hat kind of feeling.
Mrs. Wixer wished the teachers to live with her during the cold months,
hut fate had given her too small a house for that. She did the next best
thing. She invited the Williamses to her home for dinner every two weeks.
At the same time she would entertain an influential patror and his family,
The village was amused at Mrs, Wixer, but was kept in actual touch with its
teachers, and consequently gave them good support. When at the end of the
year the Williamses declined to sign a contract because no increases in
salary were forthcoming, Mrs. Wixer forced the resignation of the two
members of the hoard who were responsible for the no-raise policy.
Neither hefore the Williamses came to Arizona, nor after they left, did
Mrs. Wixer so vigorously mother the village teachers. It should be added
that neither of the Williamses knew Mrs. Wixer before they entered the
community as teachers.
Williams hecame more accustomed to the school-teaching role. He be
came less influenced hy its attendant paternal role, but the paternal role
continued to exist nevertheless. Williams’s third year of teaching was spent
THE FRINGES OP THE BCHOOL 89
ss the lower teacher in the two-teacher Blaekstone Rural High School. The
community ahout this school was very disorganized because of its unyielding
provincialism and its sharp and gossiping tongue. In this community two
tall, raw-boned, middle-aged men took Williams under their wings, and
Williams took it upon himself to be' paternal toward the upper teacher.
Carl Willy and Bill Lemon assumed the paternal role toward Williams.
Carl Willy was a traditional “teacher’s pappa,” a husybody, and a gossip.
He wanted someone to whom he could tell the scandal of the neighborhood.
At first he surpassed his rival, Bill Lemon, in looking after the teacher,
because the teacher roomed and boarded with the Willys. Williams had not
known Carl Willy hefore he came to Blaekstone, but Carl was an old friend
of his parents. At night, after supper as the Willy family and Williams sat
around the living room, Carl would light his pipe, call up a twinkle in his
eye, and tell that he had heard that Clarence Hanson had quit school be
cause he just couldn’t get along with Miss Neerey; she was too strict and
unreasonable. Now in reality Williams was the stricter of the two. Carl’s
procedure was just an easy way of letting "Williams know the anti-school
and anti-teacher feeling at Blaekstone. He never related a pro-school senti
ment. “It wasn’t any fun to tell nice things to folks, because such things
naver hothered them any.” Carl took a mild delight in seeing people squirm.
The Blaekstone High School had heeii conducted much on the everyone-do-
ns-you-please plan in the past. When Williams and Miss Neerey attempted
to make a well-disciplined and business-like school of it, the pupils and their
parents protested vigorously. It was these protests which Carl Willy passed
along to Williams. The younger man was usually annoyed by such gossip,
He would go to school, however, and try to bring it into accord with the puh-
lis opinion of iis patrons as much as he could and still keep it a school. Thus
he popularized the school and himself. At the end of (.he year he was asked
back, hut Miss Neerey was not. Carl’s son, Ronald, went to high school, and
lie would tell Carl of the corrections made in the policy of the teachers.
Of course, Carl was pleased. He got much more pleasure, however, from
relating hearsay than from the fact that what he told had caused Williams
to make a bid for community support for the school.
Cold weather forced Williams to move closer to the school building. He
began to live with Bill Lemon’s married daughter. Bill had had two daughters
of bis own who taught school. That made him more a listener than a talker.
Bill had early in the year taken a liking to Williams, whom he spoke of as a
"good kid.” The young school master, usually reticent about talking of
school troubles, soon found himself speaking freely to sympathetic Bill
Lemon. When Williams expressed uncertainty concerning the wisdom of
some action taken by the teachers, Lemon would philosophize as follows:
“Aw, don’t pay any attention to the ------ fools in this neighborhood. I
know them all from A to Z. None of them got any kick coming, and half
of them don’t know what it’s all about anyway. Shucks I You folks have had
90 the sociology of teaching
a good school. Alice [his daughter in high school] is getting along fine and
so’s everybody else’s kids. Go ahead and do as you please, and tell them all
to go t o --------if they don’t like it.”
This was all there was to B ill Lemon's fathering. It was sufficient, however;
and to this day Emmet W illiam s thinks more o f B ill Lemon than o f any
o f the others who assumed the paternal attitude toward him.
Miss Neerey, the principal o f the Blackstone H igh School, was inexpe
rienced in school administration. She soon began to bring every problem to
W illiam s. W illiam s could have taken the principal’s place and worked out
an actual solution fo r these problems. Tor some reason he avoided this. Ho
only suggested ways o f solving problems, and the principal worked out her
own solutions and retained her place as the nominal head o f the system.
Miss Neerey was so shut-in that no one in the community was moved to
take a parental attitude toward her. The man to whom she was engaged was
attending a university in a distant city. This caused her to be extremely
moody at times, and fo r this tbe only cure was to talk to some one concern
ing this young man. A ll these things contributed to make W illiam s assume
a brotherly, i f not a fatherly, role toward the principal. Thus he became
addicted to a practice which he had many times lauded and as many times
condemned.
W illiam s next taught two years in the Riverview H igh School. The first
year, when he was just an instructor, he was looked after by the “ big boy"
o f the school. W ilb u r Carrol, the boy, was a senior in high school and was
eight years W illiam s’s junior. W illiam s had known W U hur for several years.
A s a result o f this relationship, W ilbur thought at first that the presence
o f his friend in the school constituted an opportunity fo r levity. Williams
turned on him savagely, and the unexpectedness o f the action, together with
the biting tongue o f the teacher, reduced W ilb u r to tears before the
whole class on the very first day o f school. This was a lesson in discipline
to tbe school as well as to W ilbur Carrol. W ilb u r set about hating Williams
as hard as he could, but he had to tolerate him. Eventually the “fieriness of
this little school-dad W illiam s” stirred up a real affection. W ilbur was al
ways fathering someone or something anyway, so it was quite natural for
him to look after the teacher.
H is chief care was toward the physical well-being o f William s. At a
public gathering at tbe school it was, “ Say, W illiam s, don’t you want to
comb your hair before you go on tbe stage? It’s all mussed up. Y ou ’ve been
fussing with those curtains again and that’s thoso blamed juniors’ job.
Seems like they don’t attend to their business at all.” On elean-up day, he’d
bellow, “ H ey, you guys, get hold o f this piano. A in ’ t W illiam s dune enough
without having to help lift this too ?” A t a picnic, he attacked a group of
little boys thus, “ Now listen, you kids, don’ t be so rough. I t ’s all right to
throw dirt on us high-school boys, but that fellow over there is our teacher.
I f you hit him we’ll clean up on you.” W hether W illiam s was there or nut,
THE .FRINGES OF THE SCHOOL 91
Wilbur "was the same. One time before Williams had arrived at a class party,
he said, "You guys cut that out or you’ll break something, and Williams will
get the blame.”
Tbe second year at Riverview Williams was the principal of the bigh
school and had a score of pappas. A group of young men witb children, who
would one day be in bigb school, took upon themselves tbe paternity of the
principal. At a public meeting Williams said something about electric lights
in tbe school building to take tbe place of the antiquated gas system. The
school improvement bug there and then bit these young men hard. They
persuaded tbe young principal to push tbeir program for a modernizing of
the school plant. He agreed. The elderly men and the chiu-eb people of the
town—this community was organized more or less about its wealthy old men
and its cburch—met the issue with bitter opposition. Williams and the
young men supported each other well. They finally reached a state of mind
where they were willing to fight for each other. Or rather the men had
backed Williams nntil they would have perished rather than see him fail.
He, in turn, was very grateful for their support. The elderly and church
elements had the advantage of numbers, solidarity, and vested interests, and
they discouraged Williams from returning to Riverview for a third term.
His “pappas” resented what they called his “being made tbe goat” Even
tually they gained control of the school board. Riverview now has a modern
school plant. The letters of recommendation that Williams secures from
the Riverview board are little short of eulogy. Each year the Riverview
board offers the superintendency of the Riverview Public Schools to
Williams.
It may be safely said that every community has an individual, or indi
viduals, or a group of individuals, who are concerned with fathering,
mothering, or brothering—looking after and helping out—the teacher or
teachers of the community. These school teacher’s pappas may be only on
the fringe of the school population, but they are very real persons and
have a significant relationship to the teacher, the school, and tbe community.
Sometimes their influence is good, and sometimes bad. They may be relatives
or friends of the teacher, or they may never have known, him before hie
advent into tbe community as a teacher. They may act in a customary ca
pacity, or they may do the job for a single term. They may have some
official connection with the school or they may have none. Often they are
the persons witb whom tbe circumstances of the teacher’s life in the com
munity have happened to bring him into close contact. Their techniques vary
greatly, according to their object in taking up the job of sponsoring. They
may suggest, they may praise, they may gossip, relay gossip, coax, support,
tease, threaten, or do any one of a hundred other things as they father the
teacher. But however that may be, tbe school teacher's pappa must be con
sidered a part of the social system of tbe school. (Graduate student, The
School Teacher's Pappa, unpublished manuscript.)
PROJECTS
1. Make a case study of a janitor, indicating clearly his relation to teach
ers, executives, students, and community.
2. Make an extended study of the social atmosphere of a "hangout”
popular among school hoys.
3. Study the personality of a campus policeman. What is his meaning in
the school?
4. Descrihe the channels hy which alumni exert influence upon your own
school.
5. Relate the prohlem of the overemphasis of foothall to the attitudes of
alumni.
6. Study several issues of an alumni quarterly or other alumni journal,
What mechanisms are employed to keep the alumni in line?
7. Ohserve closely the behavior of a high-school principal on alumni day.
Analyze and interpret.
8. Make a case study of some individual who stands sponsor for a particu
lar teacher hefore the local community.
9. What campus character do alumni of your school inquire ahout when
they return for a visit? Make a study of his relations to students.
N o t e : The influence of marginal persons and groups upon school life

seems to have received no serious and extended treatment. References are
therefore omitted.
C h a p te r V I I I
OTHER ASPECTS OF THE RELATION OF THE SCHOOL

AND THE COMMUNITY
I h theory , tbe u ltim a te a u th o rity o f tb e suhool system is vested

in tbe school board, a gro u p o f local citizen s elected b y tbe co m m u n ity
to oversee tbe schools. I n fa c t, the m ost im p o rta n t fu n c tio n o f tbe
school b oard is u su a lly to see to the h irin g o f a superintendent.. O nce
the su p erin ten d en t, a sp ecia lly tra in ed teach er vested w ith au th o rity
over other teachers an d titu la r h eadship o f the schools, h as been
em ployed, a sh arp stru g g le u su ally ensues betw een h im and the o u t
standing m em bers o f the school b o ard over tbe r ig h t a c tu a lly to d e te r
m ine the p o licies o f the school. T h e a d v a n ta g e is w ith the su p e rin
ten den t so fa r as th is issue is concerned, fo r he is a sp ecialist, and
can claim th e s p e c ia list’s r ig h t to c a rry h is p o in t over those w bo
bave n ot h a d equal or e q u iva len t t r a in in g ; he is in fa c t th e titu la r
head o f tb e schools, an d bears the r esp o n sib ility b efore the c o m m u
n ity i f a n y th in g goes w r o n g ; h e is on the scene c o n stan tly, an d m u st
deal w ith m a n y m in or m a tters w ith o u t c o n su ltin g the b oard except,
perhaps, fo r rou tin e ratification a fterw a rd s, an d be u su ally carries
on dealin gs w ith teachers and stu d e n ts sin g le-h an d ed , fr o m w hich be
acquires a considerable a m o u n t o f p re stig e w ith both bodies.
B y m e d ia tin g to tb e school ex ecu tiv e the sense o f th e c o m m u n ity
concerning the a d m in istra tio n o f tbe school, th e school b oard m a y
perform a leg itim a te fu n c tio n and one th a t in no w a y in te rfe re s w ith
the in itia tiv e or the efficiency o f tb e school a d m in istra to r in his sp e
cialized field. It. is p a r t o f th e su p e r in te n d e n t’s technique so t.o define
the situ a tio n as reg a rd s h im se lf an d the school hoard as to m ake an
extended and bitter stru g g le over the con trol o f tbe school sy ste m
seem u n n ecessary a n d f r u i t le s s ; be sh ou ld a c c e p t the p rin c ip le th a t
he sh ou ld h ave sufficient a u th o rity to deal ad eq u ately w ith a ll school
situations a n d th a t he sh ou ld n ot be in te r fe re d w itb in th e leg itim a te
perform ance o f these fu n c tio n s, a n d he sh ou ld tak e h is a u th o rity so
much fo r g ra n ted th a t others w ill be d isp osed to g ra n t it as legitim ate
and in tbe schem e o f th in g s. T h e tech n ique o f a v o id in g m a jo r con
flicts w ith a school h oa rd is a p p a r e n tly sim ila r to the tech n iq ue which
the teacher uses in a v o id in g such tria ls o f stren gth w ith his s tu d e n ts ;
93
it con sists in se ttlin g m in or details so s w iftly and w ith such assurance

th at no qu estion ever arises as to o n e ’s co m p eten c y or rig h t to deal
w ith th e greater. T h is is the question o f d om in an ce an d subordination,
and it is settled in m ost cases, or it m a y he settled , w ith ou t an actual
tria l o f stren gth b y the assurance and com p leten ess o f detail in the
altern a tiv e p la n s o f action p resen ted b y the p erso n s in v o lv e d in the
situ a tio n . In th is m a tter, as in m a n y oth ers, th ere a p p ea rs to be a great
differen ce in personalities. Som e su p erin ten d en ts h ave th eir w a y with
th eir school b o ard s over m a n y y ea rs, an d no one arises to contest their
c la im s ; in fa c t, a u th o rity is g e n ia lly taken and g e n ia lly granted.
O th er su p erin ten d en ts are a lw ay s in difficu lty w ith th e b o a rd , and we
m u st con clu de th a t it is a difference in th eir p e rso n a l techniques
w h ich a cco u n ts f o r th is difference o f r e s u lts ; th is is w h a t w e are
a tte m p tin g to an alyze. ( I t m a y be su gg ested , too, th at th e a b ility to
d o m in a te . a school h oard p lea sa n tly is a g re a te r fa c to r in determ ining
p erso n a l a d va n cem en t in th is w a lk o f life th an th e a b ility to adm in
ister a school system o f stu d en ts an d tea ch ers.) A ju d ic io u s su perin
ten d en t w ill he able, b y devices su b tle a n d h a rd to recognize, to avoid
a n y conflict o ver p o licy , ta k in g th a t m a tte r a n d others v e ry largely
in to h is own h an ds. H e w ill th en he able to m ak e his board see that
r u n n in g a school is a cooperative en terp rise, a n d to d ire c t th em into
v a r io u s lin es o f cooperative en d ea vo r w ith h im , th ereb y not only
a v o id in g conflict, b u t a c tu a lly m a k in g use o f th e collective intelligence
and c o m m u n ity connections o f th e b o a rd , an d le ttin g the m em bers
fe e l th a t th e y are b ein g o f use. B u t betw een th is an d a p o licy of
askin g a d vice w hich w ill lead to con flict, or p e r m ittin g interference
w h ich in th e end can o n ly h a n d ica p the execu tive, is anoth er line that
is n ot easy to draw . Th e line is there, an d m a n y persons know how
to d ra w it, b u t it w ill require acute pow ers o f observation and much
tact to draw i t in the in d iv id u a l instance.
Som e b o ard m em bers are captiou s, an d some su p erin ten d en ts let
rela tio n s w ith th e board get out o f h a n d ; there is, besides, in m any
co m m u n ities a trad itio n o f in terferen ce w h ich effectively p reclu d es any
school execu tive fr o m ever o b tain in g a qu ite fre e h an d . S u p erin
ten d en ts ca u g h t in such situ ation s have evolved m any interesting
devices w h ereb y th ey get th eir own w a y an d y e t p reserve th eir posi
tio n w ith th e b oard relatively u n d am ag ed . I n d iscu ssin g some mistake
w hich he w as alleged to have m a d e, one y o u n g and inexperienced
“ p r in c ip a l” rem arked to his school b o a rd , " W h y , I th ou gh t that
w ou ld be a ll r ig h t, so I w en t ahead and did i t . ” A m em ber o f the
bo ard , anxiou s to preserve the rig h t o f the b oard to dictate all poli-
OTHER ASPECTS OF THE RELATION OP THE SCHOOL 95
ties, cam e out u p o n h im ro u n d ly , " W e d i d n ’t h ire you to th in k . W e

hired y o u to be the p r in c ip a l o f th is school. H e r e a fte r y o u leave the
th in kin g to u s. W e ’ll do a ll the th in k in g fo r y o u .” T h e re a fte r he
adopted a p o lic y o f m a k in g a g re a t show o f co n su ltin g h is h oard
members on all m in o r m a tte rs, a n d o f p u sh in g essen tial m a tte rs so
fa r before co n su ltin g the board th a t o n ly one d ecision w a s possible.
H is position w as th en som eth in g like th a t o f the presid en t, w ho can
involve the c o u n try in w a r, bu t ca n n ot declare, w ar.
A n o th e r p o lic y w h ich has m a n y co n ve rts is th a t o f p ittin g one
faction o f the b o a rd a ga in st anoth er. I t fr e q u e n tly h a p p e n s th a t bitter
personal en em ies a n d business riv a ls are asked to serve togeth er on
the school b o a r d ; it is then possible fo r a n a d ro it m a n ag er to p la y
m an y tu n es u p o n these p erso n a l o p p o sitio n s an d antagon ism s. O fte n
enough it is one m an w ho co n trols the b o a r d ; the su p e r in te n d e n t’s
problem is th en to m a in ta in some so rt o f hold u p o n th is one m an .
F o r th is, m a n y h u n d re d s o f devices h ave been evolved b y h ara ssed
su p erin ten den ts. Th ese devices cover a lm o st th e w h ole gam ut of
hum an possibilities, r a n g in g fr o m id e n t ify in g o n e ’s s e lf w ith the le a d
ing m e m b e r 's ch u rch to b u y in g su p p lies fr o m h is store or fa ilin g to
pay a note. One sm a ll-to w n su p erin ten d en t in v a ria b ly selected a le a d
in g gro cer fr o m a m o n g the m em bers o f the school board , and p a
tronized h im w ith the inten tion o f m a in ta in in g a hold u p on h im ; it
was a device w hich did not, because o f the p e rso n a lity o f the su p er
intendent, h ave b y a n y m ean s u n fa ilin g s u c c e s s ; th is m a n m ig h t have
done better, it w o u ld seem , to have k e p t the u p p e r h an d o f this grocer,
as o f a n y oth er, b y the th re a t o f re m o v in g p a tro n ag e, or at least to
have kept the grocer fr o m co m in g to believe th at he w as cleverer th an
the su p erin ten d en t. A less oh viou s p o licy w as th a t o f a sm all-tovra
superintendent w h o k ep t a h old u p o n the p resid en t o f the board, a
banker, b y r e fu s in g to p a y a note at the bank. T h o u g h the b an ker
bated th is teach er, as he h ad a lm ost fr o m the first, he w a n ted to
keep h im in the c o m m u n ity , u n til he h ad p a id h is n o t e ; since th is m an
was the m o st influ en tial m em ber o f the b o a rd , the su p erin ten d en t
retained h is position as lo n g as the note w a s u n p aid . A m ore general
sort o f p o lic y is th at a d op ted b y m a n y ex ecu tiv es o f sh ow in g a great
deal o f in terest in the scholastic an d p erso n a l w e lfa re o f the ch ildren
of in flu en tial m em bers o f the co m m u n ity.
I t is a difficult th in g to succeed a m a n w ho h as been p o p u la r in the
com m unity, an d this is a fa c t w h ich o fte n a ffects the fo rtu n es o f
individuals w ho fill p ro m in en t p o sition s in th e schools, such as the
position o f su p erin ten d en t, h igh -sch ool p rin c ip a l, coach, etc. O n e ’s
fr ie n d s do n o t at once fo r g e t h im , and o ften th ey th in k to benefit, him

b y m a k in g th in g s h a rd fo r h is successor. A la x su p erin ten d en t is a
h a rd m an to fo llo w , fo r he has allow ed th e sch ool m a ch in e to. dis
integrate. He. has a llo w ed a u th o rity to escape fr o m his h an ds, an d his
successor w ill a lw a y s h av e a difficu lt tim e in re sto rin g the school
sy ste m hoth in te r n a lly an d e x te rn a lly . A d d e d to th is is th e fa c t that
such la x su p erin ten d en ts h ave u su a lly m a d e a n u m h e r o f fr ie n d s in
the co m m u n ity w ho, th ou gh p erh ap s not n u m e ro u s or p o w e r fu l or
devoted en ou gh to p reven t h is d ism issal, a rc still r e a d y an d ahle to
raise the c r y th at h e has heen dism issed u n fa ir ly and to w ork a
re p risa l f o r the in ju stic e u p on th e m an em p lo y ed to tak e his place,
Since th is new m an com es fr o m the ou tside, h e is u s u a lly , o f a ll the
p erso n s in v o lv e d in th e situ ation , the m o st in n o cen t o f w ro n g. This
m e ch a n ism is m ost n oticeable within th e fa c u lty , a n d th e c a rry o v e r of
o ld lo y a ltie s is one o f th e m o st difficult th in g s w h ich th e new execu
tiv e h as to fa ce . Som etim es the teachers w h o still p reserv e the m em ory
o f th e fo r m e r su p erin ten d en t h and th em selv es to g e th e r in o rd er to
h an d ica p the new e x e c u tiv e ; such fig h ts are u su a lly ca rried over into
th e c o m m u n ity a t larg e, a n d th e y o fte n heeoine v e r y bitte r. S u ch a
case is th a t described in slig h tly A ction ized fo r m helow .
During most of the year it was noticeable that the “old timers” were
particularly clannish. Mr. Woof and family were self-sufficient. Miss Please
and Mr. Out were excluded from the rest of the group hecause of their sup
port of the administration. Their attitude might be stated in this way: They
did not entirely approve of Mr. Adams, the then superintendent, but he was
tbeir superior and the head of the school system. As such he deserved their
cooperation whenever possihle. There was at least no necessity for open
opposition.
The situation stood so when spring-time came, with its annual puzzle
concerning the reelection of teachers. After some quibhling the board elected
Mr. Adams for another year, At their request he then presented each teacher
with a slip requesting the following information:
“Arc you a candidate for re election f ”
“I f so, at what salary?”
“If reelected at that salary will you immediately sign your contract?”
“Remarks.”
One might have thought that a bomb had been set off, Such frothing at
the mouth could hardly be imagined over such a trivial matter. To several
of the teachers it was not entirely unexpected. Mr, Saitb admitted that the
board had wanted Mr. Laxman (the previous superintendent) to do the
same thing the year before, and added that he had refused.
“ Well, what do you think of such a questionnaire?”
OTHER ASPECTS OP THE RELATION OF THE SCHOOL 97
"Well, I ’ll tell them one tiling and that is that I won’t how down and ask
them to reelect me. I f my heing in the system four years isn’t recommenda
tion enough, I’ll go somewhere else. I f they want me to leave why don’t they
say sol”
After each teacher had finally filled out his slip and returned it to Mr.
Adams, the hoard dilly-dallied along before determining the rceleetions.
After considerable delay contracts were handed out to Miss Blougb, Miss
Please, and Mr. Out, as well as all the grade teachers except two.
Then feeling did mount. Each faculty member rejected sought, from the
members of the board, to know why. They also had troubles to unburden to
the memher3 of the board concerning ill treatment at the bands of the
superintendent.
The special hoard-faculty meeting was the result of all this. Through all
the events of the year the hoard had shown itself rather weak. Each mem
ber seemed to fear speaking his mind, perhaps for reasons connected with
his business. After each of the “ outlandish” things Mr. Adams did, some of
the group of teachers would carry the information to the president of the
board. They also carried to him a number of remarks that Mr. Adams was
supposed to have made about members of the hoard, teachers, and others.
As some of the reported comments charged the president of the hoard with
drinking, he finally took action. He called a special meeting of the board
and faculty for the purpose of ironing out the difficulties between them.
The offended teachers nursed their grievances until the appointed time.
Some of those reelected had received increases in salary; others had not.
Miss Please had received an increase of fifty dollars; Mr. Out, of a hundred
dollars. Miss Blougb had heen reelected at no increase. All this added fuel
to the fire.
In the meantime rumor was rife among both faculty and students. A
fantastic tale went the rounds to the effect that Mr. Out, the debating coach,
was to have charge of football the next year. Several students asked him
about this possibility, hut he bad heard nothing of it.
On the evening set for the show-down, the joint meeting of faculty and
board was called to order hy the president of the board. He stated in s
hang-dog manner that there appeared to he some dissatisfaction and that
this was an opportunity for all to have their say.
It began slowly, hut soon the fireworks were sparking. The trend of the
meeting seemed along very childish lines. “ I understand that So-and-So
said such and auch about me—I want to know if that is true." And then
So-and-So would arise and gravely deny the charge.
One of the grade teachers was moved to defend her reputation. "I want
to know if Mr. Adams said that I have been keeping company with the
lugb-sehool hoys? I want to say that I have not. Tes, I ’ll admit I go to
dances, hut I don’t see that that is any worse than playing cards or playing
pool.” This last was aimed at Mr. Out, who had occasionally played rotation
pool with the boys.
98 TUB SOdOLOGY Off TEACHING
Some remarks which had been made in confidence to members of the

faculty concerning the inebriety of the president o f the board were brought
up and similarly dismissed.
A choice incident of the proceedinge occurred when Miss Blough arose to
her feet, eyes flashing.
"I have only one question which I wish the hoard to answer.” (Her manner
made it clear that she expected a negative answer.) “ Did Mr. Adams recom
mend me for reelection 7”
The president: “ He did.”
This reply completely hefuddled Miss Blough for the moment, but then
she took up the task of determining why she had not been given an increase.
She asked some questions which she evidently considered very pointed,
whether or not there was a salary schedule or a scheme of promotions, etc.
All the teachers in the group of “grievers” wanted to know what the
vote had been on their applications. In every case the count had stood at
four to two.
Unable to tolerate this child's play any longer, Mr. Out arose and said,
“As this is a meeting for the purpose of having everyone express his or her
opinion, I should like to make a few remarks, although I realize that I am
not fully acquainted with all the conditions.
“ First, I think this meeting is mere child’s play. What good can come
from each one demanding to know whether a certain remark was made about
him, when the accused immediately denies. We might pursue such a course
indefinitely without arriving anywhere.
“I propose to cut through to underlying motives and to present an anal
ysis of the present situation in the school as I have studied it. To hegin with,
we have on the faculty several memhers who served under Mr. Laxman, who
evidently was very satisfactory, to the faculty, at least, for four years.
They came to hold him in high esteem. Some of them, I am sure, feel that
he received a ‘raw deal’ in not being reelected last year. That is as it may
be, and I know nothing whatever ahout it. But from the comments of these
teachers and from chance conversations with several students and memhers
of this community, I have gathered that these persons have developed a high
loyalty to Mr. Laxman. So great, in fact, that they expected the new superin
tendent to do everything exactly as his predecessor did. And when he didn’t,
these persons proposed to raise trouble for him. Possibly they were deter
mined to make it tough for the new man anyway. At least that is what they
have done. They have done all that they could to antagonize Mr. Adams.
They have been quite open in their disapproval of his ideas and methods and
they have refused to cooperate as they should have done.” . . .
Mr. Out entered the school caf6 a few days after the above meeting to find
some other teachers already seated there. He wanted to show them that it
was possible to speak one’s mind and still he sociable, so he chose to sit at
the table with North, Blough, and Saith.
"Hello, everybody,” eaid Mr. Out, seating himself.
OTHER ASPEOTS OF THE RELATION OP THE SCHOOL 99
Silence.
The preceding evening an all-school party had heen held, which had been
taken charge of hy Mr. Out because of the fact that none of the other mem
bers of the faculty had put in an appearance before the evening was well
on. A conversation was begun:
Saith: "How was the party last evening
Blough : "Dumber than usual.”
Saith: “I had a headache and didn’t feel like going out.”
Blough: “I don’t know whether to sign my contract or not. What I would
like to do would he to come back and raise all the disturbance possible.”
Saith: “ Yeah, won’t Laxman get a kick out of things as they are!” (Fie-
fionized student paper.)
The opposite situation to the above is that of the person succeeding

a man who has left many enemies in the community. The enemies of
the former superintendent, especially if they are members of the
board or otherwise prominent in the community, attach themselves at
once to the new superintendent, as if determined to prove that they
are not trouble-makers, that it is possible fo r this new man to get
along with them, and that it therefore should have been possible for
his predecessor to do so. This type of situation is often found when
an executive of some vigor and aggressiveness has just been at the
head of the schools. Such a man pushes the program of the school
energetically, he fights for needed supplies, equipment, and salaries,
and he insists upon centralization of authority in his own hands.
He integrates the school machine at the expense of the independence
of some of its parts. But such an energetic man makes enemies. Sooner
or later his enemies oust him. His successor finds a well-organized
and smoothly functioning school system, and a community ready to
receive him cordially. This mechanism comes out particularly in
smaller communities where there has been a fight for a new school
building. The superintendent, let us say, becomes convinced that there
is need of a new building, or for extensive improvements upon the
old one. lie argues the case strongly. He enters into the fight for the
new building. He wins, but in the process he makes many enemies.
These enemies oust him from the school system. Then he goes to a
new community and repeats the process. It is significant that in teach
ing and in the ministry certain individuals early acquire a reputation
as “ builders.”
It is a fact that has sometimes been remarked upon that certain
communities change the chief executive of their school system very
frequently, perhaps every two or three years. (Sometimes other mem-
10 0 THE SOCIOLOGY OE TEACHING
bers o f the fa c u lt y are in v o lv ed in these ch an ges, a n d leave f o r the

same reasons, th o u g h th is is n o t n ecessarily tr u e .) T h is ten d en cy of
the community to o u st a m a n w h e n he is ju s t b e g in n in g to know his j
w a y a ro u n d in th e co m m u n ity h as o fte n b een in v e ig h e d aga in st, but [
its reasons a n d its causes have n o t b een an a lyzed . I t seem s worth
w hile to p o in t ou t th a t this in sec u rity o f th e school ex ecu tiv e inheres
in th e n a tu re o f h is relation sh ip to th e co m m u n ity . T h e rela tio n of
the su p erin te n d e n t to the c o m m u n ity w h ich he serv es is one in which
alien ation is a lw ay s im p lic it, and th e a lien a tio n b e g in s to w ork at
once w h en he a p p ears in the c o m m u n ity , b u t it reaches its cu lm in at
in g p o in t tw o or three y e a r s later.
W e m a y sa y th a t the su p erin ten d en t h as a ty p ic a l life h isto ry in
the co m m u n ity. T h is ty p ic a l life h isto ry rep ea ts its e lf a g a in an d again
in the life o f one execu tive, a n d i n the co m m u n ity w ith d ifferen t exec
u tives. T h e life h isto r y seem s to be abou t as fo llo w s : W h e n the new
ex ecu tiv e takes charge o f th e school syste m , he h as the su p p ort of
n e a r ly the en tire c o m m u n ity (e x c e p t in su ch a situ a tio n as the one
described above, w h ere the o u tg o in g execu tive h as le ft beh in d h im a
con siderable and w e ll-o rga n ized o p p ositio n to the n ew o n e ). The
b o a rd is u s u a lly w ith h im to a m a n . T h is u n d iv id e d su p p o rt is his
u n til som e in c id e n t occu rs w hich b rin g s h im into conflict w ith an
in d iv id u a l or a n o rgan ized grou p in the co m m u n ity . I t ia n ot long
b e fo re su ch a n in c id e n t o ccu rs; the execu tive m e tes ou t some dis
c ip lin a r y m easu re w ith w h ich in d iv id u a l p a re n ts disagree, or supports
a teach er w ho becom es sim ila rly em broiled (o r re fu se s to support
h e r ) , o r he refu ses to cooperate w ith some g ro u p i n the c o m m u n ity m
th e p r o g r a m th e y are p ro m o tin g , or he lau n ch es som e school policy
w h ich p ro v es to be u n p o p u la r w ith stu d en ts or teachers. T h e essen
tia l w eakness o f h is p o sition is th a t it g iv es h im a n o p p o r tu n ity to
m ake m a n y m o re enem ies th an fr ie n d s. O p p o rtu n itie s fo r becom ing
u n p o p u la r , to the p o in t, alm ost, o f in f a m y , are n u m erou s, b u t oppor
tu n itie s f o r g a in in g fr ie n d s are few .
T h e life o f a su p erin ten d en t is fr o m s p r in g to sp rin g . A t the end
o f h is first y e a r th e su p erin ten d en t has m a d e som e enem ies, b u t the
m a jo r ity o f th e co m m u n ity , let u s sa y , is still satisfied w ith the m an
n er i n w h ich he is c o n d u ctin g the school. H e h as m ad e some bitter
enem ies, as, a p p a r e n tly , he u n a v o id a b ly m u st. Th ose enem ies are
critic izin g h im severely. B u t as y e t th ey are n ot p o w e r fu l enough m
dislodge h im fr o m his position. D u r in g the second y e a r o f h is in c u m
b e n c y , th e su p erin ten d en t continues to be h ara ssed b y these same
en em ies, w h o becom e in c reasin gly bitte r. P e r h a p s he becom es cm-
OTHER ASPECTS OF THE RELATION" OF THE SCHOOL
broiled in so m eth in g o f a fe u d w ith t h e m ; i n a n y ease th e o p p osition

group becom es in c rea sin g ly com p act a n d w ell organ ized . T h e su p e r
intendent h as b y n ow acqu ired c e rta in en em ies on th e school b oard
and th ey serve in th e c o m m u n ity as fu r th e r r a d ia n t p o in ts o f a n ta g
onism to w ard h im . B u t the im p o rta n t f a c t , a n d th e in ex o rab le tra g e d y
o f th e su p e r in te n d e n t’s life is th a t i n th e second y e a r he u su a lly
m a tes a fe w m ore enem ies, b u t he r a r e ly h as a n o p p o r tu n ity to restore
the balance b y m a k in g fr ie n d s o f th ose w h o h a v e p r e v io u sly been
inim ical to h im . A t th e end o f th e secon d y e a r , th e o p p osition is
sufficiently p o w e r fu l to “ m ake a fig h t on th e s u p e r in te n d e n t.” M a k in g
a fight on th e su p erin ten d en t u su a lly im p lie s a n open a tte m p t to
elect person s to th e school b oard w h o w ill v o te a ga in st h is r e e le c tio n ;
it im plies a g re a t d ea l o f gossip a n d poison ou s w h isp erin g , and, u su
ally , con sp iracies to d iscred it h im in the ey es o f th e c o m m u n ity . N o t
in fr e q u e n tly teach ers becom e in v o lv e d in th ese con spiracies. L e t u s
say th at the su p erin ten d en t h a s g iv en the c o m m u n ity a sa tisfa cto ry
school and th a t he is able a t th e en d o f the secon d y e a r to w in the
fight. S o m etim es he is n ot, a n d th e process, f o r h im a n d th e co m
m u n ity , c a n b e g in again. B u t i f h e does w in at the end o f th e secon d
year, he sta n d s a g reater chance o f lo sin g a t the en d o f the th ird ,
for h is p o sitio n is c o n tin u ou sly w eakened. H e m a k es m ore en em ies
than fr ie n d s . A n d he m akes decided en em ies, i f n o t h itter enem ies,
and o n ly lu k e w a rm frien d s.
In the la r g e r com m u n ities, th e m a ss o f the c o m m u n ity is la r g e
enough to absorb w ith ou t d am age those in d iv id u a ls w h o h ave com e
into conflict w ith the su p erin ten d en t over p erso n a l m a tte rs in cid en ta l
to school a d m in istra tio n or con cern s o f g en eral school p o lic y , so th a t
ms enem ies w ill have less hope o f r e m o v in g h im , a n d th erefo re less
m otivation to organize a n o p p ositio n to h im . ( H is enem ies are lik e ly
also to be scattered an d w ith o u t a cq u ain tan ce w ith each o th er, w h ich
would m ake org a n ization d ifficu lt.) G rea te r se c u rity o f ten u re is also
assured in th e la r g e r co m m u n ities b y th e v e r y u n w ield in ess o f the
political m a ch in ery , w h ich is so cu m b rou s th a t it is ra re ly set in
motion f o r tr iv ia l reasons. F u r th e r , i f th e school execu tive m a n ag es
to rem a in i n a sm a ller c o m m u n ity f o r as lo n g as, le t u s sa y , five
years, h e becom es p r e tty stable in h is p o sition , fo r he is th en accepted
as a m e m b er o f th e co m m u n ity a n d th ere i s as little th o u g h t o f d is
ch argin g h im hecause o f d isa g reem e n ts co n cern in g school p olicies as
there is o f r u n n in g a fa r m e r off h is la n d becau se o f h is p o litic s ; h e
is a m e m b er o f the lo c a l in -g r o u p , a n d he is so m eth in g o f a fi x t u r e ;
be has h a d tim e to d evelop firm and en th u siastic fr ie n d s, a n d is
102 THE SOCIOLOGY OJf TEACHING
not easily to he removed. We may, however, allow' for all these

exceptions without destroying the truth of our generalization, that
the relationship of the school executive to the community has within
it the elements of its own destruction. And as long as the traditional
conception of the school, and the conception o f school administration
which goes with it, persists, and as long as the school continues to he
controlled hy the local community, the school systems of the smaller
communities are doomed to frequent changes of head.
PROJECTS
1. Analyze the techniques worked out by successful superintendents for
handling school boards.
2. Ohservc carefully the behavior of some person who gets his own way
without antagonizing others. Analyze and interpret.
3. Descrihe a heated campaign in a school-hoard election. What hinged
upon itT
4. Tell the story of a teacher who had to succeed a popular man. An
unpopular man.
5. Outline a program by which a school executive may hold his position in
a community which has a tradition of changing school executives frequently,
fi. Write the history of a school system, in terms of aggressive and lax
executives, for a number of years.
7. Write the life history of a school superintendent who is known as “a
builder."
S. Show how the visiting teacher may help to explain the school to the
community.
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) L indeman , E. C., Community Conflict.
(2) L indeman, E. C., The Community.
( 3 ) P a t h i , A n g e l o , A Schoolmaster of the Great City.
(4 ) P erry, A. C., The Status of the Teacher.
(5 ) W hitney , L amson , The Growth of Teachers in Service, Chapters VI and
VIII.
P art T hree
SOME INTERPRETATIONS OF LIFE IN THE SCHOOL
Chapter IX
THE SEPARATE CULTURE OF THE SCHOOL
T e a c h e r s h ave a lw ay s kn ow n th a t it w as n o t n ecessary f o r the

students o f stra n g e custom s to cross th e seas to fin d m a teria l. F o lk
lore and m y th , trad itio n , tahoo, m a g ic rites, cerem onials o f all sorts,
collective represen tation s, pwtieipaLtion mystique, all ah ou n d in th e
fro n t y a r d o f every school, a n d o cca sion a lly th e y creep u p sta irs a n d
are in corp orated into th e m ore fo r m a l p o rtio n s o f school life .
There are, in the school, c o m p lex r itu a ls o f p erso n a l relation sh ip s,
a set o f fo lk w a y s , m ores, and irra tio n a l san ction s, a m o ra l code hased
upon th em . T h ere are g am es, w h ich are su b lim a te d w a rs, team s, a n d
an elaborate set o f cerem onies co n cern in g th em . T h e re a re tra d itio n s,
and tra d itio n a lists w a g in g th e ir w o r ld -o ld h attle a g a in st in n o va tors.
There are law s, and there is the p ro h le m o f e n fo r c in g them . T h ere is
Sittlichkeit. T h ere are sp ecia lized societies w ith a r ig id stru c tu re a n d
a lim ited m em bersh ip . T h ere are no re p ro d u c tiv e g ro u p s, h u t th ere
are cu stom s r e g u la tin g th e relation s o f th e sexes. A l l these th in g s
make u p a w orld th a t is d ifferen t fr o m th e w o rld o f adults. I t is th is
separate cu ltu re o f th e y o u n g , h a v in g its locu s in the school, w hich
we propose to s tu d y . T o w o rk out a ll th e d eta ils o f th is c u ltu re w o u ld
he a task lo n g and difficult, an d , fo r ou r p u rp o se, n o t a lto g e th e r
necessary. W e sh all he co n ten t to m a r k o u t th e m a in lin es o f th e
cu ltu ral ba ck g rou n d o f school life.
I n p a rt the discussion o f the school in c u ltu ra l term s h as heen
anticipated in a p reced in g section. W e h ave a d va n ced the n o tio n th a t
the school is a center o f c u ltu ra l d iffu s io n ; w e have show n th a t th e
school serves as a p o in t fr o m w h ich the c u ltu ra l sta n d a rd s o f th e
larger gro u p are m e d ia ted to th e local co m m u n ity. T h e o rg a n ization
of h igh er a n d low er schools fo r the p u rp ose o f c u ltu ra l d iffu sion m a y
he th o u g h t o f as analogous to the org a n ization o f w h olesale a n d r e
tail m e rc h a n d isin g fo r the d istrib u tio n o f m a teria l goods. T h e goods,
103
hare certa in c u ltu ra l traits, are sent o u t fr o m centers in jo b lots,

to he d istrib u ted b y retailers h y th eir own m eth ods at, their own
price. There is a certain am ou n t o f central control of education,
as there is central control o f the m e rc h an d isin g o f certain m aterial
ohjects. W e have n oted also th at the school is eu gaged in the tra n s
m ission o f a v a st h od y o f cu ltu re which is p a ssed on fr o m the old to
the y o u n g . T h e school m u st pass on sk ills and it m u st im p la n t a tti
tu d es ; m o st o f these are n o t n ew in the c o m m u n ity . A t a n y tim e and
in a n y c o m m u n ity the m a jo r portion o f the w ork o f th e school is th at
o f im p o sin g these p reex isten t co m m u n ity stan d a rd s u p o n ch ildren.
C ertain cu ltu ra l conflicts are at the center o f the life o f the school.
These conflicts are o f tw o sorts. The first and m o st obvious is that
w hich arises fr o m the p ecu liar fu n c tio n o f the school in the process
o f cu ltu ral d iffu sio n . A conflict arises hetw een teachers an d stu den ts
hecause teachers represent the cu ltu re o f th e w id e r gro u p and stu
den ts are im p reg n a ted w ith the cu ltu re of the local com m u nity.
W h e r e th e differences concern m a tters o f r e lig io n or o f fu n d a m e n ta l
m o ra lity , the stru g g le w h ich th en ensues m a y becom e qu ite sh arp
a n d m a y seriou sly affect the relation o f the school to the co m m u n ity.
A second a n d m ore u n iv ersa l conflict hetw een stu d en ts an d teachers
arises fr o m the fa c t th a t teachers are a d u lt a n d stu d en ts are n ot, so
th at teachers are the hearers o f th e cu ltu re o f the society of a d u lts,
an d tr y to im pose th at cu ltu re upon stu d eu ts, w hereas stu d en ts rep re
sent the in d igen o u s cu ltu re o f the gro u p o f ch ildren.
The sp ec ia l cu ltu re o f th e y o u n g growTs u p in the p la y w orld of
ch ildhood. I t is w orth w hile to n ote th at it arises in the interstices
o f the a d u lt social w o rld . T h r a s h e r ’s The Gang is a stu d y o f the
conflict b etw een the established social o rd er a n d the in terstitia l gro u p
w h ich h as sp r u n g u p an d g ro w n stro n g in th e sections o f society
w here th e a d u lt order docs n o t hold. B u t this is b y no m eans a com
plete ex p la n a tio n o f the beh avior norm s o f ch ild h ood grou ps. A n o th e r
fa c t o f im p o rta n ce is that, the child does n o t exp erien ce th e w orld in
th e sam e m a n n e r as does the a d u lt. Th e ch ild p erceives the w o rld
d ifferen tly fr o m the a d u lt in p a rt because he sees it in sm a ller and
sim p ler configurations. T h e ad u lt sees social situ a tio n s as fa llin g into
certain h ig h ly co m p lex co n figu ra tio n s; th e child, w ith a sim p ler m e n
ta l organization , does not see these, hut. breaks u p his sen sory data
in to d ifferen t w holes. T h e sen sory p a tte rn s o f childhood, then, arise
in p a r t fr o m im p e r fe c tly experien ced a d u lt situ ation s. W h a t the ch ild
a p p r o p r ia te s fr o m the cu ltu ra l p a tte rn s aro u n d h im m u st a lw ay s be
THE SEPARATE CULTUBE OP THE SCHOOL 105
som ething w h ich it is w ith in his p o w er to com p reh en d . T h is is u su a lly

one o f the sim p le r and m ore e lem en ta ry fo r m s o f a d u lt h eh avior, as
the crim in a l beh avior fo llo w e d ou t hy the g a n g , or it is a sp lit-o ff
part o f a m ore co m p le x w h ole com m on in th e c u ltu re o f a d u lts.
T h e cu ltu re p a tte rn fo llo w e d o u t h y children m a y he a su r v iv a l,
fo r when cu ltu re ch an ges it often h ap p e n s th a t w h a t w as fo r m e r ly
a serious a c tiv ity fo r a d u lts is co n tin u ed in the p la y o f ch ild ren .
In d ia n fig h tin g , sw o rd p la y , H a llo w e ’en fe stiv itie s, fa ir y tales, a n d
the use o f the how and arrow h ave lo st th eir w o rth in the a d u lt
world, hut th ey h a v e retain ed a certa in v a lu e in, th e m ental w o rld o f
childhood. S o m etim es econom ic a ctiv ities su rvive an d are con tin u ed
in p lay heeause th ey h av e g re a t in trin sic interest an d h ave d isa p
peared fr o m th e a d u lt w o r ld o n ly becau se th e y w ere u n ah le to hold
their own in co m p etitio n w ith m o re efficient a n d p ro saic m ean s o f
getting a liv in g . T h is has heen tru e o f h u n tin g and fishing. T h ere
is in the d ev elo p m en ta l process a g r a d u a l evolu tion in th e co m p le x ity
o f social situ a tio n s a n d o f the a d ju s tm e n t w h ich the p erson m ak es to
th e m ; the fa c t t h a t these social situ a tio n s som etim es reproduce th e
actual situ ation s o f an earlier state o f society has led some c o m m o n -
sense ohservers to helieve in th e th e o ry o f recap itu lation .
B etw een m e n ta l processes a n d th e c u ltu ra l m ilieu in w h ich th ey
lak e place th ere is a t a ll tim es a nice a d ju stm e n t. A s o n e ’s m in d
approaches the a d u lt fo r m o f o rg a n iza tio n , he is in c reasin gly a ssim
ilated to th e c u ltu re o f a d u lts. K o ffk a , in The Growth of the Mind,
has ah ly d escribed the in tellectu al processes h y w h ich the ch ild a p
proaches m e n ta l m a tu r ity . T h e v e r y y o u n g ch ild sees th e red b a ll
against th e in d ifferen t b a c k g r o u n d ; it sees its m o th e r ’s face and h ea rs
her voice. I t is conscious o f o n ly th e m o st e lem en ta ry d iscom forts. A s
the ch ild g ro w s old e r, it acquires m o re ohjeets in its w orld , a n d th ose
objects are m o re c o m p lic a te d ; in terrela tio n s ap p ear betw een th ose
objects in the fo r m o f n ew con figu rations. M e n ta l life develop s b y a
series o f “ A h a m o m e n ts .” A s a r esu lt o f these m om ents o f in sig h t,
m aterial o h jeets m a y p ass th ro u gh a long series o f m e ta m o rp h ose s.
The little rou n d glass hacked w ith m e rc u ry is fo r the v e r y y o u n g
child so m eth in g to p o u n d w i t h , a little la te r it is a m y s te r y , a n d
later y e t a th in g w ith w h ich to p la y a pranit upon th e t e a c h e r ; at one
time it is a th in g th a t it is slig h tly d isg ra c e fu l to be c a u g h t look in g
into; fo r the a d u lt it is ju s t a pocket m irro r. I t is th is d ifferen ce in
m entality w h ich d eterm in es th e d iffereu t u ses o f c u ltu ra l p ro d u c ts
among g ro u p s o f d ifferen t age levels.
A ge is n o t th e o n ly fa c t o r th a t sep arates p eo p le w h o n om in ally

d rin k o f the sa m e c u ltu ra l stream fr o m a ctu a l c o m m u n ity o f culture,
M e n ta l a h ility , ed u ca tio n , suhtle d ifferen ces o f in terests and o f per
so n a lity m a y likew ise sort p eop le in to c u ltu ra l pigeon h oles. S o com
p le te ly is th e in d iv id u a l im m ersed in the cu ltu re o f h is own age and
social le v e l th a t b e o fte n has d ifficu lty i n r e a liz in g th a t a n y other
k in d o f cu ltu re exists. H e is sep a rated b y in v isih le w a lls fr o m tbose
a h ou t hum w h o fo llo w d ifferen t gods. P erso n s liv in g in d ifferen t seg
m ents o f ou r cu ltu re, as d eterm in ed b y age a n d lif e situ a tio n , m ay
find d ifficu lty in co m m u n ic a tin g w ith each other o r in u n d erstan d in g
each o th er a t all. The o ld can n ot u n d e r sta n d th e y o u n g , tbe pru den t
ea n n o t u n d e r sta n d the heedless, the m a r r ie d c a n h a v e little sym
p a th y fo r th e u n m a rried , p a ren ts can never com m u n e w ith non
p a re n ts ; each p erso n in th e w o rld is su rro u n d ed h y m a n y w ith whom
he m u st c o m m u n ica te b y smoke sig n a ls a n d hy o n ly a fe w w ith whom
h e can converse. B u t th e g re a te st ch asm is th a t w h ich sep arates you n g
p erso n s a n d o ld .1
T h e jo u r n e y fr o m the w orld o f the h oy to th e w o rld o f the man
_1 The fa ct that the world o f the child ia organized into configurations o f a
different kind from the configurations composing the base o f the adult's uni
verse scemH to constitute, by the way, the best justification we have for lying to
children. The greatest argument for the teaching o f falsehood soems to be that
different orderH o f truth exist fo r different mental levels. Cliildren should there
fore be taught tho kind of truth they are able to understand. There is truth in
this argument in that children are likely to break up into simpler configurations
the complicated configuration which results fo r the adult mind in tho weighing of
virtue against vice, and they are likely to get a final result which is, for the
adult, distorted and beside the point, No one who has seen the demoralization
produced in some not overly intelligent youths by contact with cynical but
well-balanced and earnest adults can fail to see that there is some argument
for the simple-virtues, even i f they are based upon falsehoods. Hut one wonders
whether demoralization is not even more likely to result from building up in
the child’ s mind a structure o f beliefs which he is likely to take sometime for
complete lies because they are partly false. Thai such demoralization often occurs
will be apparent to all who have ever, been in a position to witness the changes
wrought in the moral fiber o f students when they enter the greater world ar
make the transition from secondary schools to universities. Nor should we fail
to remark in this connection that the policy o f lying to children presupposes that
ono should be intelligent enough and dexterous enough to deceive them com
pletely. This is often not the ease at all, for shrewd children, judging their
elders by their behavior rather than by their woTrls, arc frequently able to
cut through the adults’ rationalizations to the amoral core of their behavior.
Since children, even the shrewdest of them, do not make allowance for ration
alizations as rationalizations, as phenomena, beyond the conscious control o f the
individual, they judge their elders more harshly, sometimes, than they deserve.
They think their elders both knaves and fools when those elders are in fact too
high-minded to admit their selfishness to themselves. Perhaps, when all the alter
natives are considered, we shall do better to stick to the simple virtues ouTsdves,
and to speak truth, while taking such precautions as we way against unwarranted
generalizations from facts which r-n contrary to the accepted views o f ethics.
Tbe virtue that we shall so engender wall be a tough-minded virtue. It may be less
comprehensive than some would desire, but it will not be brittle.
THE SEPARATE CULTURE OP THE SCHOOL 107
is rarely sm ooth a n d con tin u ou s. B u t i t lias fe w e r sh a rp c o m e r s to

turn i f the m em h ers o f th e a d u lt w o r ld are able to p r o je c t th em selves
back into the p sych ic w o rld o f ch ildhood. T h e ad u lt w h o can liv e
in the ch ildish w orld w ith sufficient in te n sity to u n d ersta n d c h ild re n
from w ith in ca n help th em in te llig e n tly to d evelop those c o m p le x and
unstable synth eses u p o n w hich th e a d u lt a d ju stm e n t depen ds. T e a c h
ers have tr ie d to m ake the tra n sitio n easier h y p r e se n tin g to ch ildren
a finely g ra d ed a n d c o n tin u ou sly e v o lv in g c u ltu re , org a n ized in to
ever m o re com p lex con figu rations. (T h e y have succeeded v e ry w e ll
in g ra d in g an d sortin g academ ic su h je c t m a tte r .) So h ave a risen
those teach er-in itiated and te a c h e r -m a n a g e d “ a c tiv itie s ,” cerem o
nials, trad itio n s, etc. S o w ere p ro d u ced , in fa c t, m ost o f th e th in g s
which w e shall tr e a t in d iscu ssin g the c u ltu re o f the school. T h e p u r
pose o f a ll these th in gs is to so ften th e co n flict o f c u ltu re s betw een
old and y o u n g .
T h o u g h a n en lig h te n ed p e d a g o g y m a y am eliorate th e conflict o f
adults an d ch ildren, it can n ev er rem ove it a ltogeth er. I n th e m ost
hum ane school som e tension a p p ears b etw een tea ch er and stu d en ts,
resu ltin g, a p p a r e n tly , fr o m th e role w h ich th e situ a tio n im poses u p o n
the teacher in rela tio n to his stu d en ts. T h ere are tw o item s o f th e
teach er's d u t y w hich m ake i t e sp e c ia lly lik e ly th a t b e w ill h ave to
b r in g som e p ressu re to h ear u p on s t u d e n ts : he m u st see to it th a t
there is no retrogression fr o m th e c o m p le x ity of the social w orld
w orked o u t f o r stu d en ts o f a certain age le v e l,1 an d h e m u st striv e
g ra d u a lly to increase th a t c o m p le x ity as the child grow’s in age a n d
ap p rox im ates a d u lt u n d e r sta n d in g a n d experien ce. A c tiv itie s m ay
reduce conflict, but, n o t d estro y it.
C h ild ren h ave so m eth in g w h ich can be reg ard ed as a cu ltu re o f
their own. I t s m ost im p o rta n t loci are th e u n su p erv ise d p la y g rou p
and the school. T h e u n su p erv ise d g ro u p presen ts th is cu ltu re in a
much p u r e r fo r m than does the school, fo r the ch ildish cu ltu re o f
the school is p a r tly p ro d u ced by a d u lts, is sifte d and selected b y
adults, and is a lw ay s su h je c t to a certa in am ount o f co n trol by
teachers. T h e cu ltu re o f th e school is a cu riou s m e la n ge o f th e w o r k
o f y o u n g a rtisan s m a k in g cu ltu re fo r th em selves and o ld a rtisan s
m a k in g c u ltu re f o r the y o u n g ; it is also m in g le d w ith such h its o f
the g re a te r cu ltu re as ch ild ren h ave been ahle to a p p r o p r ia te . I n
tu rn in g to m ore concrete m a terials, w e m a y note certa in asp ects o f
•A strong tendency toward such retrogression in the direction o f simpler

and easier structures seems to exist, especially in the intermediate stages. This
retrogression appears as “ silliness.” Much conflict between teachers and stu
dents arises from the desire of the teacher to eliminate ‘ ‘ silliness. ’ ’
tr a d itio n in th e school. I t w ill illu stra te w ell th is m in g lin g o f cultures

i f we d ivid e the tr a d itio n w hich clu sters a h o u t th e school into three
c la sse s: trad itio n w h ich comes en tirely , or a lm ost e n tire ly , fr o m the
o u tsid e ; tr a d itio n w hich is in p a rt fr o m ou tsid e th e school and in
p a rt in d ig e n o u s ; and trad itio n w h ich is a lm ost en tire ly indigenous.
I t is r o u g h ly tru e th a t trad itio n o f th e first class exists in the com
m u n ity a t la rg e , th at o f the second class a m o n g teach ers, an d th at o f
th e th ird class am on g stu d en ts.
T r a d itio n o f the first class, that w h ich fo r the p a rtic u la r school
com es a lto g eth er fr o m th e o utside, is a m a n ife sta tio n o f a cu ltu re
c o m p lex d iffu sed th ro u gh o u t th e w hole o f W e s t E u r o p e a n culture.
T h e h istoric school has o f course had a p a rt i n th e fo r m a tio n o f this
co m p lex , h u t a n y p a rticu la r school is la r g e ly the creation' o f it. T ra d i
tion o f th is sort govern s the v e r y existen ce o f schools, fo r , w ithout
su ch a cu ltu re co m p lex , sch ools w o u ld n ot ex ist a t all. T h is tra d i
tion al c u ltu re co m p le x governs also the g en eral n atu re o f the life in
th e schools. I t d eterm in es th a t th e o ld sh all teach th e y ou n g , and
n ot th a t the y o u n g shall ever teach th e old, w h ich w ou ld be at least
eq u a lly ju stifia b le in a w o rld th a t ch an ges so r a p id ly th a t an ed u ca
tio n tw e n ty y e a rs o ld is ou t o f date. T ra d itio n g ov ern s w h a t is tau g h t
a n d it holds a firm co n trol u p o n the m a n n er in w h ich it is tau gh t.
T r a d itio n d eterm in es w h o sh all te a c h ; wc h ave a lr e a d y discussed
som e o f th e tra d itio n a l requ irem en ts fo r teach in g. I t is this same
sort o f tra d itio n also which la r g e ly d eterm in es h ow stu d en ts and
teachers shall th in k o f each other.
T h e best exam p le o f a m in g le d tra d itio n in p a rt ahsorhed from
th e g en eral cu ltu re o f the gro u p and in p a r t p rod u ced in the p a r
tic u la r in stitu tio n is the trad itio n o f teachers, I n so fa r as th is tra d i
tio n o f teach ers is derived fr o m outside a p a rtic u la r school, it is
d r a w n b y teacher’s fr o m the general cu ltu re, and fr o m association
w ith m em h ers o f the teach in g p ro fessio n everyw h ere. I n so fa r as it
is a p u r e ly local p ro d u ct, it is p ro d u ced hy the teachers in th e in sti
tu tio n a n d is passed on fr o m one teacher to another. W c m a y m ention
so m e ca rd in a l p oin ts o f the teach er trad itio n as it is u su a lly encoun
tered , m a k in g d u e allow an ce fo r local v ariation s. T h e re is a teacher
m o r a lity , a n d th is m o ra lity regu lates m in u te ly th e te a c h e r ’s relations
w ith h is stu d e n ts and with oth er te a c h e r s; it affects h is relation s w ith
oth er teach ers e sp ec ia lly where th e sta n d in g o f those teach ers with
stu d e n ts m ig h t he affected. T h ere is a ch a racter id eal o f th e tea ch er;
n e a rly ev ery g ro u p w h ich lives lo n g in one stereo ty p ed relation with
other grou p s produces its ch aracter id eal, an d th is id eal fo r teachers
THE SEPARATE CULTURE OF THE SCHOOL 109
is clearly ohservahle. "W hen teachers say of a colleagu e, “ H e 's a

school te a c h e r ,” th ey m ean th at he c o n fo rm s to this local character
ideal. ( I t u su a lly im p lies th a t th e in d iv id u a l p u ts academ ic ahove
other con sideration s, is con scien tious in h is d u ties, a n d ex a c tin g in the
dem ands he m a k es u p on h im se lf and o th e rs.) T h ere is a tahoo o n
seeking p o p u la r ity a m o n g stu d en ts, and th is tahoo operates w ith
d rea d fu l fo rce i f it is th ou g h t th a t p o p u la r ity seekin g is co m p li
cated b y d is lo y a lty to th e teacher g ro u p . T h ere is a tra d itio n a l a tti
tude to w a r d s tu d e n ts ; th is attitu d e req u ires th at a ce rta in distan ce
be k ep t betw een teachers and stu d en ts. T h e desire to be fa ir is v e ry
lik e ly n o t th e stron g est m o tiv e th a t teach ers h a v e fo r k eep in g stu
dents at a distan ce, h u t it is c e rta in ly one o f th e consequences o f th e
policy, a n d i t has in its ow n r ig h t th e c o m p ellin g v a lu e o f a n article
o f fa ith . N o n e m a y violate the code o f e q u a lity w ith im p u n ity . T ea c h
ers h ave likew ise a certain tra d itio n a l a ttitu d e to w a rd each other.
Th e m o st ohvious m a n ife sta tio n o f th is tr a d itio n a l a ttitu d e is th e
cerem oniousness o f teach ers tow ard each oth er a n d to w a r d th e a d
m in istra tio n o f the school. I t seem s clear th a t this is th e ccrem on iou s-
ness o f a figh tin g g ro u p w h ich does n o t care to e n d a n g er its prestige
with u n d erlin gs b y a llo w in g a n y in fo r m a lity to arise w ith in itself.
A n oth er in terestin g observation th at has o fte n heen m ade ahout p a r
ticu lar gro u p s o f teachers is th at th e y discrim in ate m a rk ed ly hetw een
veteran s and n ew m en. T h is d istin c tio n is in th e fo lk w a y s. O cca
sion ally there is a m ore or less definite cerem on y o f in itia tio n , m ore
rarely, actu al h azing.
Th e in d igen o u s trad itio n o f th e school is fo u n d in its p u rest fo r m
am on g stu den ts. Th is tra d itio n , w h en it h as heen o rigin ated on th e
spot, is passed on, la rg e ly h y w o rd o f m ou th , fr o m one stu d en t to
another. Som e o f th e in d igen ou s tr a d itio n has heen orig in a te d h y the
fa c u lty , an d then im p osed u p on the stu d e n ts ; once it has heen ac
cepted hy stu d en ts, how ever, it m a y he passed on h y stu d en t groups.
Som e o f th e tra d itio n a l observances w h ich stu d en ts fo llow are not
h o m e -g ro w n ; there is a great lite ra tu re o f school life , and stu d en ts
occasionally appear w ho are o b v io u sly p la y in g the p a rts o f sto r y
book heroes. B esid es, th ere exists in the c u ltu re o f a n y co m m u n ity a
set o f tra d itio n a l attitu des tow ard school a n d school life , v a r y in g
fro m one social class to anoth er, a n d fr o m fa m i ly to f a m i l y ; th ese
attitu d es influence p r o fo u n d ly the a ttitu d e s w hich stu d en ts have to
w ard school life . N everth eless th e tr a d itio n o f stu d en ts is very la r g e ly
indigenou s w ith in th e p a rtic u la r school. A lth o u g h th is sort o f tr a d i-
tion "varies m u ch in d etail fr o m one school to an oth er, we m a y mention,

certain ch aracteristics o f the fu n d a m e n ta l p a ttern s.
L ik e teach er m o r a lity , stu d en t m o r a lity is th e m o r a lity o f a fight
i n g g ro u p , h u t differences a p p ea r in th at the stu d e n t g r o u p is su h ordi,
n ate, a n d its m o r a lity is relev an t to th a t situ a tio n . S o cial distance
betw een stu d e n t a n d teacher seem s as d efin itely a p a r t o f the stu den t
code as o f th e teach er code. T h e stu d en t m u st n o t lik e th e teach er too
m u c h , f o r th a t is n aivete. T h ere is the w e ll-k n o w n sch ool-h oy code,
th e ru le th at stu d en ts m u s t n ever g ive in fo r m a tio n to teach ers w hich
m a y lea d to the p u n ish m en t o f anoth er stu d en t. C erta in fo lk w a ys
g ro w u p in e v e ry g ro u p o f school ch ild ren , as th e fo lk w a y o f rid
i n g to g ra d e school o n a bicycle or o f n o t r id in g to h ig h school on
a b icy cle, a n d these fo lk w a y s have a g re a t influ en ce 'o v e r the be
h a v io r o f a ll m em b ers o f th e grou p. These g ro u p s o f ch ild re n are
a rra n ged in stair-step s. M em b ersh ip in th e older g ro u p im p lie s rep u d i
a tio n o f the fo lk w a y s o f the y o u n g e r g ro u p . N o one m ore foolish
th a n th e h igh -sch ool b o y o n a b icycle, or th e college b o y w e a r in g a
bigh -sch ool le tte r ! In te r lo c k in g g ro u p s loo k fo r w a r d o n ly , each grou p
a p in g its elders a n d d esp isin g its ju n io rs. I n m o d e rn schools, there
is a w hole c o m p lex o f trad itio n s p e r ta in in g to a c tiv itie s ; it seem s th at
a ll a ctiv ities are m e ritoriou s, th a t th e y are i n som e w a y connected
w ith th e d ig n ity a n d h on o r o f the school, t h a t som e a ctiv ities are
m ore m eritoriou s th a n others.
S o m etim es a w hole social system is carried in the tr a d itio n o f stu
d en ts, an d su ch social sy stem s are v e r y resista n t to change. The
f a g g in g syste m , or a sy stem o f a n y sort o f h a zin g , m a y p ersist fo r
decades a g a in st th e best efforts o f h ig h ly efficient tea ch ers a n d ad
m in istra to rs to ch an ge them . A collegiate in stitu tio n com es to m in d
w h ich has co n d u cted su ch a stru g g le fo r u p w a r d s o f a h u n d red years.
W e are le d to believe th a t h azin g, at lea st, h a v in g its roots in the
desire o f those a lre a d y in the g ro u p to d o m in a te n ew m em bers (and
h a v in g its p a ra lle l o n the f a c u l t y ) , w o u ld be d estin ed to h ave some
p lac e i n the cu ltu re w h ich the y o u n g w o rk o u t fo r th em selves ev en
i f i t h a d no sa n ctio n in trad itio n . I n oth er w o rd s, th e m an n er in
w h ich th e y o u n g experien ce th e u n iv erse recreates a h a z in g problem
i n ev ery g en eration o f stu den ts.
A n in te r e stin g sid elig h t u p o n th e im p o rta n ce o f tr a d itio n is a f
fo r d e d b y the fa c t th a t ce rta in u n iv e rsitie s h ave rece n tly becom e
aw are o f the b e a u ty o f old tr a d itio n a n d h ave tr ie d to establish t r a d i
tio n s overn igh t. T h u s the stu d en t d a ily o f one o f the g re a t w estern
u n iv ersities r e ce n tly announced th at it h ad becom e a tr a d itio n in that
THE SEPARATE CULTURE OE THE SCHOOL 111
-university fo r cow bells to be r u n g b y lo y a l stu d e n ts in th e stan d s

w hen a to u c h d o w n w as m ade b y the hom e t e a m ; th is tra d itio n , one
gathered, h ad b een establish ed on th e p r e c e d in g S a tu r d a y . R e g u la
tions co n c e rn in g th e w e a r in g o f paps b y fre sh m e n , likew ise, becom e
traditions as soon as the r eg u la tio n s are p r o m u lg a te d . T r a d itio n fr o m
time im m e m o ria l, th a t is fr o m tim e b ey o n d th e m e m o ry o f a p a rtic u la r
generation o f stu d en ts, determ in es the re la tio n s o f classes, sets th e d a y
fo r the class fig h t o f th e fr e sh m e n a n ^ sophom ores, a n d reserves fo r
seniors the r ig h t to sit u p o n a ce rta in ben ch or to w a lk w ith th e ir
sw eethearts a lo n g a p a r tic u la r p a th across the cam p us. I n A m e r ic a n
u n iversities, w h ich h av e m o stly n o t h a d a lo n g h isto ry , such t r a d i
tions are r a r e ly a ged in the w ood.
L e ss d ig n ifie d th a n tr a d itio n , and less old, b u t o f a fa sc in a tin g
d iversity, are those b its o f fo lk lore w h ich circu late a m o n g students.
A fe w y e a r s ago there w alked u p o n th is v e r y sp o t a m a rv ello u s b ein g,
a stu d en t w h o defied the school a u th o rities, la u g h e d w h en the p r in
cipal flo gg ed h im , fin ally ran a w ay fr o m hom e an d h as n e v e r b een
seen a ga in . T h ere w as fo r m e r ly a teach er i n th is school w h o w as so
n ear-sigh ted th a t the b o y s p la y e d le a p -fr o g in the rear o f the class
room. S u c h an d su ch a teacher h as a g lass eye. T h e p rin c ip a l has an
artificial fo o t. A certa in m ale teacher once k ille d a m a n in a b o x in g
bout. M u c h o f th is fo lk lo r e centers ahou t teachers. B y its sp read to
adu lts, w h ic h occu rs o n ly o ccasion ally, it g iv es rise to some o f the
fa n tastic gossip co n cern in g teach ers w h ich c ircu la te s in th e sm all
town.
Th e c u ltu ra l an th rop olo gists h av e ta u g h t u s to analyze th e action s

o f h u m a n b ein gs liv in g i n a ce rta in cu ltu re into cu ltu re pattern s.
Those p a r tia lly fo r m a liz e d stru c tu re s o f b eh a vior k n ow n a s “ a c tiv i
ties” w ill serve as excellen t exam p les o f cu ltu re p a tte rn s e x istin g in
the school. A m o n g th e “ a c tiv itie s” to be fo u n d in m o st p u b lic schools
/nay be m e n tio n e d a th letics, w o r k o n th e school p a p e r, o ra to ry and
debating, glee club w ork , H i-T w o rk , d ra m a tics, p a rtic ip a tio n in
social clu bs, d e p a rtm e n ta l clu b s, lite r a r y societies, fra tern itie s, etc.
E ach o f these a ctiv ities m a y be th o u g h t o f as rep resen tin g a m ore or
less ritu a lize d fo r m o f beh a vior ca rried i ou t b y th e in d iv id u a l as a
member o f a g ro u p an d , o fte n , a rep resen tative o f the la r g e r g rou p .
There is a set fo r m f o r these a ctivities. T h ere is m e rit in these a ctiv i
ties, a n d th a t m e rit seem s to r e st u ltim a te ly u p o n the n o tio n th at
?roup w e lfa r e a n d g ro u p p restig e are in v o lv e d i n t h e m ; the h on o r o f
the h ig h school is d a m a ged i f the tea m loses. ( “ O u r team is our
fam e-p rotector, O n b o y s, f o r w e ex p ect a tou c h d o w n fr o m you ___”
is u n p oetie, h u t e x p lic it o u th is p o in t .) B u t th ere is in trin sic, irra

tion al m e rit in th em , too, as in the tr a d in g o f the T ro b ia n d Islanders.
T h ere is d istin ctio n in these activities fo r in d iv id u a ls. That dis
tin c tio n rests in p a rt u p o n th e pro m in en ce 'which p a r tic ip a tio n in
th e m g ives the in d iv id u a l in th e eyes o f th e school at large, an d in
p a r t u p o n tb e reco g n itio n w h ich the a d u lt g ro u p accords th em . The
v a r ie ty o f a ctiv itie s is alm ost endless, fo r each o f the a ctivities m en
tio n ed ahove h as m a n y su b d iv isio n s; these su b d iv isio n s are some
tim es a rra n g e d i n so m eth in g o f a h ie ra rc h y as in a th letics, w h ere the
g re a te st d istin c tio n attach es to fo o tb a ll, a little less to basketball, less
y e t to b aseb all a n d track . These activities are c o m m o n ly ju stifie d on
th e g ro u n d s th a t th ey a c tu a lly p rep a re fo r life , since th ey present
a ctu a l life s itu a tio n s ; th eir ju stific a tio n f o r tb e fa c u lt y is in their
v alu e as a m e a n s o f co n trol over restless stu d e n ts. I t is notew orthy
th a t a c o m p etitiv e sp irit p rev a ils in n e a rly a ll a ctiv ities. N ot all
a ctiv ities are r e a lly com p etitive, b u t th e str u g g le fo r p laces may
m ake them so, a n d the d esirab ility o f h a v in g som e place in some
school a c tiv ity m ak es the co m p etitio n fo r p la c e s keen. O ne “ m a k e s”
th e scbocil o rch estra or glee club q u ite as t r u ly as one m akes th e fo o t
ball team .
*
T h ese c u ltu re p a tte rn s o f a ctiv ities arc p a r tly artificial an d fa cu lty -

d eterm in ed , and p a r tly spontan eou s. In so f a r as they h ave been
evolved h y the fa c u lty , tb e y h av e been in te n d e d as m ean s o f control,
as o u tlets fo r ad olescen t en ergies or su b stitu tes fo r tahooed activities.
T b e y rep resen t also the f a c u l t y ’s a tte m p t to m a k e school life interest
in g a n d to e x te n d the influence o f the sch ool. A n y a c tiv ity , however,
w h ich is to a ffect th e life o f stu d en ts at a ll d e e p ly , a n y a ctiv ity , then,
w h ich asp ires to a g reater influence th a n is ex erted h y th e L a t in Cluh
o r the C ercle F ra n q a is, m u st have a sp o n ta n eou s hasis, and m ust
a p p e a l to stu d en ts h y p re se n tin g to th em b eh avior p a tte rn s o f con
sid erable in tr in sic in terest. B a c h a c tiv ity u su a lly has some so rt of
fa c u lt y co u n cction , a n d th e statu s o f the fa c u lt y ad viser is thought
to rise or fa ll w ith the p r o sp e r ity o r u n p ro sp e r ity o f the activity
w h ich h e p ro m o te s. A c tiv itie s, th en , increase in im p o rta n ce a n d gain
r e co g n itio n fr o m th e fa c u lt y th ro u g h the efforts o f in terested facu lty
m em b ers, as w e ll as th ro u g h th e ir ow n in trin sic a p p e a l to students.
(A ch an ge is ta k in g p lac e in ou r te a c h e r id io m . T h e y o u n g teacher
n ow re fe rs to h im se lf n o t as the teach er o f a certa in su b ject, b u t as
the coach o f a ce rta in a c tiv ity .)
O f a ll activities ath letics is the c h ie f a n d th e m ost satisfactory.
I t is th e m o st flou rish in g a n d tb e m o st revered c u ltu re p a tte rn . I t has
THE SEPARATE CULTURE OF THE SCHOOL 113
been elaborated in m ore d etail tb a n a n y oth er cu ltu re p a tte rn . C o m

petitive ath letics has m a n y fo r m s. A t the head o f the list stands
football, still reg ard ed as tbe m ost diag n ostic test o f tb e a th letic
prowess o f a n y school. T h en come .basketball, baseh all, track, lig h t
weight fo o tb a ll, lig h tw e ig h t basketball, g ir ls ’ b a sk etb a ll, g ir ls ’ track,
etc. E ach o f these a ctivities h as im p ortan ce because th e p a rtic u la r
school a n d its rivals are im m ersed in a cu ltu re strea m o f which
competitive ath letics is a n im p o rta n t p a r t. E a c h school has its tr a d i
tional rivals, an d a greater psych ic w e ig h tin g is a tta ch ed to the gam es
with trad itio n al riv a ls tb a n to those w ith o th er schools. Schools are
arranged in a h iera rch y , an d m a y th erefo re w in m o ra l v ic to rie s w hile
' actually su fferin g d efeats. P e n n sy lv a n ia w ins, but Sw arth m ore
triumphs.
Games, th e m ost in terestin g phase of co m p etitiv e athletics, are
complex a n d elaborate c u ltu ra l p a tte rn s. O th e r cu ltu re p a tte rn s reside
in th em . Som e fo r m o f gam e is to h e fo u n d in m o st cu ltu res. The
bistory o f gam es is one o f the m o st fa sc in a tin g ch a p ters o f an th rop ol
ogy. o f tbe h istorical so rt. E n th u sia sts o f th e m o d e rn gam es p la y ed
with balls claim fo r th em a m o st a n cien t o rig in . (B a sk eth a ll is an
exception.) T h e gam e a cq u ires a clea rly defined p a tte rn , and th is is
passed on w ith little v a ria tio n . (E v e n m in o r ch an ges in th e ru les
usually m eet w ith determined o p p o sitio n .) S k ill is re le v a n t to the
culture p a t te r n o f tbe g a m e ; i f the fo r m o f th e gam e is ch an ged,
skill vanishes. I t is in terestin g , too, th a t a “ f o r m ” w h ich is p a r tly
cultural com es to reside in every fe a tu r e o f com p etitiv e ath letics. Th e
most flexible an d sk illfu l p e rfo rm a n ce , w ith irre le v a n t m otion s m ost
completely elim in a ted , represents “ f o r m ” in a p a r tic u la r p e r fo r m
ance. L a c k o f fo r m u su a lly lim its th e p e r fe c ta b ility o f a perform an ce
sufficiently to keep the athlete out of co m p etitio n . T h u s there is
“ fo r m ” fo r b a ttin g a baseball, f o r a d ro p -k ick , fo r p u ttin g the shot.
It is possihle th a t an athlete, b y lo n g p ractice, m ig h t develop th is
form th rou gh tr ia l and error a n d the g ra d u a l rem oval o f im p e rfe c
tions in h is p erfo rm a n ce. B u t it is m o re lik e ly th a t tb e ath lete gets
this fo rm th ro u gh c u ltu ra l d iffu sion . F o r m itse lf m a y rep resen t the
accumulated im p rov em en ts in tech n iq ue o f m a n y gen eration s o f a th
letes. F o r m , p rod u ced b y th e in tern a l m ech an ism s m a k in g fo r the
j perfection o f responses, has th u s a c u ltu ra l ch aracter as w ell.
C om petition hetween schools in a th letics com es to a fo cu s in gam es.
I
(
The gam e is in fa c t disgu ised w a r . T h ere is a co n tin u al ten d en cy f o r
the gam e to re v e rt to actu al w a r . “ N o w g o ou t a n d fig h t,” says tbe
coach. “ F i g b t , ” says the school orator. “ F i g h t ,” scream the specta-
tors. E v e r y o n e treats the gam e as a fight an d th in k s o f it as a fight

e x ce p t perh ap s the referee. I t is sm all w o n d er th at the p o litical order
w orked o u t fo r th is conflict situ ation , the p o litic a l o rd er consisting of
the ru les an d th e referee to back them , is m a in ta in e d w ith such dif
ficu lty and o n ly h y p en a lties w h ich im p ose th e d ire st d isab ilities upon
th e offenders. T h ere is, it is tr u e , a w h ole code o f sp o rtsm an sh ip which
arises fr o m this con flict situ ation , a code w h ich in tern a lize s th e rules
a n d m akes f o r the p rin c ip le o f f a i r p la y . T h is co d e o f sportsmanship
is a ce n tra l p a r t o f the ath letic tra d itio n , a n d as su ch an important
a sp ect o f th e c u ltu r a l life o f th e school.
T h e code o f sp o rtsm an sh ip becom es a v e r y im p o r ta n t eth ical prinei- 1
p ie, one a lm ost says the v e r y source an d sp rin g o f a ll ethics, for
y o u n g ste rs a n d fo r those a d u lts who h old to the con flict theory of
h u m a n life. T h ere are m en w ho in sist th a t th e y lea rn ed th e most
im p o rta n t lessons o f lif e u p on th e fo o tb a ll field. T h e y learn ed to
stru g g le th ere and to h old on, an d th ey lea rn ed to respect the rights
o f others and to p la y according to th e ru les. I t m a y he su rm ised that
m e n w h o have such a conception o f life do n o t liv e in a v e r y complex
w o r ld . I t is difficu lt to generalize ahout th e effect o f ath letics upon
th e p erso n a lities o f those p a r tic ip a tin g . O n e m ig h t g u e ss th a t it is in
gen eral fa v o ra b le , an d th at its fa v o r a b le effects are i n the lin e of a
g r o w in g in to su ch roles a s those m e n tion ed above. P a r t o f th e tech
n iq u e, in d ee d , o f schools and teachers w h o h a n d le difficult cases con
sists in g e ttin g those person s in te re ste d in som e fo r m o f athletics.
T h is co n stitu tes a w holesom e interest, o p en s th e w a y to a normal
g ro w th o f p erso n a lity , an d in h ih its ah n o rm a l in terests and undesir
a b le ch a n n els o f grow th .
T h e re arise som e p ro b lem s o f the re la tio n s o f p ro fessio n a ls and
a m a te u rs in school ath letics, a n d th ese h av e th eir effect u p o n the
cu ltu re p a tte rn s o f the gam e and sp o rtsm an sh ip . A ll coaches are
p ro fessio n a ls, a n d liv e b y th e p row ess o f th eir team s. A l l p la y ers are
fo r c e d to be am ateurs. Jt o ften h a p p e n s th a t the p rea ch m en ts con
ce rn in g th e sp o rtin g code w h ich d ro p so fr e q u e n tly fr o m th e lip s of
the coaches are m o re th a n n eu tra lized in p ra ctice b y the pressure
W hich these m e n p u t u p o n th eir p la y e r s to w in gam es. A m ore serious
in d ic tm e n t o f a social sy ste m w h ich a llo w s th e livelih ood o f a man
a n d h is f a m i ly to dep en d u p o n th e ath letic a ch iev em en ts o f hoys is
th a t th e coach is so p ressed th a t he u ses h is h u m a n m a te ria l reck
lessly. H e tra in s h is “ m e n ” (a g e d six te e n ) a b it too h a rd , or he uses
h is sta r ath letes in too m a n y events, or he sch edu les too m a n y hard
gam es; all th is h e does fr o m a h lam eless d esire to gain a better
THE SEPARATE CULTUBE OE THE SCHOOL 115
position or a r is s in sa la ry fo r h im self, h u t he o ften fa ils to consider

the possible effects u p on the p h ysical w e ll-b e in g of the risin g
generation.
Tbe v ariou s fo r m s o f ath letics haye heen estab lish ed a s a m ean s of
control in A m e r ic a n schools on the pragm atic; p r in c ip le . The system
o f control th ro u g h athletics w orks. The exten sion o f activities, of
which th e m ost im p o rta n t are the ath letic activities, has h elped to
make the schools p lea san t p laces in w h ich y o u n g people m a y pass
their tim e. B u t this exten sion h as n ot heen a tten d ed h y the d evelop
ment o f a w h o lly s a tisfa cto ry th eory o f the use o f a th letics fo r school
control. The th e o ry w hich is p erh ap s m o st in vogu e w ith th e school
men is th at a th letic a ctiv ity m akes stu d en ts m ore tractable because it
drains off th eir su rp lu s energies a n d lea ves th em less in clin ed to get
into m isch ief. T h is we m a y call the p h y sic a l-d r a in ju stification of
athletics. I t fo u n d e rs u p o n th e fa c t th at in m o st schools the p a rtic ip a
tion o f m o st stu d en ts is vicariou s, alm ost en tirely v icariou s fo r girls,
largely so fo r hoys. Jt. is difficult to see how ath letics can con sti
tute a p ro n o u n ced p h ysica l drain u p on those who do n o t p lay. A
slightly m ore sophisticated th eory is th a t ath letics fu r n ish e s a d iv e r
sion o f atten tion fr o m undesirahle to desirahle channels, th at it gives
students som eth in g to th in k about an d som eth in g to do w ith th eir
time. Spectators, a ccord in g to th is accou n t o f th e process, a tten d the
games and g et fr o m th em a c a th a r sis; t.heir souls are p u rged . T h is
theory has v a lu e and m u st be in corp orated into a n y final reckoning
up o f the influence o f athletics upon school life .
The author w ou ld he inclin ed to accou n t fo r the fa v ora b le in flu
ence o f athletics u pon school life in term s o f changes effected in gro u p
alignm ents an d th e in d iv id u a l a ttitu d es th at go w ith them. It is
perhaps as a m ean s o f u n ify in g the en tire school gro u p th at ath letics
seems m ost u sefu l fr o m the sociological p o in t o f view . T h ere is a
tendency fo r the school p o p u la tio n to sp lit u p in to its hostile seg
ments o f teachers an d stu d en ts an d to he fr a g m e n te d hy cliques
among both grou ps. The d ivision o f stu d e n ts in to grou p s preven ts a
collective m orale fr o m arising an d th ereby com p licates a d m in istra
tion; the s p lit hetw een stu d en ts a n d teachers is even m ore serious,
for these tw o grou ps tend to becom e definite conflict grou ps, and
conflict gro u p tensions are th e v ery a n tith esis o f disciplin e. T h is
condition ath letics alleviates. A th le tic gam es fu rn ish a dram atic spec
tacle o f the stru g g le o f picked m en a ga in st the com m on en em y, and
this is a p o w e rfu l fa c to r in b u ild in g u p a g ro u p sp irit which includes
students o f a ll k in d s and degrees and unifies the teachers and the
tau gh t. I n a d u lt life w e find th e analogu e o f a th letics in w a r ; patri.

otism runs h igh w hen the c o u n try is a tta ck ed . L ik ew ise we find the
m o st ce rta in v alu e o f p u n ish m en t to he th e un ification o f the group
w h ich p u n ish es.1 A th le tic sports use e x a c tly the sam e m echanism in
a co n trolled w a y fo r the attainm ent, o f a m ore lim ite d end.
B y fu r n is h in g a ll the m em bers o f th e school p o p u la tio n w ith an
en em y ou tsid e the grou p, an d h y g iv in g th e m an o p p ortu n ity to
observe and p a rticip a te in th e stru g g le a g a in st th a t enem y, athletics
m a y p r e v e n t a conflict g ro u p ten sion fr o m a risin g betw een students
an d teachers. T h e organization o f the student, b o d y fo r the su p p ort of
ath letics, th o u g h it is certa in ly not, without, its u ltim a te disadvantages,
m a y b r in g w ith it certain henefits fo r those w h o are interested in the
im m ed iate p rob lem s o f a d m in istration . It is a p o w erfu l machine
w hich is organized t.o w h ip all students in to line fo r the su p p ort of
a th letic team s, and a d roit school a d m in istrato rs le a rn to use it. fo r the
dissem ination of other attitu d es fa v o ra b le t.o the fa c u lty an d the
fa c u lt y p o licy .
I n y e t anoth er w a y an en ligh ten ed use o f a th letics m a y sim plify
th e p ro b lem o f police w ork in the school. T h e gro u p o f athletes may
he m ade to fu r n ish a v e r y u se fu l extension o f the facu lty-con trolled
social order. A th le te s have obtained fa v o ra b le statu s b y follow ing
o u t one fa c u lty -d e te rm in e d cu ltu re p a t te r n ; th ey m a y he induced to
a d o p t fo r th em selves and to p o p u la rize oth er p a tte rn s o f a similar
n atu re. A th le te s, too, in n ea rly a n y g ro u p o f youngster's, are the
n a tu r a l leaders, and th ey are leaders w ho can he con trolled and
m a n ip u la te d th rou gh the m e d iu m o f ath letics. Those w h o are fortu
n ate enough to be on the squ ad o f a m a jo r sp o rt occu p y a favored
social p o s it io n ; th ey are at or n ear the cen ter o f their little universe;
th e y b elo n g to the small hut im p o rta n t g ro u p o f m en w ho are doing
th in g s. T h ey h ave m uch t,o lose hy m iscon d u ct, and it is u su ally not
difficu lt to m ake th em see it. T hey have, too, hy v irtu e o f their
fa v o r e d position, the inevitable con servatism o f th e p riv ileged classes,
and th ey can he h rou ght to take a stan d fo r the established order-,
I n a d d ition , the athletes stan d in a v e r y close an d personal relation
sh ip to a t least one fa c u lt y m em ber, the coach, who has, if he is an
in te llig e n t m an or a d iscip lin arian , an o p p o r tu n ity to exert a great
influence u p o n the m em bers o f the team . T h e coach has prestige, he
has fa v o rs to give, and he is in in tim a te r a p p o r t w ith his players.
O r d in a r ily he uses h is opportu n ities w ell. A s the sy ste m u su ally works
1 Mead, G. H., “ The Psychology of Punitive Justice,’ ’ American Journal of

Sociology, Vol. 23, pp. 577-602, March, 1918.
THU SEPARATE CULTURE OF THE SCHOOL 117
oat, the m e m b ers o f th e m a jo r tea m s fo r m a n u cleu s o f n a tu ra l

leaders a m o n g th e stu d en t b o d y , an d th eir influence is m ore or less
conservative an d m ore or less on the side o f w h a t the fa c u lt y w o u ld
call decent school citizen sh ip. T h e, n ecessarily close correspondence
between ath letic prow ess a n d so -ca lled clea n liv in g is another fa c to r
which affects the influence o f ath letes u p o n n on -a th letes. W e h ave here
stated a th e o ry o f the ideal use o f athletics in school con trol, bu t it is
the p a r t o f com m on sense to concede a t once th a t i t does n ot a lw ay s
work o u t so. -An a n ti-socia l coach, or a coach w h o allow s h is p lay ers
to believe th em selves to be in d isp en sab le, so that, th e y w rest con trol
of athletics fr o m h is h an ds, can v itia te the w hole system . W h e n the
system does g o w ro n g, ath letes and athletics becom e a n insu fferah le
nuisance to teach ers. A teach er who h ad h a d n u m erou s u n p le asa n t
experiences w ith ath letes su m m ed u p the situ a tio n in h er school h y
saying, “ I lea rn ed th at w h en ever I ran into som e p a r tic u la rly difficult
problem of d iscip lin e I cou ld look fo r a h oy w e a rin g the school
letter.”
There are other activities. T h e ir effects u p o n the school g ro u p , a n d
upon the p erso n a lities o f the in d iv id u a ls w h o p a rticip a te in th em ,
differ w id ely . T h ere is the school p a p e r, w h ich , fo r a ll its rep etitio u s
ness and b a n a lity , its absu rd a g g ra n d izem en t o f the heroes o f the
hour, its use o f cliches and slo p p y r e p o rtin g , serves a u s e fu l p u rp ose
in m a in ta in in g g ro u p m o ra le and tr a in in g its rep o rters to observe
and to use lan g u ag e in an effective i f not an elegan t m a n n er. There
is d ebatin g, a n d d eb a tin g n eed s c a re fu l m a n a g e m e n t i f it is to be use-
fid at a ll. A choice m u st be m ade hetw een the sh allow an d su perficial
smartness o f the clever h igh-school hoy a n d a seriou s in tellectu a lism
forced to bloom too soon, a choice w h ich avoids both o f these ex
tremes i f possible. A n d it takes g reat d iscrim in a tio n to keep d eb a tin g
separate fr o m m ere con ten tiousn ess. There is also a danger th a t h ig h -
school d e b a tin g w ill give its p a r tic ip a n ts final o pin ion s u p o n su b jects
about w h ich th ey arc not. y e t qu alified to p ass ju d g m e n t.
There are the v ariou s social clubs, a p p a re n tly the early fo r m of
the s iftin g an d s o rtin g agencies of ad u lt society. T h e y g iv e a great
deal o f ego g ratification to those fo r tu n a te enough to he elected to
them, p r o b a b ly d etra ct fr o m the efficiency o f the school as an agen cy
for the p a ssin g on o f lea rn in g , and give those ex clu d ed fr o m them
an excellent b a sis fo r an in fe r io r ity co m p lex . Th e least im p o rta n t o f
the social clubs, as th e L y n d s have rem a rk ed , are those fostered by
particular d ep a rtm en ts. T h ere are th e variou s m u sica l a ctivities, the
school orch estra, th e glee clu b, th e b a n d , an d p o ssib ly the m in stre l
show . M a n y o f these fu r n ish an excellen t o p p o r tu n ity fo r the expres

sion o f the b u r stin g h e a rt o f a d o le sc e n c e ; the difficu lty fr o m th e point
o f view o f school a d m in istr a tio n is to fin d a p erson able to promote
such a c tiv ities w h o is also able to p reserv e th e respect, o f stu den ts and
to ca rry h is tea c h in g loa d su cc e ssfu lly . T h ere are d ra m a tic societies;
these have som e v a lu e, a n d cou ld h av e a g re a t d e a l m ore i f th e tech
n iqu e f o r th e ir p ro m o tio n w ere b etter d ev elop e d a n d con ten tion con
ce rn in g the desirable roles d id not so o fte n arise. T h ere is that
o ld -tim e fa v o r ite a m o n g a ctiv ities, h a lf d ra m a tic, h a lf m usical, the
m in stre l sh ow , to w h ich m a n y a d m in istra to rs still pin th eir fa ith . The
m in stre l sh ow gives a v e r y g reat d ea l o f ego gratification to par
tic ip a n ts, p r o b a b ly m u ch m ore th an co n ve n tion a l d ra m a , an d this
m akes th ose p a r tic ip a tin g a b it easier to live, w ith w h ile the produc
tio n is in pro gress. I t gives no g reat a m o u n t o f m u sica l training.
C on servative teachers are p ro b ah ly ju stifie d in th eir n egative reaction
to m in strel sh ow s in th at th ey b r in g to the fo r e a r e la tiv e ly undesir
able p e r so n a lity ty p e an d one th at can n ot sta n d p o p u la r ity . I t needs
to be p o in te d o u t in p a ssin g , th ou g h w ith all the. em p h asis possible,
th at m in stre l show s or other d ra m a tic p ro d u c tio n s in w hich boys
p la y the roles o f girls or girls take the p a r t o f m en are v e ry undesir
able in h igh schools and grades because o f th eir possible influence in
fo s te r in g h om osexu al attitudes,
T h e m o st im p o rta n t con sideration a ffe ctin g our ju d g m e n t o f any
p a r tic u la r a c tiv ity is its effect u p o n th e p e r so n a lity o f th e participant,
a n d th is effect is u s u a lly beneficial in p r o p o r tio n as the a ctiv ity gives
to the in d iv id u a l o p p o rtu n itie s fo r w h olesom e self-ex p ression arid
g ro w th th ro u g h in terested s e lf-a c tiv ity . A fu r th e r v a lu e o f activities
is th a t th ey m a y o fte n give a sense o f so lid a rity to a w id e group,
w h ic h is an essen tial p a rt o f the t r a in in g o f the y o u n g ; it is a part
w h ich is dou b tless overdon e at p resen t, b u t it w o u ld be v e ry regret
tab le i f it were to be o m itted a lto g eth er. F r o m the fa c u lty p oin t of
v iew , a c tiv itie s h ave a v e r y g re a t v a lu e in fa c ilita tin g fa c u lty control
o f school life . T h e grow th o f school a ctiv itie s in recen t years, and not
th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f new th eories o f ed u cation , w o u ld seem to have
been ch iefly in stru m e n ta l in m altin g school in terestin g fo r the student,
an d u n d o u b te d ly h elp s to accou n t fo r the recen t success o f the public
schools in h o ld in g th eir stu d en ts th ro u g h the y ears o f h igh school,
"th ere is a d d ed th e fa c t th a t m o st o f th e a ctiv ities ca rried on in the
schools w o u ld p ro b a b ly e x ist in one fo r m or an oth er w hether the
fa c u lt y fo stered th em or n o t. I f th e fa c u lt y is able to fo ste r and
con trol th e m , there is a t lea st a g re a te r lik e lih o o d th a t th ey will
THE SEPABATE CULTURE OF THE SCHOOL 119
subserve en ds acceptable to th e fa c u lty th an there w ou ld be i f a ctiv i

ties were quite spontaneous. A c tiv itie s are indeed so th o ro u g h ly a p a rt
of the school sy ste m at the presen t tim e th a t school a d m in istrators
have g ro w n su p erstitiou s about th em . T h e y h ave lea rn ed to expect
trouble w hen there is a la g in the a ctivities. I n th e p riv a te bo ard in g
schools, a relative lu ll in activities occurs som ew here in m id w in ter,
usually ju s t a fte r th e onset o f w in tr y w eath er h as p u t a stop to w id e
spread p a r tic ip a tio n in athle.tics. The experien ce of these schools
seems to show th at serious cases o f d iscip lin e and gen eral d iscon ten t
with school life are m ore lik e ly to be en cou n tered in this period th a n
in any other.
U n q u estion ab ly, a ctiv ities co n trib u te m u c h to m ake th e schools liv
able and are m ore effective th an a n y other fe a tu r e o f the school i n
the m o ld in g o f p erson ality. B u t we sh ou ld n o t allow these fa c ts to
blind u s to the tru th th a t th e y o ften ten d to in te r fe re w ith oth er
im portant fe a tu res o f school life . E v e r y a c tiv ity has its fa c u lty sp o n
sor, who in a d d itio n to his teaching is ch a rged w ith th e p ro m o tio n
of that p a r tic u la r a ctiv ity . H is p restig e a m o n g the fa c u lt y a n d stu
dents, and o fte n his sa la ry as w ell, are la r g e ly d eterm in ed b y the
success o f th a t a c t iv i t y ; it is no w on d er, th en , th a t a ctiv ities accu m
ulate an d m a k e increasin g d em an d s u p o n the school tim e a n d the
attention o f stu den ts. I t w o u ld , o f course, he p e r fe c tly possible to
educate th ro u gh a ctiv ities alone, an d the presen t w riter w o u ld be the
last to argu e aga in st such a sy stem if one. cou ld be devised , b u t we
must not fo r g e t th at ed u cation th ro u gh activities as at p resen t o rg a n
ized is a t best sca tterin g an d sp orad ic, an d needs system atic su p p le
mentation th ro u gh th e basic tr a in in g i n fa c ts an d skills w h ich it is
the fo rm a l pu rp ose o f the schools to give. A n d it w o u ld n ot be possible
to take even so tolera n t an a ttitu d e tow ard a ctiv ities whose chief
motivation is a bu sin ess one, as seem s to be th e case w ith college
football.
P rojects a n d referen ces w ill be a t th e en d o f th e fo llo w in g ch apter.
C hapter X
THE CULTURE OF THE SCHOOL: CEREMONIES
I n t h e culture complexes 'which make up the separate culture of

the schools, ceremonies and activities are usually associated. School
ceremonies are now largely subsidiary to activities, but this was not
always so, for ceremonies have apparently a longer history. Cere
monies accumulate rapidly in the school, being easily devised and
readily absorbed into tbe main current of tradition. Ceremonies may
relate to any phase of the school life, traditional or otherwise, bit
tbe most colorful and significant ceremonies in the school of today-
are those ceremonies associated with activities; the commonest and
most interesting of these are. associated with athletic activities. It
should be remarked that school ceremonies mostly have value, or are
thought to have value, in the mobilization of individual attitudes with
reference to group objectives.
A n a ly s is of these cerem onies rev ea ls some of the psychological
m ech an ism s u p o n w h ich th e y dep en d fo r th eir effectiveness. There
are, first, n u m erou s id entification m ech an ism s w h ich act u p on tbe
in d iv id u a l b y ca stin g h im in a p a rtic u la r role f o r w h ich he receives
g ro u p a p p ro v a l or b y cau sin g the in d iv id u a l to w ish to p la y such a
role b ecau se o f th e p u b lic p raise su p p ose d to be connected w ith it,
C lo sely a llied to these, and in m any cases in d istin g u ish a b le from
th em , are certa in fo r m a l expression s o f a ttitu d e s in w h ich a ll are
req u ired to p a r tic ip a te ; the u n d e r ly in g p h ilo so p h y o f su ch cere
m on ies is a p p a r e n tly th a t there is a ten d en cy fo r su ch a ttitu d es to bo
ca rried over an d m ad e perm an en t.
i n a ll school cerem onies appear n u m ero u s collective representations,
in siste n tly repeated and b ro u g h t to the a tten tion o f the in d iv id u a l in
m a n y d ifferen t guises. A c c o r d in g to P a r k a n d B u r g e ss, “ Collective
rep resen tation s are, the con cepts w hich em b od y tbe objectives of
gro u p a c tiv ity . The. totem o f p rim itive m a n , the flag of a nation, a
religiou s creed , the n u m ber system , an d D a r w i n ’s th e o r y o f the de
scent of m a n — a ll these are collective rep resen tation s. E v e r y society
a n d every social gro u p has, or tends to have, its ow n sym bols and
its own la n g u a g e . Th e lan g u a g e and other sy m b o lic devices by whiih
a so ciety carries on its collective existence are collective representa-
120
THE CULTURE OF THE SCHOOL: CEREMONIES 121
tions. A n im a ls do n ot possess t h e m .” 1' C o llectiv e rep resen tation s

wbicb ap p ear in sehool cerem onies a r e : “ th e h on or o f Lhe s c h o o l,11
“ our p lac e on th e honor r o l l ,” “ the C e n tra l H ig h S ch ool S p i r i t ,”
“ the B e a r c a t s p i r i t ,” “ the sch o ol th a t b u ild s p e r s o n a lit y ,” “ w h at
I owe to C e n tra l H ig h S c h o o l,” “ o u r fig h tin g t e a m ,” “ F ig h t in g
I llin i,” “ re a d y to fight, bleed and die fo r d ea r old S iw a s h ,” “ the
fair nam e o f our u n iv e r s ity ,” “ our u n ta rn ish e d esc u tc h eo n ,” etc.
Most o f th ese p h rases w ill n ot sta n d a n a ly sis, fo r th ey h av e in fa c t
no m ean in g at a ll b e y o n d th e ir a b ility to com m and e m o tio n s; it
is p erh ap s m ore correct to sa y th a t th ey h ave an em otion al m e a n
ing bu t no in tellectu a l con ten t. Som e o f these p h rases a re objectified
in sym bols su ch as school colors, b an n ers, tro p h ie s, etc. V ic to r y in
certain com p etition s o fte n h as an o b je ctiv e sy m b o l such as the fam ou s
little b ro w n ju g th at ch an ges h a n d s w ith fo o tb a ll su p e rio rity . M u ch
is likew ise m a d e of m ascots, w h o le n d a p ictu re sq u e ch aracter to
ceremonies, an d help to b a tter dow n the w a lls a b o u t th e em otion s o f
the spectators. M a n y o f these collective rep resen ta tio n s, a cce p ted and
tinged w ith a h ig h em otional co lora tio n d u r in g the y e a r s o f y o u th ,
are carried over into a fte r y e a r s ; in d eed the su sp icio n is not w h o lly
absent that som e schools cu ltiv a te them w ith an eye to w a rd fu tu r e
endow m ents.
U n d e r ly in g the lo g ic o f collective rep resen ta tio n s is th e un ques
tioned b e lie f th at there is m e rit in a ctiv itie s, a n otion w h ich i l w ou ld
be v e r y difficult to ju s t i fy on ra tio n a l g ro u n d s. T h e r e is a d d ed the
belief th a t th ose who en ter th e co m p etitio n fo r p lac es o n th e tea m do
so fo r m o tiv e s a ltogeth er a ltru istic, a n d at a n im m ense (b u t a lw a y s
u n n a m ed ) p erso n a l sacrifice. U s u a lly , too, it comes out th at the
coach o f a certain a c tiv ity “ has g iv e n fr e e ly o f his tim e a n d en
e r g y ,” a n d th a t w ith o u t th ou g h t o f m a te r ia l rew a rd . Such is the
logic o f em otion s which m akes the w h eels o f activities tu rn aro u n d .
L e t no one sm ile at these ad olescen t p h en om en a. T h is is a real
world, arid there is in these cerem onies an d activ ities a serious m e a n
ing th a t fa d e s o u t w ith rou tin e d escrip tio n a n d a n a ly s is ; the em otion
that, clu sters here is stro n g en ou gh to sta n d a tta ck fr o m -without, an d
hardy en ou gh to w eath er r id i c u le ; w h a t it ca n n ot sta n d is o b je c tiv ity .
The.rc is h erein con tain ed a h in t th a t th e p r o p e r co n d u cta n ce o f such
proceedings as those w e are here concerned w ith im p lie s th a t a ll m u st
be taken v e ry seriou sly indeed. T h e a d u lts in v o lv e d m u st r e a lly p a r
ticipate ; i f Lhe a d u lts who are ch a rged w ith th e d u ty o f e n g in e e rin g
1 Park, R, E., and Bmgess, E. W., Introduction to the Science o f Sociology,

pp. 167-168. (B y permission of The University o f Chicago Press.)
122 THE SOCIOLOGY OS' TEACHING
such p e rfo rm a n c e s can n ot p a rticip a te because o f tbe co n stan t inter

feren ce o f th eir critical in telligen ce, th en the w ork is b etter done by
a d u lts w ho have less in tellig en ce or are able to keep such intelligence
as th ey have u n d er better control.
W e tu rn n ow to a descrip tion and a n a lysis o f certain ty p ica l cere
m onies. A sh ort accou n t o f the cerem on y w ith w hich the school day
w a s in v a ria b ly b eg u n a fe w y e a r s ago, th e so-called " o p e n i n g exer
c i s e s / ’ now o ld -fa sh io n ed and b u t little u sed, fo llo w s b e lo w :
When I was in C------High School, we always hegan the day with “ open
ing exercises.” This was then the invariable custom, and the daily grind
hegan in every school room with a few minutes, from a quarter to a half
hour, devoted to singing and pleasant speech-making,
Directly the last hell had sounded, the principal called us to order hy
clapping his hands together. There was a last minute scurrying to seats, a
hasty completion of whispered conversations. The principal stood on the
platform in the. front of the room and watched us. His assistant, Miss W.,
whom we all knew t.o he the kindliest of souls, hut whom we nevertheless
feared as if she were the devil bimself, stood up behind her desk and re
garded us coldly.
When the room was quiet, the principal turned to tbe music teacher,
Miss M., and said, “All right. Go ahead, Mias M.”
Miss M. advanced enthusiastically and announced, “ We will begin with
Number 36 in the paper hooks. That’s an old favorite. Now, please, let’s all
sing."
The accompanist hegan to drum out the tnne, none too expertly, to ha
sure. Miss M. began to sing. A few joined her. Then a few more. When we
came to the chorus, Miss M. said, “ Now everyhody join in the chorus 1” We
did. We sang two or three songs. Miss M. usually started with things we
all knew and tried to work up to more difficult selections. We did not like
that; we thought it much more fun to sing the simple songs which were
already our favorites. As we sang, the principal and one or two of the
other teachers joined in timidly, always along toward the middle of the
song after the volume of sound had risen to a point that made it certain
their errors would be inaudible. Miss W. made no pretence of singing, but
merely allowed herself to assume a more benevolent look.
After the singing, the principal or one of the other teachers would make
a few remarks supposed to he inspirational in nature. Perhaps lie read a
passage from Elhert Hubbard or Henry van Dyke. (Bible reading was
forbidden hy law in that state; otherwise, as he made it perfectly clear, lie
would have read from the Bible at least occasionally.) Perhaps lie would
make a little speech ahout the team or some other school activity. Perhaps
he exhorted us about some matter of school discipline, beginning his speech,
“Now there’s one little matter I ’d like to speak to you about.” Along toward
THE CULTURE OP THE SCHOOL: CEREMONIES 123
the end o f the year, when our interest in school began to sag, he would urge
us to keep up our morale, saying, “ I t ’s a poor race horse that can’t hold out
till the end.” Perhaps he asked the coach or one o f the members o f the team
to make a little speech. Then he said, “ Miss W ., are there any announce
ments?" iu a tone that gave us to understand that i f there were any announce
ments they would be very important announcements indeed.
There usually were announcements. The sewing class should bring ma
terials with them to class. The glee club would meet that afternoon at fou r.
Tryouts fo r dehating would take place next week.
Sometimes we ended hy singing the school song. Sometimes it was merely,
“ That concludes the opening exercises fo r today. A t the sound o f the bell
you will pass to your first period classes.” (L ife history document.)
I t w ou ld be a p ity th at the o ld -fash ion ed " o p e n i n g ex e rc ise s” h ave

so n ea rly p assed a w a y i f th eir place b a d not b een taken b y oth er and
b etter-a d ap ted cerem onies. F o r m a l as o p en in g exercises w ere, w ith
their B ih le -r e a d in g and th eir sp eech -m a k in g, th ey m a y have served a
purpose in fo c u s s in g the a tten tion o f the g ro u p u p o n school m a tte r s
before the ev en m ore artificial procedu re of classw ork w a s b eg u n .
B eyond th a t, b a r r in g a possible fa v o ra b le effect in occasion al cases
of the se rm o n izin g th a t accom pan ied th em , o p e n in g exercises served
little p u rp o se. T h e sam e m a y be sa id o f ch apel exercises. T h e ir place
has been tak en in the m o d ern h igh school b y "a s s e m b l i e s ” ca lled fo r
a p a rticu la r p u r p o s e ; the b etter o rg a n iza tio n o f "a s s e m b li e s ,” and
their m ore c le a r ly stated o b jectives, enable th em to attain a degree o f
m ean in g a n d efficiency u n a tta in a b le in th e m ore fo rm a l a n d m ore
generalized o p e n in g exercises. The sp ec ia lization is te n d in g to be
carried even fu r th e r , p a r tic u la r w eeks b ein g set a p a rt fo r a series o f
assemblies devoted to p a r tic u la r objects.
A n in te r e s tin g cerem on y th a t h as lo n g been in use in a certa in
private school h as as its pu rp ose to m ake th e b o y s acqu ain ted w ith
each other and at th e sam e tim e to g e t them co m m itted in th e eyes o f
others to ce rta in activities. T h e cerem on y is b riefly described b e lo w :
On the first night o f school all the hoys assemble in the chapel fo r New
Students’ Night. They are all very tired, as they have spent the day in regis
tering for their courses, getting straightened up in their rooms, and in
general getting set for a year o f living. B ut they are all interested, fo r the
beginning o f a new school year is always a momentous occasion, and doubly
so for those who are for the first time in a boarding school.
The proceedings are initiated b y the superintendent or the commandant
or some older member o f the faculty. The appointed person makes a little
speech welcoming the newcomers, and wishing them well. H e then explains
that in accordance with an old custom he will now ask every hoy to rise in
124 THE SOCIOLOGY OE TEACHING
his turn and to give his name, tell where He comes from, and state what school
activities he intends to go out for this year. And each boy in his turn rises
and says, “My name is Tom Brown and my home is in Marsden and this year
I intend to go out for heavyweight i'oothall and haskethall and track and he
a reporter for the school paper.”
The statement of intentions is usually a bit more comprehensive than the
hoy’s ability or energy would justify, hut it is nearly always respectfully
received by both students and teachers. As the scheme works out in practice,
it is an excellent device for ohtaining a high degree of participation in
activities at the very start of the school year.
T h e o rd in a r y p ep m e etin g, p ro h a h ly th e co m m o n est o f all cere

m on ies in h ig h schools, is also one o f th e host a d a p te d to its ends.
A crisis situ ation lo o m s ; the grou p m u st he o rg a n ized fo r th a t crisis.
T h e tea m is to a c t as the d efen d er o f the g ro u p i n the com in g crisis.
I t is n ecessa ry th at th ey be su re th a t th e school is w ith th em to a
m a n , or th e m em h ers o f th e team w ill n o t be able to p u l fo r th their
hest efforts. The tech n ique o f co n d u c tin g pep m e e tin g s is p retty
w e ll sta n d a rd iz e d , th o u g h su h je c t to som e v a ria tio n . I t is necessary
th a t the tea m he p r e s e n t; i f possih le th a t th ey sh ou ld sit together
on th e stage or in some other p ro m in e n t position. I t is p a r t o f the
p e p m e e tin g to g ive th e m em h ers o f the team hou n dless ego-gratifica-
t.ion, w h ich m a y , fo llo w in g out a m ech an ism p rev io u sly described,
m ak e them good citizen s. P la y in g u p the m em bers o f th e team as the
set o f heroes sta n d in g betw een th e school an d disgrace also stim u
lates in terest in ath letics b y m a k in g ev ery other b o y w h o is present
w ish that, he w ere in the place o f some m em h er o f th e team . There
is a speech b y th e coach or a m em h er o f the fa c u lt y interested in
a th le t ic s ; it m a y be a red -b lood ed , fig h tin g , he-m au so rt o f speech,
or i t m a y he th e sort o f speech th at recites the co ld fa cts for the
con sideration o f th e grou p. The fa cts are ju s t ab ou t th e sam e in
either case. It. is m ade clear th a t the team ap p roa ch es a severe trial,
p e rh a p s a desp erate tr ia l, a situ ation th at calls fo r reckless deeds of
d errin g -d o. B u t fig h tin g sp irit an d team p la y , the w illin gn ess to sacri
fice in d iv id u a l g lo ry fo r the benefit o f the te a m , w ill w in. A n d the
team is rea d y to fight and not a m an on it is a gra n d -stan d er. The
tea m is re a d y . S m ith , there, w ill fight lik e a lion. Th e great-hearted
Jones w ill g iv e his la st drop o f hlood. H e m en tion s others. To a man
th e y w ill die in th eir tracks rath er th an s u r r e n d e r ; th ey w ill fight
to th e la st tooth . . . . A l l th e collective rep resen tation s come in. B ut
th e team m u st h ave su p p ort. Success in alh letics d ep en d s upon stu
d e n t su p p o rt. T h e speech ends. T h ere are cheers, th e school yell, a
THE CULTURE OE THE SCHOOL: CEREMONIES 125
yell fo r the tea m , a locom otive, a cheer fo r th e speaker, a ch eer to

keep in practice. T h e cheer lead er u rges th e stu d en ts to m ake m ore
n oise; he p o in ts ou t the increased effect o f sy n ch ro n ized ch eerin g.
The m aster o f cerem onies calls u p o n the c a p ta in o f the team f o r a
speech. H e states th a t th e team is g o in g to do its best, th a t he hopes
that it w ill w in , th a t the team h ad ly needs th e s u p p o r t o f the stu
dent hody. T h e other m em hers o f the tea m m a k e b r ie fe r speeches or
perhaps m e re ly rise i n th eir places. P e r h a p s th ere a re m ore speeches.
C ertainly th ere arc m ore y ells. V e r y lik e ly the school so n g is su n g .
The m eetin g en d s w ith e v e r y b o d y ’s em otion s arou sed, and a ll the
students liv e in a state o f collective in sa n ity u n til a ft e r the hig
game and arc v e r y easy to m a n ag e a n d v e r y in a tten tiv e. S tu d e n ts
enjoy the p ep m eetin g. W h a t p e rm a n e n t effect it h as u p o n th e v a lo r
o f m en an d v irtu e o f w o m e n w c can o n ly guess. H u t it g iv e s th e stu
dent. h od y a n en em y to hate th a t is n ot o n the fa c u lty .
O rgan ized cheering is a m in o r cu ltu re c o m p lex su b sid ia ry to the
cerem onies connected w ith a th lelic sp orts. I n th e d a y s w h en w a r w a s
personal or g ro u p com hat a n d n o t a n in d u str y , the b a ttle c ry w a s v ery
im p ortan t in m a in ta in in g th e m o ra le o f the g ro u p and in t e r r ify in g
the opposition . T h e ancien t b a ttle c ry w a s c o m m o n ly a collective r e p r e
sentation, a b r ie f statem en t o f a slog a n or p erh ap s m e re ly the n a m e
o f the p erso n the com b atan ts w ere fig h tin g fo r or th at o f the deity
whose a id th e y invoked. O rga n ized ch eerin g in the schools is fo r m e d
on the a n alogy to th e ancien t battle cry and carries ou t fu r th e r the
analogy betw een the gam e an d w ar. B u t the oh ject o f th e cheer as a
statem ent o f a collective rep resen tation has m ore or less fa d e d out,
since i l is r a r e ly clear w h a t the con testan ts r e a lly are fig h tin g fo r .
A n d since th e p la y e rs u su a lly p ro fess to he en tire ly u n consciou s o f
the ch eerin g, it m a y perh ap s he con clu ded th a t th e m a in effect o f
organized ch eerin g is the effect p ro d u c e d u p o n th e spectators. In
stances are on record w here a con tagiou s gro u p en th usiasm seem s
to have affected th e resu lt o f a gam e, h u t it m a y w ell be douhted
whether such enthusiasm u su a lly w orks th e m iracles w hich arc cred
ited to it. C heerin g, then, is fo r the s p e c ta to r s; it is a p a r t o f the
gigan tic m o b iliza tio n o f w ill, a n d a fe a tu r e o f the larg e-sca le e x p re s
sion o f em otion w h ich the gam e fu rn ish es. T h e crow d at an athletic
spectacle excites its e lf to a fr e n z y over th e in cid en ts o f the g a m e ;
the occasion is a th r illin g one because it fu rn ish e s a h o lid a y fo r a ll
the in h ib ition s. Th e ego is ex p an d ed a th o u sa n d tim es. H id d e n w ishes
are expressed. Th e process is fa c ilita te d hy the m ech an ism o f o r
ganized cheering. Th e in tellectu a l con ten t o f the cheers w h ich m ake
p eo p le so w ild ly enthusiastic is "very th in in d eed . B e y o n d the mere

statem en t o f th e nam e o f th e school or o f th e n am es o f m em bers of
the team , b ey o n d th is and a n occasional rep etitio u s slo g a n such as
“ W e w a n t a to u c h d o w n ! W e w a n t a t o u c h d o w n !’ ' or “ F i g h t ! F ig h t 1
F ig h t! ” or “ H o ld th a t line ! ’ ’ th ere is n o th in g in the cheer which
su gg ests th e fa in te st resid u u m o f ra tio n a lity . T h e ten d en cy , indeed,
is fo r the cheer to go over into the lu d icro u s, to ta k e r e fu g e in non
sense sylla b les and p a te n t absurdities, and it m u st be th a t th e ele
m en t o f th e u tte rly m a d in these cheers w h ich are rep eated b y the
m u ltitu d e h as som eth in g to do w ith the p sych ic th rill w h ich th ey make
i t possib le fo r th e spectators to experience in the gam e.
B u t le t u s abandon ev alu a tio n and the w o n d erm en t th a t goes with
i t a n d r e tu r n to sim ple description. A g re a t a m o u n t of' tim e is spent
i n the p re p a ra tio n o f college an d h igh -sch ool y e lls ; th e a im is always
to have so m eth in g w h ich w ill prod u ce a n effect o n th e crowd, a
eu p h on iou s o r cacophonous a rray o f sy llab les h a v in g a certain rhythm
le n d in g i t s e lf easily to gro u p expression . M o st fa v o r e d , perhaps, are
p la y s u p o n a n d recom b in ations o f the school n am e. T h ere are often
y e ll-w r itin g com p etition s to su p p ly n ew y e lls w h en those in vogue
a re a d ju d g e d to h ave becom e tr ite and in effective. T h e y e lls arc then
c a r e fu lly selected an d tried out o n th e g ro u p . T h o se w h ich tak e on
are officially a dopted. I n m ost schools th e p o sitio n o f cheer lead er is a
coveted one, a n d is obtain ed o n ly a fte r con siderable effo rt an d some
w ire -p u llin g . T h e cheer lead er is o fte n c a r e fu lly train ed in the antics
w h ich he is su pposed to p e rfo rm in order to w r in g a g re a ter volum e
o f noise fr o m th e c r o w d ; th ese antics have been selected o u t through
the g ro u p experience as m eans o f loosen in g the in h ib itio n s o f the
crow d. A sso c ia ted w ith organized cheering in recen t y e a rs has been
a g re a t deal o f p a g e a n try and the d isp la y o f gorgeou s c o lo r s; a ll this
has its m e a n in g in term s o f the logic o f the em otions.
O d d ly en ough , people build u p an affectio n fo r the cheers o f their
school. U su a lly it is o n ly one or tw o o f the fa v o r ite s th a t are re
m em bered, b u t it seems a little stran g e th a t even so m uch of crowd
em otion co u ld be carried over. In no case, h ow ever, does a cheer
reta in its h o ld u p o n the em otions o f the a lu m n i as does the school
song. T h e school son g u su ally extols th e v irtu e s o f th e school, states
w h a t a w o n d e r fu l tim e those sin g in g it h ave h ad th ere, expresses a
fe e lin g o f g ra titu d e fo r benefits co n ferred , an d en d s o n a note of
lo y a lty . T h e m e lo d y m u st be a sim p le one, an d must, be adap ted to
sin g in g b y la r g e or sm a ll n u m b ers o f persons. I n a d d itio n to the
o rth od ox school song, there are u su a lly a n u m b e r o f unauthorized
versions. Som e of these u n can on ized son gs are w a n d erers, b ein g

found, w ith a lteration s to fit th e local situ a tio n sim ila r to th ose m a d e
in certain jok e s, fr o m coast to coast a n d fr o m gra d e school to col
lege. O ccasio n a lly a fe ver o f p a r o d y in g p o p u la r or sta n d a rd son gs
will arise in a h ig h school, an d th e school w ill be blessed w ith a
large n u m b er o f school songs ca p a b le o f b e in g su n g to rag tim e. T h is
p a rod y in g is occasion ally c u ltiv a te d as a m e a n s o f in d u c in g p a rtic ip a
tion in school lif e b y certain p erson s w h o c o u ld n ot oth erw ise take p a rt
in activities. T h e life o f these p arod ies, how ever, is u su a lly short.
T h e cerem onies connected w ith the a th letic l i f e o f the school are
very n u m ero u s, and it is not possible to a n a ly ze a ll o f th em here.
I n the sm aller schools, m u ch is m ade o f th e p resen ta tio n o f em blem s,
There is a p o st-m o rtem on th e season, u su a lly fa v o ra b le , a recollec
tion o f d ra m a tic inciden ts in cru cial gam es, and a statem en t o f p ro s
pects fo r n e x t y ea r. T h e n each p la y e r is ca lled to th e fr o n t, con
g ra tu lated , p e rh a p s m ad e the su b ject o f a short, e u lo g y , and g iv e n
his em blem . S u c h p u b lic praise o f the su cc essfu l h elp s to su stain
interest in a th le tic s ; w h a t it does to th e u n su c ce ssfu l we ca n n ot say.
F re q u e n tly , too, there are ban qu ets a n d o th er special affairs a t w h ich
the m em bers o f v ariou s team s are en tertain ed . M u c h cerem on y a ccu
m ulates aro u n d these in som e schools.
T h e p ro b lem o f g ettin g recru its f o r th e tea m is ce n tra l in th e m a n
agem ent o f athletic affairs. Th e m ost su cc essfu l devices a p p a re n tly
depend fo r th eir effectiveness u p o n g e ttin g th e in d iv id u a l to co m m it
h im self p u b lic ly to a statem en t o f his in ten tio n s. W e h ave already
m entioned one su ch cerem ony used in a p r iv a te school w ith the
avowed p u rp ose o f g e ttin g every stu d e n t to p a rtic ip a te in some ac
tivity. I n la r g e r schools the p ro b le m is d ifferen t, an d a d ifferen t k ind
o f social pressure is used to get a la r g e n u m b e r o f can didates fo r
the fo o tb all sq u a d . U s u a lly an a p p eal is m a d e fo r stron g, determ in ed
men to v olu n teer fo r f o o t b a ll; th ey are to s ig n ify th eir w illin gn ess
to serve by co m in g an d sta n d in g u p o n th e p la tfo r m , Th e speaker
con gratu lates those w ho com e fo r w a r d , and sham es the able-bodied
who do n ot. B y im p lication , or d ire c tly , th ose w h o refu se to p la y
footb all are called yellow . A l l the arts o f the ev an g elist u r g in g co n
verts to h it the saw d u st trail are e m p lo y e d , w ith the difference th at
here p erso n s are solicited to com e fo r w a r d fo r the sake o f th e school
rather th a n the sa lv a tio n o f th eir souls. S o m etim es the social pressure
o f the girls is discreetly used ■ in no case is it absent in a m ixed
assem bly. Th e effectiveness o f devices o f th is k in d is alm ost en tirely
dep en d en t u p on the a b ility o f tlie orator to com m an d the crow d. I n
any case, i t m u st be fo llo w e d up by p erso n a l p ressu re tactfu lly

b ro u g h t to b ea r u p o n those w h o h ave once g a in e d p u b lic praise by
p r o m isin g to p a r tic ip a te in athletics.
Som e cerem o n ies of a d ifferen t n a tu re rem a in to be described.
W h e r e v e r a n u m b e r o f persons m u st be org a n ized fo r collective move-
m e n t o r co lle c tiv e action , a n u m b e r o f m ore or less m ilita r y cere
m on ies n a tu r a lly arise. Som e of these con cern the m o v em en t of
p e o p le s ’ bodies. T h ese are su ch cerem onies as fire d r ills, filin g o u t of
th e ro o m , p a ssin g to classes, etc. B a g le y h as p o in te d ou t th a t the
efficient m a n a g e m e n t o f the school d em an d s th a t these be as thor
o u g h ly r o u tin ize d as possible. M ilit a r y or q u a si-m ilita r y ceremonies
w hose fu n c tio n is the reg u la tio n o f social rela tio n sh ip s are also found
in th e school. T h e se are develop ed th ro u g h the fo rm a liz a tio n of
ro u tin e co n tacts and are basic in th e school w h ere m u c h is m a d e of
d o m in a n ce a n d su b ord in ation . O f these cerem onies w e m a y distinguish
tw o t y p e s : the one, th a t in w h ich the ce re m o n y is the r e la tio n s h ip ;
the secon d, th a t in w h ich the cerem on y is d esig n ed to be an exter
n a l iza tio n o f a desirable in tern a l state a n d to p ro d u c e an effect upon
th a t in te r n a l state. W h e r e con tacts betw een p erso n s are q u ite lim ited ,
as betw een stu d e n ts a n d som e a d m in istra tiv e officers, it is o ften pos
sible to fo r m a liz e th em c o m p le te ly ; each person goes th ro u g h a cer
ta in so cial r itu a l u p o n the occasion o f e v e ry en co u n ter w ith the o th e r;
in th a t case it is possible to sa y th at th e ce re m o n y is the relation
sh ip . I n the secon d case, n ever e n tir e ly sep arable fr o m the first, the
rela tio n sh ip is n o t so c o m p letely ro u tin ize d , b u t certain aspects o f
it are co m m itted to an iro n -b o u n d and in v a ria b le cerem ony. The
p u r p o se o f th is ce re m o n y is to in su re a due a m o u n t o f resp ect on
th e p a r t o f the su b o rd in ate fo r h is s u p e r io r ; the th ou g h t behind
i t a p p a r e n tly is th a t the show o f resp ect w ill m ake the respect.
A n u m b e r o f cerem onies are fo u n d w h ose p u rp ose is s im p ly the
m a in ten a n c e o f the gen eral m orale, a rath er ill-d efin ed purpose al
th o u g h th e cerem onies th em selves seem beneficial en ough . A m o n g
these w e m a y m e n tio n the rea d in g o f letters, m a r ty r d o m ceremonies,
g ra d e a n d d istin ction cerem onies, cerem onies le a d in g u p to p a rticu la r
ev en ts, a n d school sp irit cerem onies. H ig h -sc h o o l p r in c ip a ls a n d the
su p erin ten d en ts o f p re p sch ools g e n e r a lly m ake m u ch o f the read
in g o f le tte r s fr o m th e a lu m n i, esp ecia lly recent a lu m n i. I n these
letters there is g en e ra lly som e referen ce to the benefits derived fr o m
th e school a n d som e w holesom e ad vice to the hoys still in school.
T h ere is o ften a space in th e school p a p er o r in th e school bu lletin s
fo r p r in tin g su ch letters in o rd er to g iv e th e m w id e r p u blicity.
These letters are b u ttressed b y fr e q u e n t referen ce to th e ach ieve

ments o f these a lu m n i, an d the in feren ce is u su a lly clear th a t the
school takes a la r g e p a r t o f the cred it fo r the success o f the alu m ni.
W h e n a sch ool ath lete has bepn severely in ju r e d in a gam e, the
incident ca n be a seriou s lia b ility to ath letics i n the school, b u t it
m ay, th ro u gh the use o f p ro p e r m a r ty r d o m cerem onies, be m a d e a
very im p o rta n t fo c a l p o in t fo r the school m o ra le. T h u s one h ig h -
school p rin c ip a l, w h en a p ro m iu en t athlete fa m ilia r ly k n ow n as “ N i g
ger J o n e s ” h ad been in the h o sp ita l fo r several m o n th s w ith a
footb all in ju r y , m a d e on the avera ge abou t one speech a w eek con
cerning h im . H e told o f the b o y ’s co u rag e u n d er difficulties, o f h is
desire to re tu rn to C en tra l H ig h Sch ool, o f h is fine sp irit, his g reat
athletic a b ility , his desire to be able to p la y fo o tb a ll aga in next
year, etc. T b e effect o f su ch speeches u p o n school m o ra le w a s v e r y
noticeable. T h e school h a d a m a rty r.
S p ecial cerem onies h ave likew ise been w orked ou t to give p u b lic
recognition to those who h av e d istin gu ish e d th em selves sch olastically,
tbe criterion o f sch olastic d istin ction , u n fo r tu n a te ly , b ein g n e a rly
alw ays th e average grade. S u ch cerem onies are u su a lly localized
on com m en cem en t d a y , b u t th ey are som etim es ca rried th ro u gh o u t
tbe y e a r as w ell. O ne p riv a te school m ak es a p ra ctic e o f read in g
w eekly the list o f b oys m a k in g th e ten h ig h est g ra d es fo r the w eek
previous, a n d co m p etitio n fo r a place on ' ‘ T h e U p p e r T e n ” is som e
tim es keen. U n fo r tu n a te ly , such a list is lik e ly to con tain the nam es
o f the seven b o y s w ho h ave chosen th e easiest courses, b u t the sy ste m
does set u p a com p etition fo r h igh grades. S p ec ia lized cerem onies
have likew ise been d eveloped fo r h o n o rin g those w ho h av e d is
tinguished th em selves in oth er w a y s, as b y d eb a tin g , serv in g on th e
school p a p er, m a k in g an u n u su al co n d u ct record, sh ow in g exception al
courtesy, etc. N on e o f these cerem onies have the in trin sic appeal or
the effectiveness o f cerem onies cen terin g aro u n d ath letics, because
none o f these a ctiv ities h as an interest com p arab le to the in terest in
athletics.
W h e n som e special school even t is p lan n ed , th ere m a y arise a n u m
ber o f cerem onial observances whose fu n c tio n is to w h ip the g ro u p
into lin e fo r it. Th ese fo llo w th e p la n o f the p reex istin g c u ltu re p a tte rn
fo r cerem onies. T h u s, w h en i t h ad b een d eterm in ed th a t a certain
school sh ou ld fo llow the team on one o f its t r ip s a w ay fr o m hom e,
there ensued a ra p id gro w th o f cerem onies o f p rep a ration . T h ese
cerem onies w ere at first d ire cted at w o rk in g u p en th u siasm about
the trip . T h en the em phasis w as ch an ged , a n d the school a d m in -
istra tors tried to w ork u p an eq u al en th u siasm a m o n g the students

over th e id ea o f ea rn in g the p riv ile ge o f a tte n d in g the gam e through
good co n d u ct. T h e n there were u n a n im ity ce re m o n ie s; the adm in-
istra to rs w a n ted to m ake it one h u n d re d p e r c e n t ; ev ery h o d y h ad to
w a n t to g o ; e v eryb od y h a d to earn the p r iv ile g e o f g o in g b y good
co n d u ct f o r th e tw o w eeks p rev io u s to th e gam e. A t the la st m om ent,
th ere w a s a p u rifica tio n cerem on y as a r esu lt o f w h ich those who
h ad am assed d em erits w h ich w o u ld oth erw ise h ave p rev en te d them
fr o m a tte n d in g the gam e were in terv iew ed , a n d th e ex ten t o f their
d e lin q u e n c y w as assessed, a fte r w h ich th ose w h o h a d been ahle to
give n o good excuse fo r th eir dereliction s w ere g iv e n a som ew hat
fo resh o rten ed p u n ish m e n t w h ich m ade it possible fo r th em to attend
the gam e. T h is la s t cerem on y w as a p p a r e n tly n ecessa ry i f a p erfe ct
a tten d a n ce a t the gam e w as to he o b tain ed w ith o u t in su ltin g the
g o d s o f d iscip lin e.
S ch o ol sp irit cerem onies are n u m erou s, a n d are a m o n g the m ost
p ictu re sq u e a n d a ffe c tin g o f a ll the cerem onies c e n te rin g aro u n d the
school. M a n y o f these recu r according to th e ca le n d a r ra th er than
the occasion. I n one college fo r y o u n g w om en a g re a t deal is m ade
o f a d o ll cerem on y. A d o ll represen ts the L -------- sp irit. Th e sophomores
hide th e d oll. U n til the fresh m en fin d it, th e y h ave not th e L --------
sp irit. G r e a t in terest atten d s th e gam e, and a p p a r e n tly it is not
w ith o u t its p erm a n en t effect. M o re d ig n ity is a tta ch ed to those cere
m onies in w h ich , a fte r certain p re lim in a ry rites, a torch is passed
fr o m the h a n d s o f the ou tgoin g senior class to the n ew senior cla ss;
this ce re m o n y is v e ry affectin g to the p a r tic ip a n ts and spectators
alike. V a r ia n ts o f these cerem onies are n u m ero u s. A special set o f
cerem onies, su p p osed likew ise to he related to the in d u c tio n o f new
m em bers into the sp irit o f the school, ten d s to grow u p to sym bolize
the relation o f classes to each other. M a n y o f these cerem onies were
in tro d u c e d b y school auth orities as su b stitu tes fo r h azin g.
Th e com m en cem en t season is the fo c a l p o in t o f m a n y ceremonies.
The tr a d itio n a l cerem onies p e rta in in g to g ra d u a tio n , com m encem ent
exercises, class d ay, the hacealaureate serm o n , are so w ell kn ow n , and
th eir su p p ose d fu n c tio n so w ell u n d erstood , as to requ ire no a d d i
tion al co m m en t here. These are am on g the oldest and best established
o f all the cerem onies to be fo u n d in th e s c h o o l; there is a tendency
fo r such cerem onies to go over into fo r m a lis m . One cerem ony of
gra d u a tio n w eek preserves its pow er to con trol the em otion s, and
th a t is the cerem ony in w hich the sen io r class takes leave o f the
school. P a r tic u la r ly affectin g is the p ra ctice in a certain p riv a te

school. H ere all the seniors jo in h an ds arou n d the flag pole and sing
A u ld L a n g S y n e . T h ey p a ss rou n d the circle shaking h an ds w ith all
their frien d s. There are fe w w ho go a w a y fro m the cerem on y w ith
dry eyes.
PEOJECTS
1. Work out in detail culture conflicts which hecome classroom conflicts
between student and teacher.
2. Describe culture conflicts which are the basis of conflicts hetween teach
ers and members of the community.
3. Make a list of the cultural survivals to ho found in a group of children.
4. Write the folklore of a group of children.
5. Attempt to codify the so-called “traditions’' of your own school. Deter
mine hy inquiry how long it takes for a “tradition” to hecome established.
6. Write the history of the culture complex of the school.
7. Account for the survival of the country school in an urban civilization
in cultural terms.
8. Formulate the principal points in “ the code of equality." What place
does this code occupy in the culture of the school?
9. Review eases in which a student has adhered to “the school-hoy code"
to his own disadvantage. Cases where he has violated the code.
10. Determine hy questioning and observation what “activities” mean to a
college fraternity.
11. Write the history of hazing in one particular school. What are the
social and psychological roots of hazing? What attitude should teachers take
toward it?
12. Tell the story of a campaign waged hy a faculty against some school
tradition.
13. Study minutely the behavior of some “activity” group aud interpret
it in terms of its meaning for the participants and its relation to other occur
rences in and ahout the school.
14. Determine by study of the hehavior of the athletes in a particular insti
tution whether athletics is a useful control mechanism in that school. How
does it work?
15. Descrihe the process of competition for places in some school activity.
Does that competition, in your opinion, have a healthy effect?
16. Becord the puhlic utterances of coach, team members, and "friends of
the team" throughout an entire season. Interpret your results.
17. Study the puhlic utterances of leading coaches concerning proposed
changes in foothall rules. Interpret.
18. Make a study of “form” in track events. How does one acquire “form” ?
What is the history of “form” ?
19. Narrate incidents in which a game has turned into a fight. .Interpret.
20. Verbalize the code of sportsmanship. Narrate incidents illustrating it,
21. Make a case study of a hoy whose personality was improved by par
ticipation in athletics.
22. Study the personality of an athletic coach in relation to the morale
of a particular school.
23. Analyze several issues of a school paper. What social functions does
the paper subserve?
24. Write the history of a school play, class play, or minstrel show.
Analyze.
25. Make a chart showing the temporal incidence of cases of discipline
during one year. How do you explain the variations?
26. Record and assemhle all the collective representations which seem to
have importance in your own school.
27. Make a catalogue of ceremonies for one year, indicating the place of
each ceremony in the rhythm of the year.
28. Take careful notes on a pep meeting. Determine by observation and
inquiry tin; meaning of this ceremony to spectators and participants.
29. Make a case study of a teacher who is particularly successful in con
ducting pep meetings. What marks him off from other teachers? Analyze his
technique.
30. Discover the rationale of such a series of assemblies as go to make
up “ Better English Week,” or 'Tour C’s Week.”
31. Assemble data to show whether or not success in athletics actually
depends upon student support.
32. Describe the process by which cheering is organized in your own
school.
33. Describe and analyze the behavior of a crowd at a football game.
Explain.
34. Record the yells of your own school and analyze their effect.
35. Analyze your school song, or songs.
36. Has your school a mascot? Describe his position in the school
community.
37. Assemble material for a comparison of the position of athletics in
large and small high schools. In what size high school docs the system of
control by athletics work best?
38. Describe the ritual of ceremonies and phrases that has grown up
about some school martyr.
39. What ceremonies surround the enforcement of discipline ^n your
school?
40. Make a careful record of commencement week at your own school,
Analyze the various ceremonies with regard to their real or intended social
functions,
TH E CULTURE OP THE SCHOOL: CEREMONIES 133
SUGGESTED REA D IN G S
A n th r o p o lo g y
( ] ) K roeber, A . L., A n th r o p o lo g y
(2) K robber, A. L., and W atf,rm.an , T. T., S o u rce B o o k in A n th r o p o lo g y .
(.3) L evy-B kuhi,, L uchin, P rim itiv e M en ta lity .
(4 ) LoWTTi, R. H., P rim itiv e S o ciety .
(5) Mead, M argaret, C om ing o f A g e in Sam oa.
(6) M eat), M argaret, G row in g U p in N ew G uinea.
(7) W issler, Clark , M a n and C u ltu re.
S o c io lo g y , P s y c h o lo g y , and E d u ca tion
(1 ) E errtere , A dolph, T h e A c tiv ity S ch ool.
(2) J o r b a n , R. H . , E x tr a -C u rr icu la r A ctiv ities.
(3) K offKA, K tjrt, T he G row th o f th e M ind.
( 4 ) KoHLEE, WOLFGANG, G esta lt P s y ch o lo g y .
(5 ) L t n d , R . S., and H . M ., M id d letow n ■
, Chapter X V I -
(fi) Mead, G. II., “ The Psychology of Punitive Justice,” A m e ric a n J ou rn a l
o f S o c io lo g y , Vol. XXIII, pp. 577-602, March, 1918.
(7) O gden , R. M., P s y c h o lo g y and E d u ca tion .
(8) P eters, C. C., F ou n d a tion s o f E d u ca tion a l S o cio lo g y .
(9) R a in w a te r , C. E., T he P la y M ovem en t in the U n ited States.
C hapter XI
THE FOUR WISHES IN THE SCHOOL
I t is a sociological truism that the social organization is an arrange

ment for the satisfaction of human wishes. The vitality of institu
tions, and the very life of the formal structure of society, depend
upon the closeness of their connection with the needs of mankind.
It is, then, very much in point, when we essay a description and
evaluation of the social life clustering about a major institution,
to study the involvement of impulse in that segment of society. Ac
cording' to the conception of social psychology nursed by one school
of social interpretation, it is the major task of social psychology to
trace the workings of original nature in society. Original nature
for these thinkers means instinctive nature, but the task of follow
ing out original nature in society is no less important for those
other social philosophers who arc unable to believe that social in
terpretation is advanced by the positing of definite instincts in the
hereditary constitution of mankind.
The most sceptical observer is able to see certain of the facts of
human life in the school as reflexive or instinctive behavior in the
strictest sense of the term. Children and teachers cough and sneeze,
their mouths water, their eyes accommodate to the variations of
ligh t; the youngest children rub their eyes when they are sleepy and
on occasion close them as perfectly as do the oldest. Rainy days
make restless school rooms, and perhaps this restlessness has a reflex
basis. The sex interplay of children and their elders in the classroom
has no doubt a complex instinctive basis, but if it is traceable to
an instinct (or instincts) it is to an instinct whose pattern cannot
be so easily described as can the instinctive patterns of the mason
bee. It is possible that much of the social interchange of human
beings in the school has its basis in reflex or instinct; we should not
at once exclude from consideration the notion that there may be
innate patterns in social interaction, that our awareness of the
mental states of another, and our penetration into his inner life
through sympathy and insight, may have a foundation in inherited
mechanism.
It is well established, however, that we are not at the present
134
THE HOUR WISHES IN THE SCHOOL 135
time able to identity any specific instincts with certainty, or to

make sure that any given acts are expressions of particular instinctive
patterns. This is not to say that we shall never find complex, patterned
activities corresponding to instincts in the original nature of man.
At the present time we have not found them, for not even the in
stinct psychologists can agree as to what instincts are or how many
of them there are. Scientific precision will be better served, there
fore, i f we adopt a concept, of a different order as the basis of our
analysis. Such a concept was furnished by Thomas in his doctrine
of the four wishes.1 Thomas once proposed that there are four wishes
which represent the totality of human conation. These wishes are:
the wish for response, the wish for recognition, the wish for new
experience, and the wish for security. A ll human activity may be
thought of as earning within the bounds of these categories. The
wishes are all found in every human being, and some arrangement
for the satisfaction of each one is necessary for normal living. The
extent to which a satisfaction relevant to one wish can be substi
tuted for a satisfaction relevant to another is limited. The wishes
are not substitutes for the instincts, although they are used in that
way by many writers; they are frankly environmental categories
relating to the things men want. Unlike the instincts, the wishes are
not intended to have finalistic value in social interpretation. We cannot
explain acts by tracing them to a particular wish. Evidence that
the wishes are in original nature in specific form is wanting. The
point of the doctrine of the wishes is that the normal human being
develops these wishes in social interaction very early in life.
The wish for response, according to Thomas, is “ the most social
of all the wishes.” It is “ primarily related to love.” It “ shows itself
in the tendency to seek and to give signs of appreciation in connection -
with other individuals.” The wish for response includes most of the
impulses which the Freudians classify as sexual, but, like, the Freudian
notion to which it roughly corresponds, it includes many phenomena
for which there seems no organic sex basis. The wish for response
is the desire to be close to others; it is a craving for intimacy, a
hunger for acceptance. It includes all behavior that has as its aim
the rapprochement of personalities, and responsive behavior ranges
from the most grossly sexual to the most highly refined and subtilized
1 T h is n o t i o n h a s r e c e iv e d li t t l e a t t e n t io n in his r e c e n t w o r k . T h e p o i n t o f
v iew w h ic h th e p r e s e n t w r i t e r haa c o n s is t e n t ly m a in t a in e d is t h a t th e w is h e s a re
in f a c t c la s s ific a t io n s o f a t t it u d e s . T h e f o u r w is h e s , h o w e v e r , p r e s e n t a very-
c o n v e n ie n t s c h e m a , a n d i t aeerns b e s t t o o r ie n t o u r d is c u s s io n f r o m t h a t p o in t
o f v ie w .
forms of personal interplay. The wish for response is most clearly

expressed in the relationship of parent to child, in courtship, mating,
and marriage, and in small in-groups of a congenial nature.
The desire for recognition is more definitely egoistic in nature, but
it is social in that it can be satisfied only in society. It ranks with
the wish for response as one of the most important handles by which
the group takes hold, of the individual. The wish fo r recognition
is the wish to stand high in the group; its movement is vertical
whereas the movement of response is horizontal. It is “ expressed in
the general struggle o f men for position in their social group, in
devices for securing a recognized, enviahle, and advantageous social
status.” The wish for recognition is the prideful motive; as such it
is almost equivalent to the status drive which Adler makes the basis
of his system of social explanation.
Nearly all thinkers are willing to admit the existence o f the mo
tives of recognition and response, or of some other motives corre
sponding closely to them. These are tangihlc motivations, and they
seem to be universal. Everyone has some pride, and he arranges his
life to protect and enhance it; everyone has likewise some need of
close personal attachments. It may well be questioned whether the
motives of security and new experience are of the same nature. Faris
has pointed out that the wishes for security and new experience are
in fact derived wishes o f a different order from the pervasive and
fundamental wishes for response and recognition. The wish for se
curity is a mechanism that is called into play wherever a fear
appears. The desire for new experience is a mechanism of a kindred
nature that is called out by fatigue resulting from monotony or
routine. It is closely associated with ennui. But these arc not primary
■wishes; they are mechanisms for protecting or altering the life struc
tures which we work out for the satisfaction of other wishes.
Faris has called attention to another wish o f a social nature, which
is the so-called desire for participation. It appears as the yearning
to be attached to some super-personal entity, a group, a cause, a
movement, something larger than one’s self. It is an intangihle mo
tive, and one that has therefore been long overlooked, but it corre
sponds to real things in human nature. Faris has also pointed out
that Thomas’s classification is incomplete in that it does not allow
for the wishes arising from and perhaps localized in definite parts
of the organism, the segmental wishes consequent upon hunger, the
phj'siologieal tensions of sex, excretory tensions, fatigue, thirst, etc.
THE FOUR WISHES IN THE SCHOOL 137
These modifications furnished by Faris seem important contributions

to the theory o f the wishes.
We include Krueger and Keckiess’s paraphrase of Faris’s schema
of the wishes:
(Faris) found that we may recognize (1) the segmental wishes, such as
appetites and craving (i.e., hunger and thirst); (2) the social wishes which
include ( a ) the desire for response, (6) the desire for recognition, (c) the
desire for participation (i.e., the wish to he attached to or identified with a
cause, a movement, something larger than oneself); (3) the derived wishes
for new experience (developing from the effects of monotony and routine)
and for security (arising from the undermining effects of crises).1
It is our present task to trace out the processes of wish satisfac
tion in the schools. We shall survey the social life of the schools in
the attempt to discover what opportunities it offers for the satisfac
tion of the various sorts of human wishes, and we shall see how per
sonalities fare when they become involved in the institution. This
is no mere academic inquiry that we are undertaking, for we should
be ahle to get from it some light, at least, upon two very important
problems:
(1) We should be able to come to some conclusions concerning the
success or failure of the school as a social organization to provide
adequately for the needs of human nature. From this point of view,
the success of the school may be measured by the contributions it
makes to the growth of personality through the satisfaction of wishes,
(2) We should be able to discover how well the formal social order
of the school stands up under the impact of undisciplined impulse
welling up from original nature. How far does the established order
of the school stand in need of supplementation by spontaneous1 ar
rangements for wish satisfaction ? What conflict is there between the
established channels of wish satisfaction (the social order) and spon
taneous social organization? What are the processes of breakdown
and rebuilding in the formal order of the school ? In short, how
does the school survive the attack of “ the wild raiders, Beauty and
Passion ’ ’ ?
Nearly all the intimate and informal attitudes that spring up in
the school could he classified as manifestations of the wish for re
sponse. Thus there grow up friendly and affectionate attitudes be
tween teachers and students and between students and other students,
but the fact that such friendly attitudes arise should be taken only
as an indication that the affeetional dispositions of human beings
1 Krueger, E. T., a n d R e c k le s s , W a lt e r C., Social P s y c h o lo g y , p. 175. ( B y
p e r m is s io n of Longmans, G re e n , a n d C o m p a n y .)
138 THE SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING)
are stron g a n d w ill assert th em selv es in a n y accu sto m ed m ilieu . C er

ta in ly the sch o ol is n ot a fa v ora h le e n v iro n m e n t fo r the flow erin g o f
those p ersonal ra p p ro ch em en ts expressed b y the ea sy g ive a n d take
o f response. In p r o p o r tio n to the im p o rta n ce o f the w ish fo r response
in h u m a n life , response a rra n g e m e n ts are s c a n ty in th e s c h o o ls; such
a rra n gem en ts as th ere are are n ot o rd in a rily in the fo r m a l ord er o f
the school, b u t sp r in g u p u n p la n te d in the in terstices o f the great
sy ste m , an d th rive as th ey m a y upon w h a tev e r n ou rish m en t th eir
situ a tio n affords.
T here is a gen eral th w a rtin g o f the wish fo r response in th e schools,
an d th is in v o lv es not on ly sex, p erh ap s not sex so m u ch as the
less ponderable and m ore fr a g ile phases o f respon se, h u t all channels
o f p erso n a l in terch an ge as w ell. Th e social d ista n ce betw een teacher
an d stu d en t h in d ers in tera ction o f a sp o n ta n eou s a n d hu m an sort,
an d leaves both p a rties d isa p p o in ted a n d a little bitte r. T h e presence
of the teach er, to w h om su b o rd in ation is o w in g , and fr o m w hom
secrets m u st be k e p t, operates to cu t d ow n p erso n a l in terch an ge be
tw een stu d en ts. S u ch in terc h a n ge takes p la c e, b u t it is fu r tiv e and
lim ited . I t is p erh ap s th is la c k o f h u m a n responsiveness w hich ac
cou n ts fo r the fe e lin g m a n y new teachers h ave th a t th ey h ave come
to live in a desolate a n d b a rren w orld . W e m a y pause to rem ark
th a t the w e lfa r e o f stu d en ts is no better served th an that o f teachers,
fo r m ost p ossib ilities o f person al g ro w th th ro u gh p a r tic ip a tio n in
g ro u p life a rc lost, i n such a sc h o o l; ch aracter tra in in g , in the r ig id
school, is eith er a ccid en ta l or i t is a m y th . R esp on se is th w a rted , b u t
it is n o t w h o lly b locked. Som e frie n d lin e ss, som e ca m a ra d erie, some
p lea sa n t a n d u n so u g h t ra p p o rt, som e selflessn ess, som e in terest o f
persons in each oth er th ere is w ith in the w a lls o f e v e ry classroom ,
because su ch th in g s are ev eryw h ere. A n d sex , w h ich refu ses to be
ch eated, is th ere.
The sex w ish es, a lth o u g h th e y u n d e rg o con sid erable d isto rtio n ,
su ffer less fr o m the restric tio n o f th e school th an oth er segm en ts o f
response. N e a r ly a ll sex u a l a c tiv ity in the schools is o f the u n san c
tion ed so rt, a n d m u c h o f it is d ire c tly in con flict w ith the fo rm a l
ord er o f th e school. T h a t w hich is san ction ed is rath er su ffered th an
en cou raged. T h a t which is in conflict w ith the esta b lish ed order is
u su a lly r e g a r d e d as a serious m enace to the school as a social in sti
tution.
I n spite o f th e illu m in a tin g discoveries o f the p sy ch o a n a ly sts and
other researchers, our kn ow ledge o f t.he sex u al life o f ch ild ren re
m ain s m eag er. T h e a n a ly sts have th o u g h t to d istin g u ish several d if-
THE JTOUR WISHES IN THE SCHOOL 139
fe re n t stag es in the sex u al d evelop m en t o f the y o u n g . T h ere is first

the d iffu se se x u a lity o f in fa n ts, w h ich persists th ro u gh th e first five,
six, or seven y e a rs o f life . T h e se x u a lity o f th is period h as been
called "p o ly m o r p h o u s p e r v e r s e ,” w hich m ean s m e re ly th a t it has
not been can alized as h ave th e sex u a l activ ities o f the n o rm a l a d u lt.
Theorists o f the p sy ch oa n aly tic school h ave show n th a t the erogen ou s
zones, or pleasure zones, are w id ely d istrib u ted over th e b o d y d u r in g
this early period , a n d , id e n tify in g pleasu re and sex, th ey h ave re
gard ed these p leasu re zones as sexu al in nature. But since a d u lt
canalizations b a v c n o t been establish ed at th is tim e , th e question
whether any of the p leasu re sources o f the in fa n t ca n be called
sexu al in th e a d u lt sense re m a in s d ebatab le. I t is possib le th a t th e
original o f a ll p lea su re is sex, b u t it is also possible th a t sex p lea su re
is a d ifferen tiation o f gen eric p lea su re o f a d ifferen t sort.
The fe w y ears o f life fr o m in fa n c y u n til the ap p roach o f p u b e r ty
are kn ow n as the la te n c y period. T h ere ap p ears to be at th is tim e a
m arked fa llin g off o f sexu al a c tiv ity as co n trasted w ith the p reviou s
period. T h e e n e rg y , in terest, an d a c tiv ity o f th e p erso n a lity seem
to flow, fo r a tim e, into other chan nels, an d s e x u a lity lies below the
su rface. O p in io n s differ as to th e d ep th a n d d u ra tio n o f the la te n c y
period. Som e s a y th a t sexual a c tiv ity d isap p ea rs fr o m the p e rso n a lity
alm ost en tire ly du rin g the laten cy period . C o n g ru o u s w ith this n otion
is the h elief th a t the la ten c y period m a y be qu ite p rolon ged , i f the
fa m ilia l a n d c u ltu ra l life in which the ch ild is im m ersed fa v o r such
p r o lo n g a tio n ; th ere are persons o f m u ch in sig h t a n d experien ce w ho
believe th a t i t is possible to rear a ch ild to m a tu r ity w ith o u t once
excitin g sex cu rio sity (a n d this w ith o u t in d u c in g such sp littin g of
p erso n a lity as w o u ld be b ro u g h t about b y r e p re ssio n ). W h e th e r th is
should be don e or no, su p p osin g it to be possihle, is a question th a t
our g en eration m u st take tim e to answ er. O b v io u sly th ere are m ark ed
differences in the la ten c y p eriod o f ch ild re n in different social g ro u p s
and d ifferen t cu ltu res. A n d there are in d iv id u a l differences w ith in
the sam e cu ltu re and th e same social gTOup. F o r som e in d iv id u a ls
there is a p p a r e n tly no laten cy p eriod at all, b u t a con tin u ou s d ev elo p
m en t fr o m the diffuse se x u a lity o f in fa n c y to the h ig h ly stru c tu re d
behavior o f m a tu r ity .
A c o m p le x series of ch a n ges is ushered in by the co m in g of
adolescence. O n the ph ysio lo g ical side, the co m in g o f adolescence is
m arked b y the ton ic ity o f those in tern a l o rg an ization s fr o m w hich
sex ten sion s arise. M o s t o f the p a rtia l wishes w h ich go to m a k e u p
the sex u rg e o f the a d u lt are aw aken ed a t a d o le sc e n ce ; n u m ero u s
p ro b lem s o f con trol an d o f th e reo rg a n ization o f p e rso n a lity an d the

schem e o f life are p recip ita ted h y th is ch an ge in the sy stem o f w ork
in g a ttitu d es. T h ere ensues a considerable p e rio d in w h ich atten tion
is directed tow ard the redefin ition o f sex a ttitu d e s an d th e fin d in g o f
p ro p e r o b jects fo r them . A t th e v e r y onset o f adolescence the per
so n a lity is su b jected to considerable strain b y th e u rgen cy o f the
u n accu stom ed ten sion s o f sex. R en ew ed in terest is sh ow n in in fa n tile
sex o u t le t s ; there is a regression to w ard th e p o ly m o rp h o u s perverse
ch an nels o f earlier d ays. O fte n there is m a stu rb a tio n , a n d m ental
conflicts arise w h ich seriou sly ren d th e p erso n a lity . Som etim es a
h om osexual a d ju stm e n t is m ade d u rin g th is p eriod , esp ec ia lly if there
is a severe in h ib ition o f the norm al flow o f affection or a failu re
o f th e h eterosexu al ou tgo to find a n ob ject. T h e h om osexu a l a d ju st
m e n t is m u ch m ore ev id en t am o n g g ir ls th an a m o n g b o y s ; it prob
a b ly a p p ears in a la rg e r n u m ber o f cases a n d its character is less
m asked. Som e w r ite r s m a in ta in th at all g irls p a ss th ro u gh such a
period . T h e reasons fo r th e g reater p rev alen ce o f this phenom enon
a m o n g girls are p r o b a b ly : th at the earlier onset o f p u b e r ty in girls
gives th em a lo n g er p eriod hetw een the tim e w h en sex tensions arise
a n d the tim e when cou rtsh ip, w ith w hicli is in v o lv e d some sort o f
h eterosexu al outlet, is p e rm itte d b y our cu stom s, th a t o u r fo lk w a ys
p e rm it a m u ch greater affectional in terch a n ge b etw een w om en th an
betw een m e n , aud som etim es en fo rce it, th at the p r im a c y o f the
gen ital zones is less co m p letely established in the g irl, so th at her
sex u al aim is less specific, th an th at o f the boy.
T h e observation th at adolescence b rin g s w ith it severe problem s
o f person al a d ju stm e n t has now passed in to p la titu d e. T h e th e o ry
has been th at the su d d en a w a k en in g o f sex at adolescence n eces
sa rily en tailed p ersonal d isorgan ization . S u ch an ex p la n a tio n over
looks th e fa c t th at tw o fa c to rs are rea lly involved : th e in n e r needs
o f th e in d iv id u a l a n d the fr a m e s o f b eh a vior w h ich society presents
to him . I n a so ciety which im poses less r ig id con trols u p on the sexual
beh avior o f adolescents, adolescence is a p p a r e n tly n o t a serious p er
sonal crisis.1 W i t h o u t g o in g to extrem es, it seem s th at we m ig h t p ro
v id e m a n y m ore acceptable outlets fo r the sex u al in terests o f ado
lescen ts. I f we w ish to d iv e rt these in terests in to other channels,
a n d to p ostp on e th e u p h eaval o f p erso n a lity b y sex b eh a v io r, it will
be n ecessary to presen t adolescents and su b -ad olescen ts w ith much
b etter conceived a n d m u ch m ore con sisten tly w o rk ed out schemes
1 S ee M ea d , M a rg a re t, C om ing o f Age. in Sa m oa , a n d G ro w in g U p in N ew
Guinea.
THE EOUE WISHES IN THE SCHOOL 141
o f life th a n th e resources o f our so ciety at p re se n t afford, T h is is

one o f th e issues u p o n w h ich the lo c a l com m u n ity, m u st decide, an d
the social stru c tu re o f the. school m u st be p lan n ed in accordance w ith
the p o licy o f the com m u nity.
T h e accou n t which we h ave g iv en o f th e se x u a l life o f the y o u n g
has thus fa r been in term s o f the in tera ction o f in te r n a l m o tiv a tio n
and the social p a tte rn s which are p resen ted to it. A d ifferen t v ie w
o f our p ro h lem resu lts i f we stu d y th e se x u a l lif e o f the child m ore
su b jectively , a n d a tte m p t to find ou t how se x u a l p h en om en a presen t
them selves to the consciousness o f the child at d ifferen t age levels,
fo r the m a n -w o m a n relation sh ip a p p ears in d ifferen t guises an d
changes its fo r m th ro u gh o u t life. T o u n d e rsta n d the sexual life o f
the school ch ild, we m u st know in w h a t con figu rations his con cep
tion o f se x u a lity is organized, we m u st know w h at d ile m m a s it p r e
sents to h im , an d how he thinks o f it.
I n the earliest y ears o f life, over a p eriod co rresp o n d in g a p p r o x i
m a te ly to th a t o f in fa n tile se x u a lity , there is an acceptance o f the
m a le -fe m a le relation sh ip w ith com plete n aivete. T h ere is, how ever,
alm ost no com p rehen sion of sex fu n c tio n s, and no id ea of th e
m e an in g o f sex differences. T h is ign oran ce, h ow ever, b y no m ean s
p reclu des the p o ssib ility o f a v e r y p le a sa n t and m e a n in g fu l cro ss-sex
rapport.
D u r in g the la ten c y p eriod , there a p p ears a su r fa c e a n ta g on ism
between the sexes, hut this a n tagon ism u su a lly covers both in terest
and diffidence. T h ere is betw een the sexes at th is tim e an im m en se
social d is ta n c e ; the w orlds o f m ale and fe m a le are m o re co m p letely
separate and d ifferen tiated th an th e y are a t a n y oth er p eriod of
life. A m o n g gro u p s o f boys, at least, th ere is a n in exp licab le taboo
u p o n association w ith g irls, a ccom p an ied h y a n a ttitu d e o f d ep rec ia
tion o f w om en and all th eir w o r k s ; th ere is a tim e w hen a b o y ’s
m ost em b arra ssin g m om ent is w hen he m eets h is m o th er on th e
street. H o w e v e r incom preh ensible to the a d u lt, th is a ttitu d e rem ains
one o f the central facLs o f b oy life . B u t a lo n g w ith th is goes a n
in n er id ealiza tio n of the opposite sex w h ich fa r su rpasses a d u lt
idealization. There is a rich p h a n ta sy life , a lth o u g h these ph an tasies
arc v e r y difficult fo r the a d u lt in v e stig a to r to ta p . Id e a s con cern in g
sex fu n c tio n s are n e a rly a lw ay s v ag u e at the b e g in n in g of th is
period, and such kn ow ledge as the ch ild obtains co n cern in g the
p h y sica l side o f sex is rarely com p lete or accu rate. Som e o f th e
ch ildish th eories con cern in g sex processes h av e been fo u n d b y the
p sy ch oa n aly sts to be o f g reat im portan ce, in the fu r th e r developm en t
o f p e r s o n a lit y ; o f these the cloaca th eory o f b irth a n d th e castration

co m p lex are p erh ap s th e m o s t im p o rta n t. C erta in d ev ices com m only
u sed fo r g e ttin g th e atten tion o f th e op p osite se x at th is tim e a re;
sh ow in g off o f p h y sic a l prow ess, p ersecution o f th e o p p osite sex, mock
com b at, lo u d ta lk in g , b o astin g, se lf-in flic te d to rtu re , etc.
B etw een th e la te n c y p e rio d a n d th e stage o f ad olescen ce appears
a tra n sitio n a l stage o f su b-adolescen t cou rtsh ip. T h is is th e stage o f
p u p p y -lo v e , th e silly stage a n d the g a w k y a ge. S o m e b a rriers have
b een b rok en d o w n betw een th e se x e s; the v e il o f a n ta g o n ism has
b eg u n to w e a r v e r y th in . T h ere is a v e r y lim ite d a m o u n t o f social
a n d p h y sic a l contact, b u t such con tact as there is is v e r y m e a n in g fu l
a n d is o fte n rew o rk ed into en dless p h a n ta sy . T h e re is a ten d en cy to
w orsh ip fr o m a fa r.
In ad olescen t cou rtship there is m u ch g re a te r co n ta c t. S ta rtin g
o u t w ith an even g reater id ealization th an b e fo re , th ere is a ten d en cy
fo r adolescen t love to r u n easily in to cy n icism , esp ec ia lly i f there
is g re a t p h y sica l co n tact a n d th a t con tact is taboo. T h e re is a stage,
n e a r ly in ev ita b le, in w h ich the adolescen t th in k s o f th e association
betw een m a le and a fe m a le as a gam e w h ich th a t p erso n loses who
first a llo w s h im s e lf to becom e em o tio n a lly in v o lv ed . In th is gam e,
p reten se is a llow ab le, find it is lo n g b efore a h oy is as tr u th fu l with
g ir ls as he is w ith oth er hoys. " P e t t i n g ” is p a r t o f th is g a m e .1 The
adolescen t cou rtsh ip g ro u p has its ow n p e c u lia r fo lk w a y s a n d mores,
w hich are r ig id ly en forced . A lig h t affair passes th ro u gh a crisis
w h en one p erson begin s to take it s e r io u s ly ; it enters a n ew stage
w hen th e other p erson becom es likew ise in v o lv e d ; i f he does n ot, it
u s u a lly breaks off. A n otew orth y fa c t eon eern in g adolescent love is
th a t it v e r y rea d ily subm its to su blim ation .
Sch ool life is im m en sely com p licated b y th ese in tellectu a l tra n si
tion s in accordance w ith w hich sex relation s are con ceived o f in ever
m ore c o m p le x a n d definite configurations. Th e p ro b lem of a d m in
istra tio n is ren d ered y et more difficult because ch ildren g ro u p ed to
geth er fo r in stru ction alm ost n ever rep resen t th e sam e level o f so
p h istic a tio n ; sop h istication does not fo llo w the m e n ta l age. In
accordance w ith different, levels o f social d e v e lo p m e n t, th ere are rap id
s h iftin g s in th e sign ifican t social g ro u p s o f the ch ild , a n d th is in tro
duces a fu r th e r co m p lica tin g fa c to r i n school life .
S in ce teach ers arc u su a lly a d u lt, or n e a rly so, th ey m ig h t be ex
p ected to h ave a tta in e d to a m u ch m ore m a tu re a n d n o r m a l attitu de
to w a rd sex th an even the m o st m a tu re o f tb e ir charges. I t is tru e
1Cf. Blumeathal, Albert, Small Town Stuff, p. 246,

th at a larg e p r o p o r tio n o f teach ers h av e becom e rea son a b ly a d u lt

in resp ect to th eir sex life. I t is o n ly fa ir to include in th is n o rm a l
group o f teach ers as larg e a n u m b er as p o s s ib le ; le t u s su ppose th a t
it in clu d es all m a rried teachers ,a n d a ll w h o e x p e c t or h ope to be
able to fu lfill th eir b iolo gica l d e stin y in m a rria g e. L e t us a d d to th e
group those fo r tu n a te sp in sters a n d b a ch elo rs w h o h a v e been able
to preserve a n o rm a l a ttitu d e to w a r d sex. T h ere rem a in s a larg e
and p i t i fu l g ro u p o f those w hose se x lif e is th w a rte d o r perverse.
The m em b ers o f th is g ro u p , o fte n con sciou sly a n d u su a lly w ith tb e
best o f in ten tio n s, ca rry sex p ro b lem s in to th e schools, a n d transm it,
ahn orm al a ttitu d e s to th eir p u p ils becau se th e y h av e n o o th er a tt i
tudes to transm it..
It is u n n ecessa ry to g o in to d e ta ils co n cern in g tb e sex life of
teachers. T h ere are m a n y o f th em who are in v o lv e d in n o rm a l love
affairs w ith p erso n s outside th e sc h o o ls; su ch affairs do n o t u su a lly
ad d to th e valu e w h ich th e co m m u n ity p u t s upon th eir services an d
they do n ot increase th eir p restige a m o n g stu den ts. T h ere is also a
large g ro u p o f teachers whose n o r m a l sex in terests h av e le d th em
into p erso n a l d isasters o f one so rt or an oth er. T h ere are n u m ero u s
teachers w hose love life is defin itely perverse. T h is p e rv e rsity a n d th e
m ental con flict a risin g fr o m i t m u s t seriou sly a ffect th e te a c h e r ’s
influence as a person.
U n m a r rie d teachers, u su a lly w om en , o fte n f a l l i n lov e w ith th e ir
p rin c ip a l, w h o is p erh ap s the on ly m an o f th eir acqu ain tan ce. S o m e
tim es the p rin c ip a l is a m a rrie d m a n . A n in te re stin g g iv e-a w a y r e su lt
in g fr o m su ch a situ a tio n is r e la te d i n th e fo llo w in g a n e c d o te :
One afternoon we were sitting together in a room talking over some of

the happenings of the day when the principal walked in, smiling as if to say,
“Now I have a good joke on someone,”
“ Well,” he said, “Miss Berger, I should like to know what relation you are
to me, bn it aunt, cousin, or what-not.”
Miss Berger was about thirty-five years old and had been teaching for
fifteen years, but still possessed a sense of humor.
“Now what kind of a joke are you trying to pull?” she asked laughingly.
“Joke?” he said. “ This is no joke.” And he read the following note that
he held in his hand: “Mr. Wells, please send me two monthly report blanks,
(signed) Mrs. Althea Wells.”
“You sent me this note, did you not, Miss Berger? It is your writing. Tell
me, when did you change your name?”
Miss Berger was stunned. She finally said, “I wrote that note so hurriedly
arid had my mind on many other things at the same time.”
The rest of us thought it was a very good joke, hut we wondered if Miss
{
144 THE SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING 1
Berger might not he harhoring a. secret passion lor Mr. Wells, who was
already very much married.
A r a p p o r t b a sed u p on se x a ttra c tio n fr e q u e n tly arises between

teachers a n d stu d en ts. U s u a lly it is cro ss-sex u a l an d e n tir e ly norm al.
I t m a y be a s tr ic tly o n e -w a y ra p p o r t, as in the case o f th e high-school
g ir l w h o f a lls in love w ith h er h an dsom e teacher, o r in th at o f the
e ld e r ly teach er w h o p r iv a te ly w orsh ip s one o f h is y o u n g students.
B e ca u se , as w e elsew here e x p la in ed , a sex-hased r a p p o r t betw een stu
d e n ts a n d teachers is in con sisten t w ith a con tin u an ce o f teach er con
tr o l, a n d h ecause o f the tab oo u p o n a ffe ctio n a l in terch a n ge between
teach ers a n d stu d en ts, teach ers u s u a lly a tte m p t to su p p ress or to
d isg u ise such fe e lin g s as h av e to o p erso n a l a referen c e. O v er-co m
p en sa tio n s w hose m e a n in g is ohvious en ou gh to the a n a ly tic a l ob
serv er are th u s p ro d u c ed . T h ere is the com m on case o f the spinster
la d y w h ose affectio n s are a tta ch ed to one o f h er la r g e r boys, and
w h o th ereu p on p roceeds to use th e m a c h in e ry o f d iscip lin e to im press
her p e r so n a lity u p o n h im . She r e p r im a n d s h im fo r the slightest
offence, sends him to th e p rin c ip a l, la y s h a n d s u p on h im , k eeps him
a fte r school in ord er “ to have a h e a rt-to -h e a rt ta lk w ith him and
a p p e a l to his b etter n a t u r e ." H e r in te re st in d isc ip lin in g this one
y o u n g s te r a m o u n ts a lm ost to an obsession, an d the con flict which
o rig in a te d in h er ow n m in d h as in te rn a l rev erh era tio n s w h ich keep
h e r n ervo u s sy ste m ta u t. She confides to a fr ie n d th a t she ju s t c a n 't
stan d th at h o y , the w h ile she a rra n g e s h e r life and h is so that they
sp en d m a n y h ou rs to g e th e r in an associa tio n th a t is a t once hostile
a n d v ery p erson al, a n d so th at she h as a gre at deal o f h im to stand.
A d ifferen t k in d o f o ver-com p en sation is a p p a ren t in the fo llo w in g
in c id e n t.
I was detailed to go to a Mr. Johnson’s class to ohserve the teaching of

Modern History to students of the Junior College. Mr. Johnson was a most
unprepossessing fellow, very small and scraggly, and endowed with a huge,
hoarse voice. He struck me as a bit crude, both in his maimer and in his use
of English, but he did everything he could to he pleasant to me. I some
times wondered if he was afraid that I might carry hack an unfavorable re
port. of him and his teaching.
I soon began to suspect that Mr. Johnson was struggling against an attach
ment to Miss Deveau, who sat in the front row just to the left of l.he center.
1 was first, led to suspect (his because I noticed that his eyes rested upon
Miss Deveau more often than upon any other person in the class. Miss Deveau
was a 1922 flapper, if you remember the type. Thin and boyish, enameled
face, and hard as nails. She kept combing and recomhing her hair—the
Lorelei effect. She combed it on me once as we were coming up in the elevator

together. Not a serious thought in her head, and very likely not many
frivolous ones. Altogether an unsatisfactory resting place for the affections
of a serious-minded gentleman like Mr. Johnson.
Directly I hegan to suspect this situation, I became more interested in
Mr. Johnson’s personal behavior than in his methods of teaching Modern
History. At the end of the term I had made the following notations, among
others, concerning this affair:
“Mr, Johnson let his eyes rest upon Miss Deveau rather too often today.
At the end of the hour she went up to Ids desk to complete her conquest.
She leaned over his desk gracefully, smiled and looked at him admiringly.
Mr. Ross waited for her. J. gathered from the expression on his face that he
mighL know what was happening.
“Miss Deveau was late to class today. She and Mr. Ross entered together,
somewhat breathlessly. Mr. Johnson refused to look at her once. He was
very severe with Mr. Ross for the non-preparation of his lesson.
“Mr. Johnson digressed today and talked a long time about his wife and
baby. He seemed a trifle over-emphatic. He gazed at Miss Deveau several
limes when he talked. (This happened more than once.)
‘J have noticed that Miss Deveau's presence in the room hinders the free
movement of Mr. Johnson’s gaze over the classroom. He starts to look the
class over from left to right, hut he stops when he comes to her. With some
effort, he tears his eyes away, hut as likely as not he does not complete the
movement, hut begins another in the reverse direction, showing a very great
distraction. This happened several times today, and he appeared a hit nervous.
“Mr. Johnson called upon Miss Deveau three times today. Her name seems
to come very easily to his lips, and when he is at a loss for a person to whom
to address a question, he puts it to her. Each time she was called on today she
gave a rather absurd answer, but each time he twisted it around In such a way
as to give her credit for much more background than she really has; this he
did hy supplementing, correcting details, taking sentences out of their setting,
reorganizing, etc. He required of her, while he completed her recitation, only
an occasional halting, ‘Yes.’ At the end of each recitation he commended her.
Mr. Ross and Miss Deveau always enter and go out together, and always sit
together in class.
“Miss Deveau and Mr. Ross talked audibly in class today. Mr. Johnson
looked al. them very sternly.
“ Mr. Johnson is very friendly with Mr. Ross now. He calls upon him fre
quently for expressions of his opinion, and gives him every possible oppor
tunity to make a showing in class. He always asks Mr. Ross and Miss Deveau
the easy questions.
“Mr. Johnson was looking directly at Miss Smyl.be, the homely girl with
spectacles, and ahsentmindedly called on Miss Deveau. Everybody was sur
prised and Mr. Johnson was llustered. I wonder if any of these people know
what a Freudian error is?
"Miss Deveau was ahsent today, and Mr. Johnson kept looking at the vacant
chair. He seemed to have an unusual interest in the door and watched it nar
rowly. Finally he gave up and settled down to the dull husincss of a class
meeting without Miss Deveau.
“ Mr, Johnson repeated his error of a few days ago, hut with different
individuals. He looked at Miss Perkins, and called on Miss Jones. I wonder
if he did it to cover up!
“ Today Mr, Johnson gave a short quiz at the beginning of the hour. INhile
the students were writing he sat with his hand over his eyes. But his fingers
were not quite together and it seemed to me that he was looking at Miss
Deveau. At the end of the hour Miss Deveau and Mr. Ross went up to the
desk and talked to Mr. Johnson. I followed them out of the room and heard
her say, ‘Well, I hope the old coot don’t flunk me. I didn’t know beans about
that first question.' To which he replied, ‘Same here. Funny old huzzard, ain't
heT’
“ Mr. Johnson’s friendliness toward Mr. Ross continues. But it rather came
out today. He called him Mr. Deveau 1"
These were not all the notes I took, hut they cover the incidents most in
point. It seemed to me unmistakable that Mr, Johnson was in love with Miss
Deveau and that he was fighting it down with all his power. I do not know,
hut it seemed that he was clearly conscious of the state of his affections, (Un
published manuscript supplied by a graduate student.)
D isc e r n in g ob servers rep o rt th at such a ffairs are v e r y common,
T h e p re se n t tr a d itio n p erm its coeds o f h ig h sch ool a n d college age
to use th e ir fe m in in e lu re to g e t g ra d es an d h a rm le ss fa v o r s from
th eir m ale teach ers. M a n y teach ers, a w are o f the a tta ck s constantly
m ad e u p o n th eir sta n d a rd s, h ave erected str o n g d e fe n c e s, a n d meet
a ll such ad va n ces w ith c h illin g d ista n ce. O fte n en ou gh th e technique
o f stu d en ts w h o w o u ld be clever is so r u d im e n ta r y th a t it w o u ld not
deceive a t y r o ; stu d e n ts m a k e it too o b vio u s a lto g eth er th a t th e y are
c u ltiv a tin g th e teach er w ith fr ie n d ly in te n t a ro u n d the tim e o f ex
a m in a tio n s or w h en final grad es are a b o u t to h e tu rn e d in. In the
case d etailed above, the w hole affair w as p ro b a h ly conscious, although
i t m a y h av e been, and on gen eral g ro u n d s one is in c lin ed to say
it v e r y lik e ly w as, o f u nconscious orig in . W h e r e u n consciou s factors
are m ore defin itely in p la y , some v e ry p ecu liar an d d isq u ietin g events
take place. H i g h ly co n scien tio u s teach ers co m p la in o f definite com
p u lsio n s w ith referen ce to stu d en ts o f the o p p osite sex. These un
sh akable prepossession s are o fte n en ough of a h a r m le ss nature in
th em selves, hut the con flict en gen d ered h y them m a y en dow them for
a tim e w ith all the im p o rta n ce o f in ev ita b le d isaster. These teachers
find it im possible to take th eir eyes fr o m the fa ce o f a fa ir student,
or to preserve th e academ ic stan d a rd s w h ere she is con cern ed, or to

rid them selves, in th eir off hours, o f th e th o u g h t o f h er and the
sound o f her nam e a n d the v ision o f h er fa c e . P in c h in g im p u lses are
not u n com m on . S u ch m e n ta l phen om en a arc v e ry lik e ly p a th o log ica l,
and they ce rta in ly do m u ch to destroy th e efficiency o f the teacher
as a social p erso n a lity , b u t th ey are com m on. T h ere is no rem edy
except in some k in d o f p sy ch ia tric g u id an ce an d reedu cation fo r
teachers. T h e m o st w holesom e teachers, h ow ev er, find it difficult to
avoid p ick in g fa v o rite s on th e basis o f p erso n a l attractiven ess. I n
every class ce rta in fa ce s stand o u t ; a class its e lf a p p ears as a con
stellation o f a fe w o u tstan d in g fa ce s aga in st a b a ck g rou n d o f m edioc-
I rity, an d it is to be expected th a t th is selection o f fa c e s which are
high lig h ts sh ou ld be m ade in p a r t on a n esthetic basis. T h e selectiv ity ,
however, is n o t w h o lly in term s o f abstract, b e a u ty , fo r it. is also
based u p o n in tellig en ce a n d responsiveness, an d it i s possible fo r
any alert an d reason ably in tellig en t stu d e n t to co n d u ct h im self
with reference to the teacher in such a m a n n er as to m ake his face
one o f the a ccu stom ed restin g planes fo r t.he te a c h e r ’s gaze. Th e
teacher looks a t h im rath er th an t.hc o th ers because he reg isters as
a significant p erso n a lity , w hich the others f a i l to do.
A n account o f the v ariou s kin ds o f se x u a lly based ra p p o rt betw een
teachers an d stu d en ts m u st include m e n tion o f the em otion al in v o lv e
ments o f th e laten t hom osexu al. T h e la te n t h em osexu al is here taken
to be an in d iv id u a l who has a large h om osexu a l component, in his
make-up, so that, he rea d ily d evelops sex u a l a ttitu d e s tow ard m e m
bers o f h is ow n sex, b u t w h o h as not. gone over in to overt hom o
sexual practices. A p o lo g is ts fo r h o m o se x u a lity h ave p o in te d out. th at
this q u a lity m ight, h ave a use in the p e rso n a lity o f the teacher, in
so fa r as it p r o m p ts him to a g reater so licitu d e over the w e lfare o f
his charges, and is d iffu sed into a g en eral sw eetness an d k in d lin ess
toward them . I t a p p a re n tly does n ot w ork out so in p ractice, fo r the
homosexual teacher develops an indelicate soppin ess in h is relations
with his fa v orite s, an d o ften d isp la y s not a little b ittern ess tow ard
the others. H e develops rid icu lo u s crushes, an d m akes m in o r tragedies
of little inciden ts w hen the recipient o f his a tten tion s show s h im self
indifferent, Th e fa v o ritism w hich these crushes en tail is o f course
fatal to school d isciplin e. B u t th a t is b y no m ean s t.he w o rst d a n g er
that the h om osexu a l teacher b r in g s w ith h i m ; th e real risk is th a t
ho m a y , b y p resen tin g h im se lf as a love o b ject to certain m em bers
of h is own sex at a tim e w hen th eir sex a ttitu d e s h ave n o t been
deeply can alized develop in th e m a ttitu d es sim ila r t.o h is ow n. F o r
n oth in g seem s m ore certain th an th a t h o m o se x u a lity is contagious.

Som e school ad m in istrators, com m itted to a p o lic y of em ploying
no in d iv id u a l w ith a m a rk ed h om osexu al co m p o n en t in h is per
so n a lity , h av e east abou t fo r su itable m ean s o f m a k in g an accurate
d iagn osis on sh ort acqu ain tan ce. A lth o u g h this is a task w h ich would
n ot u su a lly he difficult fo r a train ed p erso n , it p resen ts some per
p lex ities to the com m on-sense m a n . One m a n w ith an experim ental
tu rn o f m in d evolved w h at h e th o u g h t to he a sa tisfa c to ry form ula
fo r m e n teachers. " D o you like h o y s ? ’ ’ he w o u ld ask. O fte n the
an sw er h etra y ed th e a p p lica n t. A n over-en th u sia stic answ er w as taken
as p roh ah ly b e tra y in g a hom osexual, la te n t or active, w h ile an under-
en th u siastic answ er bespoke a tu rn o f m in d th a t co u ld n o t hear asso
ciation w ith ch ildren ch eerfu lly . I t is also possib le fo r such a ques
tion , su d d e n ly in je c te d into the con versation , to p recip ita te a
conflict, a n d to obtain a con fu sed , em otion al, d ela y e d or u n d u ly hur
ried answ er th at is very diagn ostic. I n u sin g such a device, it is
n ecessary to have in m in d an answ er th a t is n eith er too th ick nor
too th in and to have a sharp eye fo r all k in d s o f self-b e tra y al. A
m ore sop h isticated technique w ou ld prohah ly d ep en d som ew hat more
upon such p erso n a lity tra its as carriage, m a n n erism s, voice, speech,
etc.
A t y e t an oth er p oin t the sex a ttitu d es o f the teacher affect the
sex a d ju stm e n t o f his stu d en ts. Th e attitu d e w hich the teacher takes
to w a r d the y o u n g s tu d e n t’ s first te n ta tiv e s at a n u n d e r sta n d in g with
a m em h er o f the opposite sex m a y in h ib it or d elay the fo rm a tio n of
a h eterosexu al a d ju stm e n t or it m a y en cou rage and abet h im in
th is c r is is ; in any case, the attitu d e o f th e teacher cam profou n d ly
affect h is fu tu r e h appin ess. T h e atLitude which teach ers take toward
the h arm less love a ffairs o f y o u n g stu d en ts is g en e ra lly n o t an u n der
sta n d in g one, an d the best th at the y o u n g ste r can h o p e fo r is an
am u sed toleran ce. Teachers are fr e q u e n tly given to outspoken ridicule
o f ‘ 1p u p p y -lo v e ” and o f all persons su fferin g fr o m i t ; they do not
realize, p erh a p s, th e cru el hurt, th ey can give to sen sitive youngsters.
T h e in toleran ce o f teach ers m a y he ascribed to tw o so u rc es: first,
it is an u nconscious p ro d u c t o f the te a c h e r ’s o w n lov e th w a r t ; and,
second, it is a p a r t o f the te a c h e r ’s ration a l ju d g m e n t th a t it is
b etter fo r a y o u n g person who has in tellectu a l w o rk to do to post
pone an aw aken in g o f the sex interest as lo n g as possible. I t hardly
needs to he said th at the te a c h e r’s intolerance to w ard the love affairs
o f his charges can have regrettah le an d perh ap s la stin g effects upon
the attitu d e o f th e stu d en ts to w ard h im . Som e teasin g any lover
THE EOUB WISHES IN THE SCHOOL 149
enjoys, even th e y ou n gest, b u t it m u st be a v e r y fr ie n d ly teasin g,

fo r there is a line w h ich none m a y cross w ith i m p u n it y ; it is the
reward o f those w h o rid icu le u n fa ir ly to he held in la stin g d etesta
tion. T h e loss o f r a p p o r t w ith the teach er, how ever, is a lesser con
sideration w h en com pared w ith the possib le p e r m a n e n t effects o f an
en vironm en t defin itely u n fr ie n d ly to a h eterosexu al a d ju stm e n t. The
transition fr o m h om osexu a l and au toerotic a c tiv ities is n o t an easy
one u n d er th e m o st fa v o r a b le circu m stan ces, and the school, i f it
cannot aid th a t tr a n sitio n , at le a st sh ou ld p u t no obstacles in its
way. A n d i f the schools ever decide to tak e th eir task o f character
education seriou sly, th ey w ill n eed to set it u p as one o f th eir m a jo r
objectives to p ro d u ce in d iv id u a ls n o rm a lly heterosexual.
W e sh ou ld n o t take leave o f the to p ic o f sex in the schools w ith
out m e n tio n in g certain considerations affectin g those social affairs,
dances, p a rtie s, cerem onious occasions, etc., co m m o n ly g iv en in h ig h
schools w ith official sanction and su p ervision . W h ere these a ffairs
are p r o p e r ly m a n a g ed , th ey s u p p ly a sa tisfa c to r y ou tlet fo r th e sex
tensions o f y ou n gsters, a n d p rev en t th e m fr o m seeking other and
less desirahle outlets. B u t a n u m h er o f difficulties arise. T h e sp on ta
neous g iv e an d take o f response w ill stand o n ly so m u ch su pervision ,
and th a t su p ervision m u st alw ays be hoth fr ie n d ly a n d ta c tfu l. I f
school affairs are too w e ll su p ervised or too r ig id ly con form ed, the
social life of y ou n gsters hetalces its e lf elsew here, and th eir un
authorized affairs, w h o lly or in p a r t rem o v ed fr o m ad u lt su pervision ,
show som e ten d en cy to degen erate. Thus arise those “ love c u lt s ’ '
and oth er illic it arran gem en ts w h ich m ake such good co p y fo r th e
tabloids. Th e teachers th em selves p resen t some problem s, fo r not
m any teachers care to assum e ex ten siv e social duties outside th e
school, an d fe w o f them can p erfo rin such du ties g racefu lly. I t is a
difficult role, th a t o f th e chaperon, and it takes great social fa c ility
to ca rry it off. I f , how ever, school a ffa irs are loosely supervised or
too fre q u e n t, th ere is certain to he criticism , and the school m a y
possibly err h y coaxin g the sex interests o f children to hecowc too
early or too th o ro u g h ly a r o u s e d ; w h ere th is occurs, the school n ot
only su ffers some m o ra l degradation in th e eyes o f the com m u nity,
but it also p e r fo r m s h a ltin g ly an d im p e r fe c tly its hasic task of
im p artin g fa c ts an d skills. I t req u ires an ear close to the h eart o f
the c o m m u n ity and an eye finely a d ju ste d to the behavior norm s o f
children to decide w h at social affairs there sh all he and w h at load
of ch aperon age they w ill hear. E v e n th en no m ore than a d a y -to -d a y
a d ju stm en t seems possible. O fte n a w a v erin g course between the
THE SOCIOLOGY OE TEAOHING
150
m ost con serva tiv e a n d th e m o st rad ica l elem en ts o f the com m unity
is th e b est th a t th e m o s t a d ro it p o litic ia n ca n m a n a g e . H o w m any
p a rties th ere sh all be, what, a ctiv ities sh all be p e r m itte d at those
p a rtie s, how th ey sh all be s u p e r v is e d ; w h en sp o n ta n eou s social ar
ran g em e n ts o f ch ild re n arise (a s th e y w ill) w h a t shall be done about
it — these are p e r e n n ia l problem s.
I n clo sin g o u r discu ssion o f the sex life o f p erso n s in th e school,
w c m a y s a y th a t th ere is an active p erso n a l in te r p la y on a se x basis
in the school. I t is an in te r p la y , h ow ever, w h ich is o fte n h id d en and
som etim es d isg n ise d . Som e o f th e sex m a n ife sta tio n s in the school
are p e r v e r s e ; o f these a certain n u m b e r are n ecessa ry in cid en ts in
th e p ro cess o f g ro w in g up, and others are d efin itely pathological
and w o u ld n ot be i f the school p resen ted the in d iv id u a ls involved
w ith g re a te r o p p o rtu n itie s fo r response g ra tific a tio n or i f th e com
m u n ity d id n o t in terp ose b a rriers betw een those in d iv id u a ls and
th e sa tisfa c tio n o f th e ir w ishes. T h e sex u a l in te ra c tio n o f th e schools
lea ves out n u m ero u s persons, who in part co m p en sa te th rou gh
p h a n ta sy , a n d in p a r t rem a in u n con sciou s o f the sex -la d en inter
a ctio n g o in g on abou t th em . Those p erso n s le ft o u t are o ften not
in terested , a n d this lack o f in terest co rresp o n d s to the dim inution
o f sex m o tiv a tio n in th e la te n c y p eriod . I n every school g ro u p , there
is a ce rta in n u m b er w ho are a c tiv e ly in terested in sex, an d a cer
t a in n u m b e r w ho d efin itely are n ot. It w o u ld seem th a t th e size
o f these g ro u p s is su scep tib le to som e con trol. T h e lif e of th e com
m u n ity c o n d ition s the n u m b er in each o f these g r o u p s ; in the dis
o rg a n iz e d c o m m u n ity there is a la r g e r n u m b e r o f ch ild re n actively
in te re ste d in sex th a n in th e c o m m u n ity w h ose life is a rra n g e d in
n o rm a l p a tte rn s. And th e n a tu re of th e li f e w h ich ch ild re n and
teach ers le a d tog eth er in the school g r e a tly affects th e n u m ber of
c h ild re n in each o f these g r o u p s ; som e sch ools a p p a r e n tly confront
th e ir y o u n g ste r s w ith such a f u l l an d in te r e stin g r o u n d o f activities
in w h ich se x is n o t in v o lv e d th a t the la te n c y p e r io d is m u ch pro
lo n g e d . W e sh o u ld a d d also th at a sane sy ste m o f se x e d u ca tio n would
p r o b a b ly o b v ia te m u c h sex cu riosity.
W e sh a ll n o w a tte m p t to trace o u t som e o f th e m ore im portant
m a n ife sta tio n s o f the w ish fo r reco g n itio n in th e social life o f the
schools. T h e in v o lv em en t o f the reco g n itio n m o tiv e in th e schools is
even m ore m a n ifo ld an d deviou s th a n th at o f respon se, b u t the forms
w h ich it assu m es, obvious th ou g h th ey are to the observer, are less
ta n g ib le and less accessible th a n the fo r m s o f resp on se, and therefore
w e m u st tr e a t o f reco g n itio n in m o re g en eral term s. T h e schools dc-
THE TTOUK WISHES IN THE SCHOOL 151
pend m u c h u p o n the w ish fo r r e c o g n itio n ; th ey dep en d u p on it, in

fact, fo r the m o tiv a tio n o f the fo r m a l task s o f school an d fo r th a t of
m ost " a c t i v i t i e s . ” R ec og n ition is the one strin g o f the h u m a n in s tr u
m e n t -which i t is p erm issible fo r th e schools to p la y u p on a t w ill. Th e
p ittin g o f one in d iv id u a l a ga in st a n o th er in the schools, a n d th e a t
tem p t to d eterm in e each o n e ’s sta n d in g e x a c tly in th e fo r m o f a p e r
centage, th e g iv in g o f prizes an d o f m e d als and o f sp ecia l p riv ile g e s—
all these h ave no oth er p u rp ose th a n the stirrin g u p o f em ulation .
T h e y are the m ean s o f in v o lv in g the c h i ld ’s ego fe e lin g s in the ach ieve
m ents o f th e schools, o f ca tch in g h im u p b y his statu s fe e lin g s and
m aking h im do th in g s he w ou ld n ot otherw ise w a n t to do. T h e w ish
fo r reco g n itio n is a stron g enough m o tiv e an d a d ep en d a b le one, b u t
it is difficu lt to con trol w ith o u t access to all th e c h ild ’s social grou ps.
This d ifficu lty arises fr o m th e h u m a n te n d e n c y to g ro w a w ay fr o m
relation sh ip s i n w hich one does n o t ob tain fa v o r a b le reco g n itio n , an d
to m ake those relation sh ip s m e a n in g fu l in w h ich one does g e t recog
nition. T h e g ro u p in w h ich one h as sa tisfa c to ry sta n d in g is a s ig n if
icant g ro u p , a n d sta n d in g in one g ro u p enables one to dispen se w ith
stan d in g in others. I t is also u n fo rtu n a te fo r slow or s tu p id stu d en ts,
and f o r those w hose a h ility does n o t sh ow in th e rou tin e o f school
achievem ents, th a t stu d en ts should be ran g ed i n a rig id ra n k in g s y s
tem, fo r those stu d en ts w ho arc le ft at th e b o tto m o f th e class develop
in ferio rity fe e lin g s w h ich affect th eir b e h a vior u n fa v o r a b ly th ro u g h
out life . C on trariw ise, it is none too fo r tu n a te fo r those w ho ran k
toward the top to becom e accu stom ed to the easy conquests o f the
school, an d m a n y o f these h ave a h ard tim e la ter in fin din g th e m
selves ; th at is, in m ost cases th ey have difficulty in reco n cilin g th eir
actual role in life w ith th eir con ception o f th e ir role. T h ere are some
for w h om the ran k in g sy ste m is d efin itely ad va n tag eo u s. Those w h o
are th w a rted elsew here m a y com pensate fo r th eir d isab ilities in other
lines b y m ark ed success in fo r m a l s u b je c t m a tter, and th eir success
will be m easu red and tu rn e d into an a rith m etica l grade. I t is not
always so, bu t it is tru e in m a n y cases th a t ch ild re n w ho lik e school
do so because o f its fla tte rin g im p lic a tio n s fo r them selves. I f th ey
have an in fe r io r ity d rive, th ey m a y like even the difficult and esoteric
subjects, fo r these, m ore th an others, give them a n o p p o r tu n ity to
dem onstrate th eir su periority.
Som e o f the conflicts betw een teachers an d stu d en ts are d ire ctly
traceable to th eir d ifferen t aim s in the m u tu a l association. These arise
because the teacher w a n ts one th in g an d the stu d en t w an ts another.
In all these conflicts the w ish fo r recogn ition o f the op p osin g parties
sooner or later becom es in v o lv ed , an d there are other conflicts -which

a p p a r e n tly consist o f n oth in g m ore th an a stru g g le o ver statu s.1 Given
the hostile defin ition o f the situ a tio n as betw een teach ers an d students,
a stu d en t m a y rebel in order to w in the p la u d its o f his fe llo w s, and
th e teach er is eq u a lly m o tiv a ted to cru sh out the last tra c es o f re
bellion in order to prove h im se lf an efficient tea ch er a n d a pow erfu l
p e rso n a lity . Those lon g and poin tless stru g g le s over disorder in the
classroom , in w h ich m a n y teachers sp en d th eir tim e an d th at o f their
stu d e n ts so w retc h e d ly , h ave fo r the m ost p a r t th is ex p lan a tio n and
n o oth er. T h e te a c h e r ’s use o f epithets, th reats, an d rodomontade,
v a ried hy b e n ig n a n t poses, and the s tu d e n ts ’ use o f n ickn am es, mim
ic r y , a n d tak e-off, are all p a rt o f a d eath str u g g le fo r th e admiration
o f th eir little w o rld . (P a r t o f th e stru g g le arises because the groups
in w h ich teach ers an d stu d en ts w an t statu s arc d ifferen t g ro u p s, and
h av e d ifferen t sta n d a r d s.)
T h e in v o lv e m e n t o f the tea ch er’s p r id e fu l fe elin g s in his profession
we discuss elsew here, an d we shall here o n ly su m m arize a few' o f the
m o re im p o rta n t fe a tu re s o f th at discu ssion . T each er p rid e is very
g re a t, g reat en ough to m ake the task o f k e e p in g the peace am on g a
n u m b er o f teach ers a task fo r a v e r y Solom on o f an adm inistrator.
T h is p rid e o f the teacher arises in p a r t fr o m the a u th o rita tiv e role
th a t the teacher p la y s in his little g rou p , in part, fr o m the superficial
respect w h ich th e c o m m u n ity p a y s to the t e a c h e r ; in la rg e p a rt, per
haps, teacher p r id e is the obverse side o f an in fe r io r ity fe e lin g arising
fr o m th e te a c h e r ’ s o n ly p a r tly conscious rea liza tio n o f his actu al low
sta n d in g in the com m u n ity. U n ab le to secure greater things, the
teacher m a k es the m ost o f the little th at is his hy r ig h t— fr o m this,
teacher p r id e . Th e teacher is in fallib le. It is n o t p e r m itte d to talk
hack w h e n the teach er h as spoken. T ea c h in g is th e n oblest o f all the
occu pation s. Th e ego fe e lin g s o f th e teach er soon com e t o he involved
in the m a tte r o f his adherence to rig id academ ic s t a n d a r d s ; teachers
are soon m ade to realize th at th eir sta n d in g w ith other teachers de
pen ds som ew hat u p o n the red ink th ey use. S o m e th in g dries u p in the
te a c h e r ’s h ea rt w h en he realizes th a t stu d en ts believe h im to he easy;
it needs o n ly some definite in c id e n t a dded to th is state o f m in d— as of
1 ■‘ T e a c h i n g ,’ ’ w r o te a w o m a n t e a c h e r , “ is a g a m e th a t a lm o s t all o f u s wish
to p l a y a g a in . W e n e v e r k n o w w h e th e r w e a r e to w in o r lo s e , b u t w e lea rn to
w a t c h e v e r y m o v e w it h an e a g le e y e e a s t u p o n th e o p p o n e n t a n d p l a y ourselves
a g a i n s t h is h a n d . I t k e e p s us w o n d e r in g w h a t e x p e r ie n c e lie s r i g h t a h e a d . It
m a k e s n s a le r t. W e h a v e to be t o s ta y in th e g a m e a n d b o a re a l playeT . Who
l ik e s t o p l a y a n d n o t p l a y w e ll? T h e p o o r p l a y e r s o o n has n o o p p o n e n t s and is
o u t o f th e g a m e . . . . S c h o o l t e a c h i n g is a g r e a t g a m e . I l i k e i t , a n d m a y I play
th e g a m e w e l l ! ”
a stu d en t b e g g in g a fa v o r a n d th en b o a stin g o f h a v in g g u lle d the

teacher— to m ak e the teacher fe e l w ith h is fe llo w s th a t low g ra d es are
a p r o o f o f h is efficiency.
T h ere are persons w ho are m ore con cern ed over sta tu s th an o th e r s ;
these are sufferers fr o m th a t state o f m in d kn ow n as the in fe r io r ity
com plex. I t is ch aracteristic o f p erso n s w ho h av e p ro n o u n c e d fe e lin g s
o f in fe r io r ity th a t th ey are v e ry sen sitive to rea l or im a g in e d slig h ts
or affronts to their person al d ig n ity a n d quick to sce n t o u t a n y im p li
cation d e ro g a to ry to th em selves. S u c h p erso n s take offence ea sily an d
often. W h e n a teacher is afflicted w ith an in fe r io r ity co m p lex , as so
m a n y teachers arc, he m akes a deal o f u n n ecessa ry trouhle fo r h im
self in his classroom . T here is no d isc ip lin a r y officer o f a n y experien ce
who can n ot te ll endless stories o f “ o v e rse n sitiv e ” teachers w ho k ep t
them selves a n d th eir stu d en ts in a c o n tin u a l stir over the m o st triv ia l
m atters. S h o r t o f a p sy ch ia tric o v e rh a u lin g w h ic h co u ld g ive these
in d iv id u a ls in s ig h t en ou gh a n d control en ou gh to en able th e m to con
quer th eir difficulties, there is little th a t can he done in such cases.
S om etim es a red irectio n o f the co m p en sa to ry d rive w e llin g u p fr o m
the h id d e n fe e lin g o f in fe r io r ity can he effected h y m a n ip u la tio n fr o m
w it h o u t ; the tech n ique here is to give th e in d iv id u a l co n stru c tiv e e x
periences i n a n o th er lin e , th u s d iv e r tin g h is c o m p e n sa to ry energies
fr o m useless stru g g les.
A stu d en t w ith an in fe r io r ity c o m p le x is lik e ly to he a h eh avior
problem . There is here no p la c e fo r an e x te n d e d discu ssion o f the
role o f the in fe r io r ity c o m p lex in th e p r o d u c tio n o f ju v e n ile hehavior
problem s, and, since th is m a tte r has heen d iscu ssed v e r y ahly in the
num erous hooks dea lin g w ith p ro h lem ch ild re n , w e m a y o m it it here.
W e sh ou ld m e re ly m e n tio n th at some o f th e m ost stu b b o rn an d p e r
nicious b eh avior p ro b lem s are traceab le to fe e lin g s o f in fe r io r ity and
the c o m p en sa to ry urge h u ilt up as a n e g ation to t h e m ; th is in fe r io r ity
drive has heen fo u n d at the hasis o f such h eh avior as p ersisten t ly in g ,
stealing, fig h tin g , tru a n c y , sexu al d elin q u eu c y in g irls, etc. S tu d e n ts
with in fe r io r ity fe e lin g s are often difficult, an d the b est-p oised teach er
in the w o r ld is sa d ly p u t to it at tim es to avoid fr ic tio n . W h a t h ap p e n s
when a ch ild w ith e x ag g erated statu s fe e lin g s m eets a teach er o f the
same co n stitu tio n has heen seen again an d a ga in , h u t i f it h a d n e v e r
been seen, it c o u ld not fo r a m o m e n t he d o u b tfu l.
In the le s s extrem e cases the m a n ifesta tio n s o f the in fe r io r it y com
plex arc s till p u zzlin g . A certain h oy at the h e g in n in g o f his sen ior
year a n n o u n ced an in ten tio n to g ive u p all a th letics “ in order to h av e
more tim e fo r h is s t u d ie s .” A sh rew d tea ch er m a n a g e d to c u t th ro u g h
to th e u n d e r ly in g m o t iv e : T h e b o y h ad g ain ed fa v o r a b le recognition
in lig h tw e ig h t fo o tb a ll a n d basketball, b u t he h a d g ro w n o u t o f the
lig h tw e ig h t class. H e w as u n w illin g to fa c e th e co m p etitio n upon this
n e x t le v e l o f statu s. H e ad m itted th e tr u th o f th is diagn osis. Persons
w ith o verstro n g statu s drives seem to create p ro b le m s fo r teachers all
a lo n g th e w a y fr o m th e k in d e rg a rte n to th e g r a d u a te school. A very
d istressin g situ a tio n arose in a g ra d u a te class i n p h ilo so p h y n o t long
ago, w h ich w as e n tirely due to the p e c u lia r p e r so n a lity o f one indi
v id u a l. H e k e p t f a i r ly quiet, w hen the r e g u la r tea ch er w a s present,
b u t w h en a su b stitu te, a y o u n g e r m a n w h o m h e h ad k n ow n before,
took ch a rge, he m a d e h im s e lf a p ro b lem a t once. H e h a d taken u p his
p o sitio n in th e rearm ost p a r t o f th e class, se p a ra te d b y tw o row s of
seats fr o m a ll the others. Since the room w a s a rra n g e d in th e fo r m of
a n a m p h ith ea ter, th is gave him co m p lete c o m m a n d o f the situation.
T a k in g a d v a n ta g e o f h is u n u su al p o sition , he c o n stitu ted h im se lf an
a ssista n t teacher. "W h en qu estion s w ere ad d ressed to th e teacher, he
w ou ld q u ic k ly rep ea t th em , a n d re la y th e m to h im . W h e n the teacher
d id n o t a t once a n sw e r questions, h e v o lu n te e r e d h is answ ers. F re
q u e n tly he took i t u p o n h im s e lf to e x p la in the te a c h e r ’s answ ers to
the class, th u s p re su m in g a g reater fa m ilia r it y w ith su b je c t m a tter
th an o th er stu d en ts had, and a greater v e rb a l fa c ilit y th a n the teacher.
T h e tea ch er w a s fr e q u e n tly irrituLed b u t d eterm in ed to be polite. On
one occasion, as a fellow ' stu den t p u t it, “ he stood u p an d orated till
the b ell r a n g , an d th en h e ju st kept on ta lk in g . A l l the students
started to lea ve, b u t h e ju s t k ep t on t a lk i n g .” T a lk a tiv e stu d en ts and
self-c o n stitu te d te a c h e r ’ s helpers have, o f course, a m ore ru in o u s effect
u p o n classes co n d u cted b y the lecture m eth o d th a n u p o n classes where
o th er tea ch in g m eth ods are em ployed.
S tu d e n ts wrho are n ot clever m a y , as we h ave in tim a te d , escape from
th e p ressu re put. u p on them in th e school b y m a k in g som e oth er rela
tio n sh ip m ore sign ifican t th an the school relation sh ip , th u s m a in ta in
in g th eir m e n ta l eq u ilib riu m b y a r ea rra n g em en t o f th eir social world.
T h e sch o ol o ften a ttem p ts to fo llo w u p th ese p erson s, to “ c a r r y the
fight to t h e m ,” i n teach er lan g u ag e. T h e p ressu re b u ilt u p a ro u n d the
slow a n d u n w illin g stu d en t d u r in g school h ou rs is o fte n trem endous,
a n d one w on d ers h ow such a one can. find life b ea rab le at all. Y e t
w h en one loo k s at h im , one is con vin ced th a t he k eeps h is sufferings
w e ll h id d e n . W h e n an o p p o rtu n ity is given to look w ith in , one finds
p erh ap s a little m ore concern th a n ap p ears on the su r fa c e , b u t one
fin ds also som e w ell-w orked-out. d efen c e rea ctio n s w hich function
p e r fe c tly in k eep in g out th e h u rt. S o m e o f th e a ttitu d e s w hich come
betw een such an in d iv id u a l an d the teach er w ho is tr y in g to p u t

pressure u pon h im are the fo llo w in g : th at it does n o t rea lly m a tte r
because school is n o t like life an d m a n y su ccessfu l b u sin ess m en n ev er
did w ell iu school a n y h o w ; th at it is all r e a lly v e r y f u n n y ; th a t one
“ could do as w ell as a n y o n e else i f he w o u ld w ork , o n ly h e w o n 't
w o rk ” ; th a t teachers are nob odics a n d w h a t th e y s a y d o e sn ’t m a tte r
anyhow ; th a t the teach er is “ cracked on s c h o la r sh ip ” ; th a t th e
teacher d id w ell in school b u t n ever a m o u n ted to m u c h ; th a t it is a n
u n fr ie n d ly w o rld an d th at one is trea ted u n f a i r l y ; th a t one ca n rea lly
g et b y ju s t a s w ell on h is p e rso n a lity as on h is b ra in s, etc. T h ere are
m a n y others, an d a lth o u g h w e m u st recognize th e ir p sy ch o lo g ica l
character as d efen ce reaction s, w e sh ou ld d o w e ll to rem em b er th a t
even tru th m a y be a rrive d a t p a th o lo g ic a lly .
F a r is h as poin ted ou t th a t th e desire f o r se c u rity a n d th e w ish f o r
new experience do n o t deserve to be ran ked w ith th e w ish fo r response
and the w ish fo r recogn ition as basic ca teg ories o f desire. T h e y are
sim ple m ech an ism s w h ich arc se t o if b y the co n d ition s o f life . T h e
w ish fo r secu rity is called in to p la y w h erever th ere is fe a r , an d th e
p oin ts at w h ich fe a r arises are d eterm in ed a lm o st w h o lly b y th e con
figuration s affectin g th e lif e o f the in d iv id u a l. T h e m e ch a n ism o f fe a r
is a p p a ren tly in h eren t in th e h u m a n o rg a n ism , f o r it is the sam e k in d
o f fe a r th at one fe els before the firin g sq u a d a n d in tb e presen ce o f a
declining m a rk et, b u t it is an em otion th a t one does v e r y w e ll w ith
out,, and it b u ild s u p no cu m u la tiv e ten sion in th e absence o f stim u lu s
as do the w ish es fo r response and reco g n itio n . O nce started , fe a r p e r
sists in the org a n ism , and can n ot be d ea lt w ith b y the sim ple refu sa l
to recognize it. I t is h a rd to elim in a te fe a r, to o , because i t tends to
equalize i ts e lf fr o m one schem e o f life to an oth er, a n d to attach its e lf
a lw ay s to the shakiest p o in t in th e stru ctu re. H o w e v e r safe th ey m a y
be in fa c t, th ose social b u ild in g s in w h ich w e p a ss o u r d a y s are a ll
condem ned in o u r ow n m in ds. And it is w o r th y o f re m a rk th a t
in d iv id u a ls w h o h ave g ro w n accustom ed to fe a r ten d to rep rod u ce
their fe a r s u n der a n y circu m stan ces o f life , h ow ever in a p p ro p ria te .
There are p a th o log ica l fe ars, likewise, w h ich are th o u g h t to be d is
guised affects or in v erted w ish e s; a lth o u g h these fe a r s are a lw a y s
experienced as a risin g fr o m the en vironm en t, th ey are in fa c t o f i n
tern al o rig in , and m a y f o r our p u rp oses be con sidered as fe a r s a risin g
in one p a r t o f tbe s e lf fr o m a realization o f th e n a tu re o f ce rta in
sp lit-o ff im pu lses.
W i t h o u t en terin g u p o n th at deeper qu estion , “ W h a t m a k e s m e n
fear one th in g ra th e r th an a n o th e r ? ” w e m a y b riefly ch aracterize
15G THE SOCIOLOGY OF TEAOBXNG
some o f th e fe a r s o f teachers a n d stu d en ts. T h is discussion, again,

m u st be m e re ly a su m m a ry in c lu d e d fo r the sake o f com pleteness, for
it has seem ed best to give this topic m ore ex ten d ed treatm en t else
where. Teachers fe a r tw o things above a ll o th e r s : th e loss o f control
over th eir classes, an d the loss o f th eir job s. 'W h y either o f these fears
should becom e so im p o rta n t, w e cannot, p a u se to inqu ire n o w ; our
p o in t is th at each o f these fears exten d s its e lf in to other d epartm en ts
o f life , a n d g ives rise to secu rity m ech an ism s w h ich grow w eightier
with use a n d end hy becom in g central fe a tu r e s o f th e personality.
S t u d e n ts ’ fe a r s are m ore sca tterin g in n a t u r e ; stu d e n ts fe a r p u n ish
m ent, th e d isap p ro va l o f the teacher an d o f th eir p a ren ts, they fear
b ein g show n u p as stu p id , and they fe a r ex a m in a tio n s and fa ilu re
and the disgrace o f bein g le ft beh ind.
T h e m a n ife sta tio n s o f th e so -ca lled w ish fo r new experience are
likew ise p u zz lin g . W r i t e r s on ed u ca tio n al su b je c ts h av e freq u en tly
spoken as i f there were an in stin c t o f cu riosity, a desire to m aster
su b ject m a tter w h o lly d ivo rced fr o m social m o tiv a tio n , a n d unrelated
to the b eg in n in g s o f acts. (T h o m a s 's use o f th is term is fu r th e r com
p lic a te d b y h is in c lu sio n o f th e reaction to m o n o to n y , th e m e n ta l state
o f en n ui, which is best th o u g h t o f as n e u ra l fa tig u e consequent u p on
p ro tra c te d atten tion to a lim ite d ra n g e o f s t im u li.) T h ere is little
eviden ce th a t there is in h u m a n b ein gs a n y th in g corresp on d in g to an
in stin c t o f cu riosity. W e sh a ll h old here, w ith F a r is , th a t cu riosity is
no m ore th an the ten d en cy to com p lete an act a lre a d y in a sense be
gun. M e n ta l life is o rg a n ize d in to certain p atte rn s, and these p attern s
tend to be c o m p le te ; one aspect, o f th e te n d e n c y to co m p lete th em is
cu rio sity (a s im a gin a tio n a n d m e m o ry a re o th er p h a se s o f the same
te n d e n c y ). T h is co m p le tin g ten d en cy d iffers fo r d ifferen t p attern s,
a n d it m a tte rs g re a tly w h at p ortion s o f a n y p a tte rn are p re se n te d ;
th ere m ig h t also be in d iv id u a l differences in the str e n g th o f the ten d
en cy to com p lete con figu rations, a n d in th e a b ility to co n ju re them
up fr o m th eir ru d im en ts. T h e connection w h ich a su g g e ste d p attern
has w ith the rem a in d er o f the p erso n a lity is also a n im p o rta n t deter
m in a n t o f the cu riosity "which it a ro u se s; th at le a r n in g com es easiest
w h ich is based u p on our d o m in a n t com plexes.
Th e a ttitu d e o f the eagerly lea rn in g stu d en t is n ot all c u rio sity , and
we sh ou ld do w ell to recognize its com p osite ch aracter. T h e m otivation
is p a r tly s o c ia l; the ch ild learns to please his teacher, a n d to excel his
schoolm ates. The desire to lea rn has th u s a social basis. B u t curiosity
m ech an ism s are set off in the lea rn in g process. L e a r n in g p roceeds by
w holes, an d these wholes are u n its com p lete in th em selves. W h e n one
THE FOUR. WISHES IN THE SCHOOL 157
perceives a p a r t o f such a w hole a desire arises to perceive it m ore

com p letely, to see its details, or to k n ow its relation to other w h o le s;
this desire is cu riosity. T h e desire to u n d e r sta n d is a desire to see
things in a causal configuration.
Th e m o d e o f p resen tation o f su b je c t .m a tte r affects the ex te n t to
which cu riosity is aroused. A n in te re stin g p resen tation is one w h ich
fro m m o m e n t to m o m en t gives su gg estion s o f w id er h orizon s a n d
makes one th in k o f p rob lem s y e t u n solved. I t is a m e th o d o f in c o m
plete w h oles g r a d u a lly com pleted. O ne m u st n o t p resen t too little, fo r
then the m a teria ls su gg est no p a tte rn , an d , i f th ere are m a n y o f th em ,
they b e fu d d le , nor m u s t one present a s a tisfy in g com p leten ess u n til
the p ro p er tim e has a rrived . T h e p ero ration m u st a lw ay s com e a t the
end. T h e interest, w ith w hich we r e a d a book o r listen to a speaker
d epen ds u p o n a r h y th m of su g g ested and co m p leted con figu rations
which first excites and th en a lla y s ou r cu riosity. Two co n trastin g
techniques w ith w h ich a ll are fa m ilia r are those o f th e n ew sp a p er
writer a n d those o f the n ovelist. Th e n ew sp a p er w riter te lls th e story
in the first sentence. H e keeps our interest, in so fa r as he does keep
it, by fu r n is h in g ever m ore m in u te details. l i e m u st be in creasin gly
specific or he loses us. H e p resen ts us first w ith a s tr u c tu ra lly p e rfe c t
whole, a n d th e n sketches in th e d e t a ils ; the g en eral p a tte r n rem ains
the sam e b u t the in te rn a l stru ctu re becom es m ore d etailed . T h e n ov el
ist operates on th e p rin c ip le o f suspense. H e g ives u s in c id e n t a fter
incident, each p erfe ct in its d eta il, b u t u n d e rn e a th w e have th e sense
o f a greater con figu ration tak in g shape piece b y piece as w e tr a v e l
through the pages. T h e m ore in cid en ts h e relates the g re a ter th e
suspense an d the m ore co m p ellin g the su sp en d ed con figu ration . E a c h
of these techniques su stain s in terest and a vo id s e n n u i ; en n u i arises
only w hen the m in d is co n fro n ted w ith to o m a n y fa c ts o f the sam e
order, or w hen it, is com p elled to a tte n d too lon g to the sam e th in g.
E a c h o f these tech n iq ues m a y be o f u se to th e teacher. T eachers
w ill fin d some ex p erim en tation w ith in com p lete con figu rations of
value in th e ir social relation sh ip s. T h e y m a y stim u la te in terest in
their classroom s, as W i ll a G ath er does in her books, b y n ev er sa yin g
too m u ch. O r th ey m a y use the suspen ded co n figu ration to d iscip lin e
and to m ake th eir stu d en ts sit fo r w a r d in th eir seats, as C laren ce
D a rro w does w hen h e m u m b les h is best ep igram s. Teachers m u st re
m em ber, h ow ever, th at m ore th an m e re ly in tellectu a l processes are
n eeded to secure su stain ed in te r e s t; i f it were n o t so, there w o u ld be
m a n y m ore g oo d teachers th a n there are. T h e real a r t o f th e teacher
is to m a n ip u la te th e social in tera ction o f th e classroom in su ch a w a y
as to f a v o r tb e expan sion o f tbe stu d e n ts’ p e rso n a lities a lo n g desired

lines. T o do th is w e ll requires som e in sigh t, a n d also a ce rta in am ount
o f se lf-d iscip lin e , f o r it m a y necessitate th e sa c n fic e o f th e teach er’s
ow n im m ed ia te im p u lses in tbe situation. T o discu ss tb is su b je c t fu lly
w o u ld req u ire m o re space th an w e can giv e, b u t w e m a y sum m arize
i t b y qu o tin g so m e o f tb e ru les w bicb a tea ch er w h o h a d b a d consider
able success in th is lin e b a d w orked ou t f o r b im s e lf.
1. To be strict without being unpleasant.

2. To receive all student contributions respectfully and interestedly, and
to magnify their importance.
3. To find something to praise in every performance, to condemn with
caution.
T b e desire f o r g ro u p allegian ce b a s b een a d va n ced b y F a ria as a

th ird so rt o f desire capable o f bein g classed w ith reco g n itio n a n d re
sponse. T h is is th e w ish to be loy a l to some g ro u p or som e cause, to be
in corp o rated in to , p erh ap s to lose o n e ’s id e n tity in so m eth in g greater
th an o n e ’s self. T h is is som etim es ca lled tb e desire fo r g ro u p su perior
ity . I t fin d s expression in a ll the im p assion ed lo y a ltie s o f school d a ys
an d d isp la y s its e lf m o st strik in g ly in the cth n oc en trism o f the you n g,
i t h elp s, p erh a p s, to a ccou n t fo r th e p o p u la r ity o f com p etitive ath
letics. T h e lo y a lty o f th e school ch ild reaches ecstatic fu lfillm en t in
those school cerem onies a n d m om ents o f collective in sa n ity w hen the
entire gro u p fe e ls an d aets as one. ( F o r a f u l l d escrip tio n o f such
occasions see C h a p ters I S , T h e S ep a ra te C u ltu re o f the School, and
X I I , C row d an d M o b P syc h o lo g y in tbe S ch o ol.)
PROJECTS
1. Observe a school room on a rainy day. Compare with tbe same school
room on a day when the weather is fine.
2. Make a chart showing the daily incidence of disciplinary cases and
compare with a chart showing various weather conditions.
3. List all reflex hehavior in a elassroom. What social meaning has it T
4. Take notes upon cross-sex attraction or antagonism between a teacher
and a student.
5. Tell tbe story of some school scandal and analyze its effect upon school,
students, and teachers.
6. Make observations upon “puppy-love.” What should he the teacher’s
attitude toward these manifestations 7
7. Take notes upon “crushes” which students have upon teachers. What is
the indicated hehavior of the teacher 7
8. Describe tbe disciplinary troubles of a teacher with an inferiority
complex.
THE EOUJR WISHES IN THE SCHOOL 159
9. Verbalize the folkways and mores of an adolescent courtship group.

10. What happens when a teacher with an inferiority complex meets a
child with an inferiority complexT Descrihe minutely.
11. Determine by study of cases the actuaL motivation of children eager
to leam.
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1 ) A dler , A lfred , The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology
(trans.).
(2) F reud, S igmund , A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis (trans.).
(3) K rueger, E. T., and R e ck le 3s, W. C., Social Psychology, Chapter VII.
(4) Low, B arbara, Psychoanalysis and Education.
(5) T hom as , W. I., and Z n an ie ck i , F lorian , The Polish Peasant in Europe
and America, Vol. I, pp. 72-74; Vol. Ill, pp. 33-35, 55-61.
(6) T homas , W . I., The Unadjusted Girl, pp. 4-32.
C hapter XII
CROWD AND MOB PSYCHOLOGY IN THE SCHOOL
O n e o f the m o st fa sc in a tin g ch apters o f social p sy c h o lo g y is that

w h ich deals w ith the m e n ta lity p ecu liar to the crow d a n d the m ob, fo r
th e m in d u n d ergo es a stran g e m etam orph osis u n d e r the im p a c t o f
m a n y oth er m in ds, a n d p eo p le do th in g s w h en th e m ob has heated
th e ir p assion s w h ite th a t w o u ld be im possible i f th e y w ere sober. I t
m a y a p p e a r su r p r isin g th at w e should treat o f th e m ob s p ir it in con
n ection w ith the school, h u t ex perien ced teach ers w i ll n o t be aston
ished. W e sh all h u d h ere n o fiery crosses and n o n eg ro es h a n g e d and
b u r n e d , b u t th in g s h a p p e n in the school w h ich m a r k the cro w d and
th e m ob , and w e sh all sp ea k o f these.
T h e crow d is m u c h m ore com m on th a n th e m o b . W h a t m akes a
cro w d , a p p a r e n tly , is the con dition o f a tten tion to th e sam e stim u lu s.
T h ere m a y be also lik e response to this lik e stim u lu s, an d there is
u s u a lly a process o f in te rstim u la tio n an d response w hich heightens
su g g e stib ility and at once stim u la tes an d n a rro w s m e n ta l activity.
M o st classes are cro w d s at tim es, an d n e a rly a ll lecture g ro u p s are
cro w d s m o st o f the tim e. T h e class is u s u a lly the k in d o f crow d know n
as an audien ce. S o cial in tera ction in th e audien ce tak es p la c e, of
co u rse, in a ll direction s at once fr o m a n y in d iv id u a l, b u t the m ost
sign ifican t in teraction is a lw a y s th a t betw een th e in d iv id u a l in the
crow d au d the one person (o r the sm a ll g ro u p o f p e r so n s) at the
fo c u s o f a tten tion . T h e a rt o f h o ld in g o n e ’s audien ce is th at o f keeping
th is re la tio n sh ip sign ifican t to the ex clu sio n o f others. l i e who would
m ove an audien ce m u st do a little m o r e ; he m u st u tilize the inter-
stim u la tio n an d response o f the crow d to reen fo rce his ow n appeal.
Th e teach er is o fte n at the fo c u s o£ atten tion . N ew com ers to th e p ro
fessio n do n o t a lw ay s k n o w h ow to hear th is A r g u s gaze, b u t lea rn in g
to m ove g r a c e fu lly in the lim e lig h t is p a r t o f le a rn in g to teaeh.
T h e co n d ition o f in te r stim u la tio n and response in th e audience
h eig h ten s r e ce p tiv ity . In v e stig a tio n s show th a t the b a ck fr in g e o f the
a u d ien ce te n d s to he p a r tia lly ex clu d ed fr o m th e in tera ction . There is
g oo d eviden ce th a t this is p a r tic u la r ly true o f the classroom audience,
fo r the h ig h est p ro p o rtio n o f fa ilu r e s in lectu re section s is fo u n d on
160
CROWD AND MOB PSYCHOLOGY IN THE SCHOOL 161
tbe back r o w .1 W h e r e the g ro u p is en g ag ed in som e definite a ctiv ity ,

as in d o in g tests or w ritin g exam in ation s, the a d v a n ta g e is p ro b a b ly
with the in d iv id u a ls seated tow ard the ce n te r o f th e g ro u p , fo r th ey
are com p letely su rro u n d ed b y other persons doin g th e same th in g ,
and fa v o ra b le in te rstim u la tio n an d response are at th eir h eigh t. B u t
■where th e g ro u p is m e re ly listen in g (th o u g h there is no evidence fo r
this gen eralization b ey o n d the com m on-sense o b servation s o f te a c h e rs),
the p resen t w r ite r w o u ld venture to assert th a t the a d va n tag e is w ith
those persons w ho are p h y sic a lly closest to the teacher. They are
in v o lv ed in m ore in tim a te r a p p o r t w ith h im , an d are able to a tten d
t.o h im m ore clo sely because there are fe w e r co m p etin g o b je c ts in th eir
field o f a tten tion . T h ey h ave th e fu r th e r a d v a n ta g e o f m ore com plete
com m u nication based u pon fa c ts o f gestu re a n d p ostu re too subtle to
be observed fr o m a distance. G r iffith ’s resu lts seem ed to show th at n o
such a d v a n ta g e existed , a n d h e offered th e ex p lan a tio n th a t a too
close view o f the lecturer m ig h t cause the a tten tion to he d irected at
irrelevan t d eta ils u n noticeable fr o m a d ista n c e ; it is possible th at th is
atten tion to details irre le v a n t fo r pu rposes o f academ ic in stru ction
w ou ld fa c ilita te personal in terch a n ge at th e expense o f su b je c t m a t
ter. (T h e im p ortan ce o f gesture in the su p p lem en ta tio n o f the m e a n
in g o f w ord s au d sentences is not, g en e ra lly realized. T h ere are fe w o f
u s w ho are n o t m isu n d erstood over th e teleph on e. T h ere are fe w o f us
who can p u t our th o u g h ts dow n on p a p er, fo r gesture is exclu d ed
fr o m w r itte n e x p r e ssio n ; p erh ap s th at is w h y w r itin g m a k es a n
exact m a n .)
H u m a n ecolo gy is th e stu d y o f th e d istrib u tio n o f m en and in stitu
tions in space an d tim e as d eterm in ed b y the process o f co m p etitio n .
There appears to be a ch aracteristic ecolo gy o f the classroom . W e
should distin gu ish th is fr o m th e p o sition p sy ch olo g y described above,
fo r it does n ot concern v ariation s in the effect o f classroom in tera ction
w ith d ifferen t position , b u t v ariation s o f position d eterm in ed by
differen t grades an d typ es o f p erso n a lity . I n larg e classes w here s tu
dents are le ft free to choose th eir ow n p osition s, the auth or has fo u n d
a certain d istrib u tio n to recur. In th e fr o n t row is a p le n tifu l
sp rin k lin g o f o verdepen den t ty p es, m ix e d p e rh a p s w ith a n u m b er o f
ex tre m ely zealous students. I n th e back row are persons in rebellion ,
co m m o n ly persons in rebellion a ga in st a u th o rity 'and u ltim a te ly
a ga in st the fa th e r im a g e ; i f n ot th at, p e r h a p s in rebellion a t b ein g
1 G f. G r iffith , C. R ., " A C o m m e n t o n th e P s y c h o l o g y o f t h e A u d i e n c e ,” P s y .
M o n ., V o l . 3 0 , 1 9 2 1 . R e p r in t e d in K i m b a l l Y o u n g , Source B o o h f o r Social P s y
ch o lo g y , p p . 679-G 84.
assim ila ted to the class. Th ose who use th e resp o n siv e tech n iq ue fo r
co n stella tin g th e te a c h e r ’s a tten tion u su a lly d istrib u te them selves
a b ou t m id w a y o f th e class. A n u m b er o f t im id stu d en ts have stated to
the w rite r th a t th ey h a b itu a lly sit n ex t th e w a ll. T h e effect o f this
d istrib u tio n u p o n classroom in tera ction d ep en d s u p o n th e in str u c to r ’s
ra p p o rt w ith h is stu d en ts and the m a n n er in w h ich h e d istrib u tes his
a tten tio n s over th e g ro u p , b u t it is a lw ay s a sign ific an t effect. F u rth e r
stu d y w o u ld d o u b tless re v e a l oth er p a tte rn s. Q u a n tita tiv e in vestiga
tio n o f these p h en om en a w o u ld be lo n g a n d d ifficu lt, b u t n ot im
possible.
A class, as a crow d, d ev elop s a definite p e r so n a lity , a n d tb a t person-
a lity can v e r y ea sily be observed fr o m w here the teach er stan d s, fo r
a class is n e v e r a sea o f faces a fte r th e first d a y . I t is a p a tte rn , a
stru c tu re o f h ig h lig h ts a n d sh adow s, a co n fig u ra tio n w ith sh iftin g
p o in ts o f ten sion , a c h a n g in g eq u ilib riu m o f ease a n d unease, of
b e a u ty a n d lov elin ess. T h e m a in ten a n ce o f d iscip lin e d e p e n d s u p on
th e em ergen ce in th e te a c h e r ’s m in d o f co n figu ra tio n s e n a b lin g him
to k eep th e w h ole class in v ie w w ith o u t sacrificing a n y o f its parts.
F o r the b e g in n in g teach er, th e class is c o n fu sio n a n d v e r y lik e ly a
“ b ig, b o om in g , h u zzin g c o n fu sio n .” F o r th e ex p erien c ed teacher, it
is a n o rd e r ly , p a tte rn ed w h ole. W i t h i n th is c o n figu ra tio n o f the class
a s a w h ole are m a n y m in o r centers o f ten sio n , a n d the w hole field m ay
com e to be org a n ized a ro u n d a n y one o f th ese. T h e tea ch er who has
good c o m m a n d o ver h is class p reserves th e b a la n ce h y m e re ly sh iftin g
th e cen ter o f h is a tten tion to p o in ts o f in c ip ien t co n fu sio n .
V e r y sh o rtly , on the b a sis o f th e g iv e a n d take ca rried on b y the
m ore a gg ressiv e m em h ers o f th e class a n d th e teach er, the class devel
o p s a p e rso n a lity o f its ow n. W h a t p e r so n a lity a class sh a ll have is
p a r tly d eterm in ed b y th a t chance a n d it is n o t a ll chance— which
decides w h ich stu d e n ts sh a ll h e in a p a r tic u la r class a t a p a rticu la r
tim e o f the d a y u n d e r a p a r tic u la r teach er. A n d a v e r y im p ortan t
d eterm in a n t o f th e p e rso n a lity o f a class is in the te a c h e r 's m in d , fo r
d ifferen t a ttitu d in a l sets are called fo r th in th e tea ch er b y classes
w h ich sh ape th em selves i n d ifferen t con figu ration s, a n d th e teacher
sh ow s a d ifferen t side o f h im s e lf to d ifferen t classes. T h e differences
in th e t e a c h e r ’s a ttitu d e are o fte n so slig h t th a t th e y d e f y the keenest
observer to isolate a n d describe th em h u t th e effects o f these differ
ences are n eith er slig h t n o r difficult to observe.
E v e r y tea ch er has observed th a t th ere are som e classes th a t are easy
to tea ch , a n d some others u p o n w h ich h is h est efforts produce no
effect. T h e re are h ostile a n d recep tiv e c la sse s; so m etim es these are
CROWD AND MOB PSYCHOLOGY IN THE SCHOOL
163
obviou sly p rod u ced b y som e sm a ll a ction o f the tea ch er a t th e first

m eetin g o f the c ass w h ich defines the situ a tio n in one w a y o r another
There are live classes a n d d u ll, and th is seem s to be p a r tly a m a tter
o f arith m etic fo r five or six a le rt stu d en ts m ake a class th a t m oves
and a class w ith a sm a ller n u m h er o f good m in d s is lik e ly to be d u ll'
There is a n u m erica l p o in t, too, b ey o n d w h icb the m ere sixe o f th e
grou p crushes o u t stu d en t p a r tic ip a tio n ; th is is a statistical clu e de-
serv in g o f fu r th e r in v estig a tio n .* T h ere are classes w hose m em bers
are disposed to argu e w ith each other, a n d in these it is n e v e r difficult
to p a ss the class h o u r. The seatin g o f the h a b itu a l d isp u ta n ts h as a
noticeable effect u p o n th e character o f the discussion. I f the a rg u m en -
° n o p p o s i t e sides o f the roo m , there is some

likelih ood th a t the discussion w ill be ca rried on on a h ig b lev el, an d
th at other person s w ill enter into it, b u t i f the persons w h o are u su a lly
fr + i T a ° f dlSCUSS10n are seated togeth er there is m ore likelihood

th at th e discu ssion w ill degenerate in to the rid icu lo u s an d th e per-
^ 6ager t0 l e a m ’ and otheK? whose n a -

I V ,, V d,1,m b a n d d r iv e n ; there is a su p erstition a m o n g college
teach ers th a t a class o f the la tte r species is la r g e ly m ade u p o f s o !
ca le d a ctivities m en . ' The n atu re o f the p a rtic ip a tio n o f th e ^ e a c h e r
“ 1 ™ f d6n t V ! ! dlffer aCCOrdin^ t0 the con figu ration to w h ich th e
“ r r eyeS ° i - the teaC ier’ a n d aCcordinS to the side o f

h im se lf w hich he c o rre sp o n d in g ly show s to th e class.
a rk has sa id th a t w hen a crow d acts it becom es a m o b . T h e crow d
ooserves a n d f e e ls ; the m ob acts. T h ere occu rs in the m ob a m u ch
h ig h er degree o f in terstim u lation an d response th a n in the crow d,
an d th ere is con seq u en tly a m u c h g reater loo sen in g o f in h ib ition s.
A ttitu d e s a n d em otion s th a t do n ot o rd in a rily com e to consciousness
are ex pressed w h en one is a m e m b er o f a m ob . F r o m th is expression o f
on g-repressed im p u lses there arises an ex alta tio n o f fe e lin g th a t is
un usu al a n d th a t lead s easily to fu r th e r excess. K im b a ll Y o u n g h a s
rem arked u p o n the expan sion o f the ego i n th e m o h ; th is Z is a
significant p a r t o f the ex p lan a tio n o f m ob behavior, m e r e the gro u p
o f school ch ild ren en tertain s m u ch la te n t h o stility tow ard the teacher
where there is m u c h a n tagon ism betw een teachers a n d stu d en ts b u t
he stu d en ts d o n o t dare to let th is an ta g on ism com e to e x p r e s s ! a
f W i n f t h e m g' °f ^ be sa id to be th a t
o f k eep in g the g ro u p oriented as a crow d ra th e r th an as a m ob I n
“ V “ " “ le S ilU aa° ” - the ■“ * * * » * on the p j o f , £

teacher w ill be enough to tu rn the crow d w hich faces h im ffito a m ob.
*C f. Peters, C. C„ Foundation of Educational Sociology , pp. 264 fl.
I n g en eral, the ch ief d a n g er is th a t o f rea ctin g e m o tio n a lly to the

g ro u p . W h a t d istin gu ish e s th e crow d a n d the m ob is the m ore com
plete em otion al p a rticip a tio n o f the in d iv id u a l in th e m o h ; i f the
teacher reacts w ith those segm en ts o f h im se lf w h ich sh o u ld n o t he in
p la y , h e w ill call o u t in oth ers em otion s th a t are s im ila r ly inapropos.
I t is these tah ooed em otions w h ich m ake th e cro w d into th e m ob. The
teacher m a y ch an ge h is school-room cro w d in to a m oh h y trea tin g it
as a m oh. I f , fo r instan ce, he sh ou ts at a g ro u p , or m a k es a n unsuc
cessfu l a tte m p t to discip lin e a g ro u p , he hecom es the lea d er o f a m ob,
a n d organ izes the m oh in o p p osition to h im se lf. A henefit o f m ilitary
or q u a si-m ilita r y org a n ization is th at i t assem bles a n d con trols a
cro w d th a t ca n o n ly w ith the gre atest difficulty he tu rn e d in to a mob.
T h e p lace in th e school w here a m oh is m o st lik e ly to arise is the
s tu d y h a ll or assem bly room . T h e tech n ique o f m a n a g in g a difficult
s tu d y h a ll in v o lv es, th erefo re, a c a r e fu l sch oolin g o f o n e ’s h ab its of
so cial ex p ressio n in o rd er th at a ll th at is n o t p e r tin e n t to the situation
m a y he elim in a ted at w ill. Th e m a sk w h ich the teacher w ears in study
h a ll is ch a racterized h y im p a ssiv ity a n d im p ertu rh a h ility . T h is, then,
is th e reason fo r those p ec u lia r set expression s w h ich one ohserves on
te a c h e r s’ faces, fo r those expressions w h ich enem ies ca ll w ooden an d
fr ie n d s c a ll g r a n it e -lik e : these m en are fo r c e d to pose m u c h as sym hols
o f a u th o rity , a n d th e y have ch iselled th eir fa c e s in to th e p a tte rn of
a u th o rity . F e a r , a fte r all, is a g re a t teach er, a n d one lea rn s u n d er
du ress to ohviate the p o ssib ility o f the e n try o f a n y th in g personal
w h en th a t m ig h t d e tra ct fr o m o n e ’s v a lid ity as a sym h ol. T h e stru ggle
to rem a in p o ise d an d im p assive is a stru g g le to lim it the social in te r
a ctio n o f the s tu d y h a ll to the sign ifican t issues. I t is to the interest o f
w o u ld -h e d istu rb ers o f th e peace to h rin g oth er m a tte r in to p la y i f
th e y can , h u t it is the business o f the teach er a n d the p olicem an to go
str a ig h t to th e p o in t.
F o r those w h o have n o t h a d experience o f m ohs in the school, some
d escrip tio n s o f su ch episodes w ill he in o r d e r ; th ose w ho h ave seen
a n d ex p erien c ed th em w ill h ave no n eed o f these n arra tiv es, fo r those
are th in g s th a t teachers n ev er fo rg e t.
A D isorderly S tudy H all
I graduated from college at the Midyear’s, very happy to have a contract

to teach in Central H igh School at E--------. Central H igh School, the prin
cipal wrote, was a very fine place to teach; there were ahout twelve hundred
students, and sixty teachers, and the morale was excellent.
It was a fairly sophisticated high school in a city larger than any in
r h idn L hj l 7 r lived, bef0re' 1 was Ktfle P ^ p a red to cope with the prob
lems that faced me and presented m yself at Central H igh School that Feh
morning without the slightest suspicion o f what was going to happen
to me. I was very young, and the conformation o f my face made m e h iok
even younger. I was taken fo r a stndent several times during the first day
o f school. I was extremely green, and showed it plainly. For this reason l
have often wondered how so efficient and tactful a principal happened to
assign me to the hardest study hall in the school
I d iw the study hall in 217, the third hour o f the day. It was a hoys’
study hall, and it was supposed to he difficult, hut I knew nothing o f that M y
instructions were ahout as follow s: "N o w , Mr. J , come down on th em ' It’s
easier to ease n p la than to tighten up. W atch carefully fo r any disorder
“t a t to to T 7 W 1 PerhapS' Practice is to take

a seat m the hack o f the room and go on with whatever work you have to
do when things are quiet W e want a careful report o f absence and tardiness^
S S r nj ’ ’ ° Se m ° n W aniS that y ° U ° an g6t “ t,IC °» t e r office. Good-
Study ta ll 217, when I found it, seemed overlarge. The boys were ap-
paren y a tot slow ahout taking their seats and settling down. I had some
difficu ty ini finding the teacher’s desk, fo r it was not a desk, but only a tobTe
I fumb ed in the drawer till I found the roll. The hoys gradually came to
realize tha I was the teacher, and straggled to their seato They had how
ever, no intention o f h ^ to n in g work immediately. I was not concerned about
that, because I was concentrating just then on taking the roll. I had decided
to turn in all my reports so faithfully and accurately that the office would
realize at once what manner o f man they had to deal with.
egan the semester a week late, and the study hall had been in the
hands o f a substitute teacher during that week. Older teachers told me tlito
y rou es really began that week, because the substitute teacher let the
S tfto n ^ a mUCb better j0b With 217 tkan I was able to do.
w i n d toe™ S e ? T T / T Mt °£ talki^ - * little sporadic mischief
t lT lfl , , W6re frankIy id,in^ I tried to deal with
m with stern looks. There was also a great deal o f shuffling o f feet and
one or two hoys changed their seats without permission. Unfortunately I
was unable to deal with this situation, or even to notice carefully w hlf was
tak.ng place, for I was taking the roll. The roll was very complicated and
, J aS not p°sslble to see the entire room from the teacher's desk, so that I
tad my trouhles. I spent nearly all the first hour in taking the roll and mak
ing out ahsence reports.
aJ T !tC°nd t Y 1 began t0 reaUze what waa happening. The disorder

t h a f l e o l nW t 7 l b * T T 11 ,IHd l6 ft ° ® the day before' 1 discovered
„ . CT best keeP the wkole l oom in view by stationing myself over to
it l e T t o ' T 6" ' ^ ^ 1<3ft ° f tbe T°°m’ but tbe trouMe with that was that
left the other side too little supervised, and there were some troublesome
166 TEE SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING
hoys over there. I allowed myself to he drawn from one side of the room
to the other. When I was on orio side of the room, things would quiet down
there, and I would he much encouraged and would entertain the hope momen
tarily that I was getting the situation in hand. But then noise and disorder
would arise on the other side of the room. I began to he desperate, for I
could never catch anyhody, and too many were involved for me to he able
to punish them all, even if all worn apprehended. From time to time I tried
to deal with the situation masterfully, saying, “Now this has got to stop,"
“ You fellows dig in and get to work,” or, “ Now I want to have it quiet in
here.” These masterful speeches, coupled with the fact that I was gradually
increasing the tempo of my movements from one side of the hall to the other,
must have heen very ludicrous. It was not funny to me, however amusing it
may have been to the hoys; I was frantic.
The third day I had a cold and high fever, and these symptoms disabled
me for several days, perhaps enough to dull my perception of the tragedy
that was taking place with myself as the chief tragedian. That my emotions
were swirling in my chest, and that I was none too anxious to take up the
struggle again, must have heen obvious to all my young charges as I en
tered 217 that third day. That day I definitely abandoned the attempt to
take a roll; I had decided that I had hetter concentrate upon establishing
order and let the attendance go for the time. I stood in front and tried
to watch everything that went on. Following out the advice of an older
friend, I tried to bluff the boys by looking at them and writing names on
a slip of paper. For a while it looked as if the ruse might work. But the
boya must have known that I did not know their names, and they were hav
ing too much fun to he easily dissuaded. I was heginning to he frightened,
for I knew that my professional career was at stake. I looked about me for
a friendly face, hut all the faces seemed to have an evil look upon them, and
every youngster there seemed determined to torment me if he could. Then
the first inkwell fell. I went over to the place where it had fallen and inves
tigated. I became very excited, and that fact must have been ohvious to all
about me. Shortly after that another inkwell fell, and I investigated. And
then came another, and I decided not to investigate, hut to stand in front
and try to catch someone throwing one of them. But they were thrown
somehow, and I could not see who did it. I made a plea for order. Those
about me listened with some show of respect, hut there were derisive hoots
from anonymous sources in the hack of the room. I coupled a threat against
persons unknown to the pleas. Then trouble hegan. Evidently all doubt that
I was fair game had heen removed. There was disorder of every kind, talking
laughing, throwing paper wads, and moving ahout the room, but the most
trouhlesome thing was that they kept throwing those inkwells around the
room. I got hold of two or three boys who were unquestionably guilty of some
minor offences and sent them to the office. My action was greeted hy the
Bronx cheer. I knew that I was getting my baptism of fire, and I wondered
how long this situation could last.
My questions were answered the next day. I knew that it could not last
long. Inkwells were thrown all through the hour. I was desperate. I threat
ened and cajoled. I resorted to every ruse that I could think of in the effort
to catch someone red-handed. I failed. I got up in front and asked for their
attention for just a moment I made a memorahlc speech. 1 said that it
wasn’t fair for those fellows to attack me from behind, that if anyone had
anything against me I would step outside and fight him at once. As for me,
I had nothing against anyhody, but I could whip any of the dirty skunks
who were causing all this trouble. I was so angry that I nearly cried. The
issue was in douht, for a while. Evidently the boys considered my speech.
But the inkwells kept falling, falling, falling, and I didn’t know where one of
them came from. When my head was turned in one direction, a numher of
inkwells would come from the other side; when I looked the other way, the
fire would be returned. The boys thought that it was uproarious fun. Of
course no one thought of studying. The room was as noisy as a basketball
game that hour. It was beginning to be dangerous, too, for one or two of
the boys were hit and hurt slightly.
The fifth and last day of my torture came. It was pandemonium that day
from the first bell on. I was perfectly helpless, and saw nothing to do hut
stand up and take my punishment. The inkwells were flying faster than
ever. I tried to make a plea, but it was unheard. I couldn’t make my voice
cany above the din. I smiled grimly and settled down to hold on for the
forty-five minutes. There were signs that the more timid hoys were genuinely
concerned about the danger they ran. One hoy was hit and had to go out of the
room with a slight cut over his eye. An inkwell came very close to my head.
Midway of the hour a boy got up, looked at me indignantly, and cried out,
“I’m not going to stay in here any longer.” Then he fled from the room. A
dozen others rose and started to follow him. I stood in front of the door as
if to har their exit Then, the whole assembly room arose and rushed angrily
out of the room, whooping and stamping their feet I did not try to stop
them. I was glad that it was over.
A School Strike
The events that I shall relate took place in a private school shortly after
the war. Strikes were common among students in those days, for the unrest
which affected the rest of the population had had its reverberations within
the schools as well.
What grievances the hoys had it would he hard to say. When put down
on paper they do not appear to have been momentous. But there was much
discontent among the hoys, so much is sure. One would see sullen groups
standing around in the dormitory and talking. There was a bitter note in
the voices of the hoys when they talked about the school. Offences of all sorts
multiplied, and the numher of hoys forced to walk the hull-ring in order to rid
themselves of demerits, or detained upon the campus for bad behavior, was
large. The* morale of the school was poor.
The commandant seemed to be the subject of special hatred. He was

accused of playing favorites, which may or may not have been true. That
he was weak and uneducated, and did not handle cases of discipline tact
fully, was certain.
There was a succession of cooks at the school. Some of the cooks were not
very expert. The quality of the food declined, and there were a few meals
which were very thin indeed. This was made worse by poor table service,
for there had been trouble with the student waiters.
In addition there were some very “had actors” among the hoys. They were
unmanageable under any system and would have stirred up dissension within
the pearly gates. They beeame embroiled with the commandant or with other
members of the faculty. There -were several serious cases of impudence.
These same hoys, not too secretly, circulated a number of alleged jokes in
the nature of plays upon the commandant’s name.
Then, for some unknown reason, all the cockroaches in the kitchen b“gan
to die at once. And to choose fhe most inconvenient places in which to die.
They died in the food. Everybody began picking pieces of cockroach out of
the soup. This lasted two or three days, arid everybody was thoroughly exas
perated. It was reported that, one of the bolder hoys took his bowl of soup
to the man in charge of the commissary and showed him the eoekroaeh that
was in it.
The grumbles among the hoys increased a hundred fold. It required no
seer to perceive that trouble was brewing.
Wednesday came, and the boys’ free time. The buys went away. Pretty
soon they returned, a motley crew in a pseudo-military formation. They
carried banners stating their grievances and mentioning the commandant
by name. They gave vent to jeers and catcalls as they marched by the school.
Faculty men noted down their names.
.A strong executive took hold of the case. He put the striking students
under arrest, depriving them of communication with each other. He handled
each case separately, dealt with grievances, real or fancied, and meted out
what seemed to be a just penalty in each case. The ringleaders he expelled
summarily, as I remember, and other cases were handled on their merits.
After the moh had been broken up as a mob, an attempt was made (o deal
with the morale of the group.
S im ila r m a n ife sta tio n s to these related above are those periodic out
breaks o f college stu d en ts w h ich a ttra ct so m u c h atten tion a n d occa
sio n a lly h ave such, serious resu lts. I t is in terestin g th at the tradition
o f d ifferen t schools calls fo r such o u tb u rsts on qu ite d ifferen t occasions
a n d th a t the a ctiv ity associated with them h a s n e a rly a lw a y s a trad i
tion al p a tte rn . I n one m id w e ste rn u n iv e rsity sueli m ob phenom ena
are k n o w n as “ R a llie s ,” and take place before im p o rta n t gam es. In
anoth er u u iv ersity , the n am e given is “ K o w b o ttom , ” a n d a R ow hot-
tom m a y take p lace at a n y tim e, b u t is m o st lik e ly to occu r o n a

S a tu r d a y n ig h t a ft e r a b ig gam e. T h e p a tte rn s o f the a ctiv itie s are
d ifferen t, th e R a lly c a llin g fo r the d istu rb a n ce o f school classes, a n d
the R o w b o ttom fo r the d estru ctio n o f fu r n itu r e . I n n u m ero u s u n iv e r
sities certa in a c tiv ities are tr a d itio n a l a fte r v ic to r y in im p o rta n t
gam es, sn ak e dances, raids u pon m ovies, etc. Th ese a re a ctiv ities fo r
which there is a tr a d itio n a l p a tte rn , b u t th ey are also ph en om en a o f
the m o b , a n d are associated w ith m a n y u n p la n n ed a n d u n co n tro lled
ex p ressio n s o f b u ried w ish es.
In the in cid en ts w h ich we h a v e d escribed at le n g th , it is in te r
estin g to note certain fe a tu r e s wdiieh social p sy ch olo g ists h ave fo u n d
to be ty p ica l. I n the first p la c e , n on e o f these p h en o m en a w a s w h o lly
sp o n ta n eou s a n d w ith o u t p r e c e d e n t; it m ig h t be doubted if su ch
th in g s co u ld ever tak e p la c e w ith o u t th e influence o f a cu ltu ral p a t
tern c a llin g fo r or sa n c tio n in g such b eh a vior. S e c o n d ly , wre observe
th at these co m in g even ts cast th eir sh ad o w s b efore t h e m ; th e definite
ou tbreak s w ere p rece d ed b y a lo n g series o f occu rren ces p r e p a r a to r y
to th em . T h e m illin g process d escrib ed b y P a r k a n d B u r g e ss1 w a s
obvious in b o th these stories. W e m ay note th at th is p re p a ra to ry
process is a circ u la r in tera ction r e s tin g upon d ra m a tic in cid en ts.
I t is a process o f a su m m a to ry n a tu re , so th a t each su c c e e d in g in c i
den t b u t reen fo rces th ose w h ich h a v e gon e before. T h ere com e o u t
o f these stories som e im p lic a tio n s as to th e tech n iq u e o f d e a lin g w ith
a m ob. I t is o b viou s th at th e m e m b ers o f th e m ob m u st be treated aa
in d iv id u a ls ; th is p rev en ts th em fr o m fe e lin g m ob b a ck in g, or th e
u n a n im ity o f the g r o u p ; it sh u ts th em off fr o m m a r ty r d o m , a n d it
rem oves th e san ction o f the con flict g ro u p fr o m th eir b eh avior. T h e
m ob, con trariw ise, s tr u g g le s a s does any other g ro u p to p ro lo n g
its life as lo n g a s possible a n d to keep its ranks u n brok en .
C . C. P e te r s h as g iv e n us an excellen t discu ssion o f the tech n iq ue
by which school m obs m a y b est he h a n d le d . I t fo llo w s :
The teacher needs to utilize the laws of group psychology in controlling

the potentially omnipresent crowd spirit, even turning it to good aceount.
Many teachers do this intuitively, haring picked up its technique uncon
sciously in the give.-aud-take of social experience.
(1) The tactful teacher will avoid unnecessary conflicts with the group.
The best disciplinarian gets on without any show of discipline. When crises
arise, it is, of course, necessary that the teacher handle them with vigor and
courage. Weakly to hack down would mean irretrievable loss of prestige.
But it is no credit to a teacher to he continually having crises- to meet.. While
1Park and Burgess, In trod uction to the Soietwe o f S ociology, Chapter X III.
the -writer was principal of a high school he had a teacher who could not
get on with one of the hoys. She knew very well that he hated her. Neverthe
less, when she wanted someone to do her the favor of carrying the phono
graph downstairs, she asked this hoy to do it. He refused; she then insisted
that the principal ought to expel him. It is such unnecessary crises that it is
the part of tact to avoid.
(2) The crowd can he handled hetter if dealt with good-humoredly than
if defied. Aggressive opposition always intensifies the crowd spirit. Con
ceivably the teacher might hreak down a mob by the weight of his attack,
hut ordinarily he will have better success if he meets it good-humoredly. The
writer knows a teacher who was once threatened with a hazing by his stu
dents. When they came around for the purpose he maintained his calm,
laughed at them, and joked with them, and they changed their minds.
(3) The crowd should be broken up into individuals. Get the members
apart and talk with them separately. Do not direct requests or disciplinary
measures at the class as a whole, hut isolate single persons and deal with
them one at a time. Individuals will he reasonable, or at least traetable,
when tbe crowd will not.
(4) In your class work do not give opportunity for the spirit of chaos
to get started. See to it that things move on in routine fashion. It is when
the teacher must hunt for laboratory equipment, or for a reference, while
the elass is idle, or when he has so poorly planned the lesson that it does not
move on smoothly, or when in some other way there are hitches, that there
is danger of spontaneous development of mob mischief. As long as the
teacher keeps things in his own hands and keeps them moving, there is
little danger.
(5) Maintain your own calm. Nothing else is so contagious in a crowd as
the calmness of one or more persons, especially those with great prestige.
The calmness of a commander in war, or of an individual person at a fire,
can reduce to rationality the whole ehullient multitude.
(fi) Seek to enlist the support of the natural leaders of the group. Not all
persons of a crowd have equal influence. Its character is usually determined
hy a few members, and often by a single one. It will pay the teacher to
discover who these are, have talks with them explaining his hopes and pur
poses, and particularly inviting their cooperation and support. I f these bell
sheep can be caught, the crowd will follow.1
T h a t th e in d iv id u a l derives p sy ch o lo g ica l benefits fr o m p a r tic ip a
tio n in the m ob is u n d en iable. H e exp resses th e re in em otion s th a t
w o u ld otherw ise rem ain repressed, and his m e n ta l h ea lth m u st at
ta in at least a te m p o r a ry betterm ent. P r a c tic a lly the sam e ends are
obtain ed, and w ith m uch less d a n g er to the social ord er, b y those
o rgiastic cerem onies con n ected w ith athletic contests. A p e p m e etin g
1Peters, C. C., Foundations o f Educational Sociology, pp, 345-fi. (Reprinted
by permission o f The Macmillan Company.)
is d ev ised to arouse tbe crow d to f r e n z y ; it is i ts e lf a c o n tro lle d and

ordered f r e n z y ; th e m ob s p ir it d isp la y s its e lf a t a g a m e , a n d tb e
occasion is o fte n a n o r g y fo r th e spectators. T h e g r e a t a d v a n ta g e o f
all this, fo r tb e school a d m in istrato rs, is tb a t i t is h arm less, an d
th at it m a y even have beneficial effects u p o n tb e d iscip lin e o f tbe
school at oth er tim es. B u t tbe fu r io u s p assion s o f th e m ob n e e d to
be c a r e fu lly b rid le d , or th ey becom e d a n g ero u s. B r e a k in g loose, th e
lea st th a t th e y can do is to m ak e it difficult to c a r r y on school fo r
a certain tim e. M o re serious excesses are n ot at a ll u n co m m o n an d
in clu d e su ch th in g s as fights, d estru ctio n o f p r o p e r ty , v a n d a lism , a n d
ro w d y ism o f a ll k inds. I t is n o t u n k n o w n th a t m ob sp irit o rig in a tin g
in th e school sh ou ld sp rea d th r o u g h o u t tb e co m m u n ity.
M in o r m a n ife sta tio n s o f the crow d s p ir it in the schools are th ose
p sych ic ep id em ics w b ich so m etim es sw eep th ro u g h a body o f stu
dents. A fe w y e a rs ago a b o y o f lo w m e n ta lity coined a w ord and
a gesture tb a t w ere a sign ific an t p a r t o f the m e n ta l e n v iro n m e n t o f
a gen eration o f stu den ts. H e c a r e fu lly p re p a re d th re e p a p er w ads,
w b ieb h e p u t on his desk. H e th e n p u sh e d th e m about w ith je r k y
m o v em en ts o f tw o ex ten d ed fin gers o f h is le ft h an d. A s be w ent
th rou gh th is m y s tic rite, he m u r m u r e d to b im s e lf tbe w o rd o f w ords,
“ T o o d s .” Tbe teacher observed t b is stran g e b e h a v io r, and asked
him w h a t he w a s d o in g. H e rep ea ted tb e gestu re, a n d said , “ T o o d s ."
T b e w o rd an d tb e gestu re too k on. T h e m o tiv a tio n is obscu re, to say
tbe least, b u t th e re w a s a y e a r in w hich a n y s tu d e n t i n th e school
m ig h t a t a n y tim e be ex pected to p rep a re three p a p e r w a d s, a n d
p u sh tb c m abou t w ith m u rm u rs o f “ T o o d s ." T b e g estu re and the
w o rd w ere cop ied c a r e fu lly a t first, b u t la te r th e y w ere used se p a
ra tely and ou t o f th eir settin g . T h e g estu re cam e to be u sed as one
o f those little devices fo r r eliev in g tb e ten sio n o f a social situ a tio n
th at are so com m on in g ro u p s o f tbe y o u n g . A y o u n g m a n ta lk in g
to a young w om an m ade tb is little gesture w ith tbe tw o fin gers
o f h is r ig h t h a n d w hen a t a loss fo r a n y th in g else to do, a n d a
y o u n g w o m a n d esirou s o f b ein g con sidered jo lly a n d so p h isticated
gestu red in like m an n er. T b e w o rd “ T o o d s ” cam e to be u sed as a
w o rd o f som e derision. (S o m e tim e s it b a d a m e a n in g tb a t bo rd ered
d a n g e r o u s ly u p o n tbe v u lg a r .) W h e n a story w a s to ld th at strain ed
c r e d u lity , or a requ est w as m ad e tb a t show ed a la c k o f con tact w ith
tb e actu al situ a tio n , tb e in d ica ted an sw er w a s “ T o o d s ." A p h rase
o f d ero ga tio n or denial w as, “ O h , T oods on t b a t l " T h e p a tte rn o f
beh avior h eld its ow n fo r som e y ea rs, a n d w as ta k e n u p b y m a n y w h o
w ere u tte r ly u n aw are o f its origin .
A similar nonsense "word winch hecame the vogue in a certain

group of boys was “ P u rrp ! " The sound was made in a high falsetto,
with the lips nearly closed. So rendered, it had an explosive quality,
and carried well. There was an element o f humor in it, and it was
accepted as a witticism, or at least as a stroke of humor, whenever
it was given. ' ‘ P u rrp ” apparently started in the study hall kept hy
a man whom the boys disliked and found a bit ridiculous. It was at
first merely an occasional means o f tormenting this gentleman during
his study period. Its vogue increased during that hour, and there
came to be a pandemonium of “ Purrps” at the beginning and the
end o f the hour. Then all boys entering and leaving this man’s
classes did so to the accompaniment of this yell. It had a personal
connection, and this man’s life was made an agony by the "P u rrp s”
of unseen origin which followed him everywhere, he went. It then
became epidemic, and was heard everywhere and on all occasions.
Other teachers intervened, and the behavior was suppressed.
Where there is a little bad hlood between teacher and students,
take-offs of the teacher have especial point for students. The teacher’s
mode of shrugging his shoulders, his smile, or any other slight man
nerism may be taken up and satirized; this is usually reduced to a
conventional gesture, and whenever the gesture is made the members
o f the group laugh. It is agree.d that it is a joke. (How much of our
most sophisticated humor is founded upon consensus! Say “ priest”
in a certain tone of voice to a member of the Ku Klux Klan, say
“ Kotarian” to a sophisticate, say “ social worker” to a certain kind
of sociologist or “ sociologist.” to a certain kind of social worker, and
the joke has already begun.) These conventional gestures then de
generate and pass away, although they may persist for some time
after the individual against whom they were first directed has passed
from the scene. An ill-considered speech, or one too often repeated,
is likely to be subjected to the same treatment. A certain man had
difficulty wilh his students which came near blows. Not wishing to
resort to such brulality, he told the boys a story of a chap who had
made him really lose his temper just the year before. In his recital
occurred the statement, “ He was a great massive fellow, with the
most massive shoulders and arm s!” This was repeated hundreds
of times among the hoys and it never failed to evoked laughter. A
high-school principal talked too often of what would happen after
the partition was erected in. the high-school auditorium; that became
a stock joke. The president of a small college discoursed so often
and so long upon the subject of a Carnegie library which he hoped
to secure for the institution that the very mention of a library came
to arouse the risibilities of the students, and finally some o f the
more enterprising ones secured an alleged libi’ary building, and
located it by night in a prominent place on the campus.
Disorder itself is epidemic in a school. Teachers know well that
certain behavior, once started, tends to go through the entire school,
passing from one room to another with little loss of time and none
of intensity. (The time that, such an epidemic lasts, and the seriousness
which it assumes, vary greatly according to the effectiveness o f the
teacher.) Such behavior is that of pitching pennies, dropping shot
on the floor, throwing stink bombs, etc. 'When the school is located
in a ramshackle building, it is possible for students to shake it. hy
small and almost undetectable movements if these movements are
properly synchronized; when behavior of this sort is once started it
is very difficult to stop. Various kinds o f laughter, mostly artificial
and with that raucous quality connoting bitterness or disrespect,
may hccome epidemic.
Yet other fads and crazes may happen quite inexplicably to fasten
themselves upon the school and to compel the consent of all its
members. Thus fads arise which call for certain kinds o f pencil
boxes, or colored crayons, or bookst.raps. Or fads arise that call for
certain articles o f wearing apparel, and the child unable to procure
such clothes feels quite out of place in his little world. A few years
ago it was toreador trousers, a variant o f the hell-bottom trousers,
that became the rage in some of the high schools. These fads of
school children furnish much interesting material for the social
psychologist, and they might, if they were studied properly, cast
much light upon the fashions o f adults. The spread of rumor in the
school, whether in the form of stories circulated by grapevine, or
of tall tales about teachers, may also prove o f considerable interest
to social psychologists. We regret that our space does not permit an
extended treatment of rumor.
In closing, we may indicate hriefly certain considerations concern
ing the implications of this topic for school and social policy. We
have noted that, for purposes of control by the faculty, crowd mind
is much superior to mob mind. We might add that we shall very
likely not be able to reduce erowd-mindedness in the school below
a certain minimum. But we shall do well to remember that erowd-
mindedness is dangerous, and that such mechanisms of crowd psy
chology as we employ for the control of the young may he laden with
the most dangerous consequences for the future. For the mind of
the crowd is slavish, and as susceptible to anti-social propaganda as

to any other sort. Ultimately, education must individualize. And in
the ideal school every member of the educative group will participate
as a complete person, and not as the part of a person that makes a
part of a crowd.
PROJECTS
1. Chart the interpersonal relations of love, hatred, fear, confidence, mis
trust, rehellion, etc., in one classroom.
2. Study the distribution of personality types in a lecture section of one
hundred or more.
3. Analyze the “personality” of a class and relate incidents showing how
it was established.
4. Relate an incident which changed the tone of a class.
5. Study the underlying selective processes which, in an elective system,
attract students to the classes of particular teachers.
6. Determine hy questioning teachers and by study of grades whether
teachers more easily estahlish cordial relationships with morning or after
noon classes.
7. Analyze the reaction of different classes to slight mishaps, such as
stumhling, etc., of the teacher. Show type reactions which go with different
kinds of rapport hetween student and teacher. Devise informal tests for
teachers upon this hasis. How must the teacher pass off these mishaps?
8. Take notes on a supervised study group, now does this form of organi
zation reduce the tendency to moh-mindedness 1
9. Compare successful and unsuccessful teachers in study hall. Describe
the technique of keeping a study hall.
10. Write the complete story of a study hall or class that got out of hand.
Interpret.
11. Dcscrihe a “psychic epidemic” in a school.
12. Give instances of fashion in the school.
13. Record “take-offs” of teachers and analyze their meaning.
14. Give examples of remarks or gestures which come to symholize humor
in the school.
15. Determine hy statistical investigation what size of class is most favor-
ahle to voluntary participation of students in class exercises.
16. Inquire of some twenty or twenty-five students where they hahitually
ait in classes where they arc allowed to choose for themselves. Characterize
their personalities. Formulate some generalizations concerning the ecology
of the classroom.
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) Dawson, C. A., and G ettys , "W. E., An Introduction to Sociology,
Chapter XVII.
(2) Le Bon, G., The Crowd.

(3) P aek , R. E., and B urgess, E. W., An Introduction to the Science of
Sociology, Chapter XIII. (Sec hihliography.)
(4 ) Y oung, K imball, Social Psychology, Chapters XX, XXI, and XXII.
(5) Y oung, Kimball, Source Booh for Social Psychology, Chapters XXII
X X III, and XXIV.
C hapter XIII
PRIMARY GROUPS AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN
T iiat those persons are most meaningful who are closest to us is

not a startling bit of wisdom, but the science of sociology was over
long in discovering it. There are some associations in which we par
ticipate fully and without reserve, and there are others to which we
parcel out only a grudgingly delimited segment of ourselves. Com
plete participation makes what Cooley has called the primary group.
Partial participation makes the secondary group.1
Primary groups are intimate and personal in that they demand of
the person his whole allegiance and his unreserved participation.
In them the individual attains his most complete fulfillment as a
person; hathed in the warm, rich flow of response which permeates
the group, he can he conscious of no lack which is not immediately
supplied. Because of the close person-to-person rapport that exists
in them, primary groups tend to unanimity. Primary groups are
usually face-to-face, for some physical intimacy and the supplementa
tion of verbal communication hy gesture are apparently necessary
for primary group rapport. Primary groups are informal, for the in
tervention of social frames and forms, if in the least ohvious, inter
feres with the spontaneous give-and-take of persons which constitutes
the primary group. Primary groups are usually permanent and are
very resistant to all the forces of change.
It is the personal attitude, however, which makes the primary
group, and not the mere conditions of association. As people feel
the life of a group to be unplanned and spontaneous, unlimited and
without reserve, the group tends to hecome primary. Conditions of
physical association make primary group life possible, hut they do not
ensure it. Secondary group attitudes can enter into the most intimate
association and make of it a secondary grou p; this is exactly what
happens in the family when discipline and the upholding of secondary
group norms is too much at issue.
The life of primary groups, as Cooley states, is ubiquitous. Every
human being tends to he drawn into some primary group relations,
1 Cooley does rot use the term "secon dary g r o u p ."
176
PRIMARY GROUPS AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN 177
and those tend to he the significant relations ordering his life. This
ability of primary group norms to establish themselves under the
most unfavorable conditions has caused the failure of many social
schemes which had as their goal the incidcation of virtue by machin
ery, for the distances which social arrangements are ahle to set up
between men are melted away before attitudes which arise from the
internal necessities of the men themselves.
The child participates in the life of many groups on his way to
maturity. From time to time he enters new groups and leaves old
ones behind. His personality must adapt itself, often by radical
changes, to the demands of the new group and the new roles which
he assumes in it. In the host-ordered life there is some discontinuity
and some lost motion in the development of personality. Where the
change which is forced upon the personality is far-reaching, a con
siderable distortion, if not a definite splitting, of personality ensues.
The continuity' of personality is assured by such factors as make
possihle the continuity of roles from group to group, and hy such
influences as limit the completeness of change of group connections
at one time. Physical and mental characteristics which do not change,
and previous social experiences which have given the personality a
definite stamp, are things which cause one to assume similar roles
in group after group and therefore limit the change o f personality.
The replacement of one set of group connections hy another is rarely
complete in the history of the normal child, so that abrupt change of
his social adaptation is not the rule. He makes the transition from one
group to another gradually, or the membership of the group itself
changes slowly. Some groups, as the home, persist while all others
change. Investigators have thought that they could distinguish cer
tain typical roles customarily played among groups of school chil
dren. .Among these are the roles of the leader, the clown, the goat,
the hully, the man of property, the man ahout town, the athlete,
and others. It is thought that investigation might reveal a consider
able consistency in the roles selected hy particular individuals in
different groups.
It seems possible to speak of a certain order o f succession of social
groups as typical. Bach of these groups appears in the life of the
developing child at a particular tim e; each has its own peculiar con
tribution to make to his social experience, and each in time loses its
importance. Each should, relatively, decline in importance when
other interests intervene, hut there are many cases in which this does
not occur, and the individual is arrested in one developmental stage.
The home is the starting point of all excursions. In the home, the
child is at first almost entirely passive in his reception of the cultural
patterns impinging upon him. He is at first little more than an ex
tension of his mother’s personality; at this time he is perhaps more
completely included in the group life of the home than he ever is in
any later group. In the home the child learns, usually, the technique
of response fulfillment, the interplay of one person with another. In
the home, likewise, are absorbed the hasic cultural tools without which
later participation would not he possihle; language is the most im
portant o f these. The child forms in the home the basic pattern of
his personality; Burgess has suggested that the differentia of per
sonality patterns are the modes of satisfying wishes. It is also impor
tant to note that social techniques have their beginning in the home.
The home is the most important of the social groups with which we
shall deal, and primarily for two reasons, that it forms the child
hefore other groups touch him, and that it persists while other groups
fade out. The importance of the home is not hased upon its overwhelm
ing influence at every period of development, for there are periods
When the child participates with much greater interest in the life of
his own age-group outside the home.
The home is soon supplemented by the pre-school play group. Here
the social training of the child is continued, but with this difference,
that he is now definitely among equals and has to learn lessons of a
different sort. He acquires at once a technique of self-assertion in an
environment where his wishes are less important than they are in
the home, and some elementary knowledge of the rights and duties
of others. Some inhibitions the home has supplied, but if the home has
failed, the play group attempts to socialize the individual hy imposing
restraints upon him. The extreme penalty of the pre-school play
group is probably not blows but isolation, and the genesis of many
shut-in personalities is often explicable on the basis of unadaptability
in the pre-school play group.
"When the child goes to school he is confronted with a relationship
o f child and adult that differs radically from that existing between
the child and the parent. For a few years the teacher may constitute
a satisfactory mother substitute, but this does not last beyond the first
few grades. The teacher-pupil relation has in it a much greater ele
ment of impersonal domination, and as time goes on the relation
between child and teacher is increasingly a secondary group relation
governed by secondary group norms. Therefore the primary group
attitudes of the school child attach themselves more and more com-
pletely to his contemporaries. The child lives most really in the play
group composed of children of his own age, and he comes to shut
adults from that world with an impenetrable wall.
Primary groups of children are' stair-stepped as to age; the tend
ency is for children to consort only with children of about their own
size and age.1 Membership in the group is usually denied to the
younger child, something which mothers, who try to make older
brothers include younger brothers in their activities, can never under
stand. Sometimes an overlarge child or an exceptionally hright one
is admitted to the fellowship of those slightly older than himself, but
this is rare. The child precocious in school is usually found in associa
tion with children of his own age outside of school. The group is a
little more open at the top, but older children do not usually care to
belong to it. The play group at different ages has different norms,
and achievements are graded to the age and physical development
of the members of the group. Ethical and intellectual norms differ
and develop. What is permissible among nine-year-olds is not per
missible when one is twelve. What was an interesting game when one
was twelve is absurd when one has entered his teens. Humor differs
and develops; the humor of the eighth-grader fails to amuse the
grown-up boy in high school. Status in the group is seriously under
mined by any failure to measure up to the standards of the age group.
(It is always a serious symptom when a child prefers to associate
with children younger than himself.) Emulation looks invariably to
the nest higher age group. The great heroes are children a few years
older. There is little carry-over of status from previous age groups;
the high-school sweater is ridiculous in college. Laurels do not stay
fresh in childhood. Within the age group, rivalry is very keen. Com
petition becomes particularly bitter, and may go over into conflict
when it takes place under the eyes of those a few years older. The
following incident is typical:
I recall one peculiar fight that I had at this time. Another hoy and I were
playing around a tree and a young man was watching ns. I tried to he funny
and made up some s i l l y l i t t l e rhyme about the other boy’s name. He started
denying it and I kept repeating the rhyme. Then we hegan to slap at each
Other’s hands. Then the fists began to fly and words stopped. There were
some mighty hard blows struck. I hit him hard in the eye 'and he hit me
hard on the forehead. That was enough for me. I went home crying and the
other boy soonffollowed. 1 never did see why he should he crying. The young
1C£. Blumentkal, Albert, Small Town Stuff, p. 226.
180 THE SOCIOLOGY OP TEACHLNG
man moved on his way laughing- heartily. Not only did I cry hecause of the
physical hurt but also because of the hurt to my pride coming from being
humiliated with that young man as an audience. I still hate him in memory.
(Autobiographical document furnished by college student.)
Various writers have treated the types of association that arise

among students of grade and high school. Thrasher has studied the
life of boys in the play group which has hecome a gang. A gang is a
conflict group which has arisen in the interstices of the adult social
order hy reason of the conflict hetween the wishes of the youngsters
and the law-enforcing agencies of the community. Given a play group
with opportunities for certain forbidden activities and for few others,
it tends to fall into these forhidden activities and therefore to run
afoul of the law. In consequence, it heeomes a gang. Where there are
more opportunities for interesting activities, or where the social order
does not press so heavily, as in rural districts, the group does not
become a gang hecause it does not come into conflict with the law.
The present writer feels that the gang makes an indispensahle con
tribution to personality, and a contribution which adults sometimes
overlook. One learns morality in the gang and one leams to take
punishment. Even a vicious gang is hetter than no gang at all. There
is a progression in the activities of the gang conforming to the age,
social maturity, and criminal experience of the members. The gang
usually disperses at adolescence, because sex interests intrude and
predominate.
Kimball Young has noted the congenial group, bound together by
similarity of tastes and interest. Congenial groups are common among
girls, where they manifest themselves particularly in the form of
cliques. These girlhood cliques, however innocuous their activities hy
comparison with those of a hoys’ gang, and however silly their be
havior norms to the outsider, arc very important hoth to those who
belong and those who do not helong. The group relations of youngsters
of hoth sexes often take the form of one-to-one relations. The churn
is very meaningful, perhaps more so than a friend is afterwards.
Sometimes this has a homosexual basis, hut if this generalization is
limited to those eases in which overt hehavior of a homosexual nature
takes place, it is necessary to conclude that the homosexual explana
tion of the one-to-one rapport falls down.
Excellent examples of the congenial group are found on. the college
level. A student informant has furnished an account of such a
g rou p :
My group—since I am not a fraternity member—includes my room-mate

and four fellows who live in rooms near my own. We eat together, go to
the movies together, discuss any and all events together, and know each
other’s intimate friends. It results from such close contact that we comprise
a very highly associated and connected primary group.
Within this primary group are institutions. These permanent behavior
patterns which hold us together are sueh as common interest and desirability
demand. A knowledge of good modern literature to the extent of being able
to converse intelligently upon same is essential. This includes titles by Tol
stoy, Eugene O’Neill, Mayo de la Roche, Conrad, Anne Parrish, Morley, and
possibly H. G. Wells. We must have read something hy each. Also, wo are
required to eat particular foods in a particular manner. If we are not very
hungry we drink a tomato juice cocktail, eat a toasted sandwich, and drink
a cup of coll'ec, eating as a finishing touch either pie, cake, or a baked apple
with cream. We pass everything—slide nothing, never tip the waitresses.
As to conversation—never use gestures, never point, but at least one curse
is imperative in every conversation. Among cither things a lie is absolutely
not allowed. We roust have had some intimate association with women, but
must not dissipate as far as “ the limit.” The drinking o f intoxicants is per
missible but requires an apology.
A group which many youngsters skip is the suh-adolescent courtship

group. Here the child makes his first tentatives at a heterosexual
adjustment, and participates in a kind of courtship that is usually
limited hut emotionally ahsorhing. In the adolescent courtship group
many interesting phenomena appear, some of which have hecn touched
upon in a previous chapter. The transition from the suh-adolescent
play group is sometimes an awkward one, especially as the memhers
of one’s former group often contrive to embarrass him in his new
entanglement. This is the age of hashfulness and all social awkward
ness, together with the vivid inner life that goes with it. Booth
Tarkington’s Seventeen is the story o f a young man who has just
emerged from the play group to go courting.
In these groups the child lives. Those who populate these groups arc
the real people of earth for him. The activities of these groups are
vivid and interesting, and all else is dull hy comparison. The loyalties
of this world are paramount, and they exclude others. Adults do not
enter this world. Most adults are shadowy and unpredictahle persons
who need only he reckoned with negatively; other adults are ahle to
make themselves useful accessories. No more, for the thing is the game,
and the people who matter are the members of the little group.
The primary groups of the young, arising in the interstices of the
adult world, may furnish to the young a means of escape from the
rules and conventions o f that -world. Mischief has often this ex
planation.
One Hallowe’en night I got in touch with two of the toughest boys in my
school class. We decided to cclehrate in royal fashion. We were in reality
a crowd in action, not a gang, hecause we were not organized and had no
program. We hegan to act. We put a dead chicken in one house only to
have it thrown out. It was promptly placed in another house. Then a
collection of garbage hegan. A good twenty gallons was distributed over the
porches of the best houses in the town. Then porch swings were broken
down and stacked most any place. A. huge pumpkin from a back porch made
a nice mess on one sidewalk. We kept at this sort of thing for over two
hours, going about as noiselessly as possible. I then slipped quietly home
and enjoyed a peaceful night’s rest. The next day at school the principal
made a special trip to our room to tell us of the atrocities of the previous
night and said that boys in our room were suspected. Nothing more came
of it, and so we gloated privately over our successful venture. That was one
time I thoroughly escaped my role for a few hours and enjoyed what seemed
to he entire freedom. The escape and the ecstasy of it still glow in my
memory. Of cour-se it all seems crude now', but then it was the living out for
me of a great dream of escape to freedom. (Autobiographical document fur
nished hy a minister’s son.)
I n the sch ool, th ose h its o f social r itu a l a n d ru les o f co n d u ct k n ow n

as tradition, are p a ssed o n in p r im a r y grou ps. T h e y are passed fr o m
th e elders o f the g ro u p to th e y o u n g e r, as a ll tr a d itio n — w h a t m a tter
i f o n ly a y e a r o r so sep arates eld ers a n d ju n io r s ? I t is sen io rity in
th e g r o u p th a t cou n ts. T r a d itio n v a rie s fr o m sch o ol to school, b u t
n e a r ly a ll schools have some articles o f tr a d itio n a fte r th e y have been
liv e d in fo r a w h ile. T h ere is a c e rta in corner in w h ich th e big b o ys
p la y , a sc a t th a t th e y a lo n e m a y s it u p o n ; there is a sto ry , ep ic,
H o m e r ic , a b o u t a fa b u lo u s ch a racter o f a fe w y ears before. O n e article
o f tra d itio n th a t is u n fa ilin g ly tra n sm itte d is the so -ca lled sch ool-boy
code, w h ich fo r b id s stu d e n ts to tell tales u p o n one anoth er. W e h ave
elsew here e x p la in e d th a t th is h as its o rig in in the conflict g ro u p
m o r a lity e x istin g betw een teach ers an d stu den ts.
A ra th e r coin p lic a te d fo lk w a y in g ro u p s o f b o ys, and one w hose
e x p la n a tio n is n o t r e a d ily a p p a re n t, p ertain s to th e in fo r m a l in itia tio n
o f a y o u n g ste r b y figh tin g. I t h as o fte n hcen rem ark ed th at a n e w
com er a m o n g b o ys does n o t h ave sta tu s in th e g ro u p u n til he has h a d
a fig h t. A f t e r th e fight, th e g ro u p receives h im co rd ia lly.
It was in A------that I made my first boyhood friendship. A certain boy

lived next door to ns, and the first day we were in town I gave the boy
some candy, although I eyed him rather suspiciously. The following day
we met in the back yard in our old clothes and had a real fight. After a
long struggle I won the battle and I was accepted into the life of the other
boys, and from then on we were firm and fast friends. Thus was I taken
into the new social group and accepted. The one fight provided my entree,
and after that my status was not questioned. (Ihid.)
One youngster whose parents frequently changed their residence

relates that he developed a technique for meeting the problems of the
newcomer most expeditiously and with the greatest possible advantage
to himself. He would look over the new group carefully, and would
select some hoy who was a little larger than himself hut whom he knew
that he would have no difficulty in whipping. He would pick a quarrel
with this youngster, and a very satisfactory fight would ensue. After
that, his status among his fellows was assured.
The primary group of youngsters impresses some of the taboos
of the older group, perhaps a bit more violently than does the adult
group itself.
There are several specific incidents in my life here which are worth noting.
I had often heard the epithet ——, hut I did not know what it meant. One
day I thought I would try that out on a fellow, and so I called him that.
No sooner were the words out o£ m y mouth than the fellow was on me and
I was flat on my back. He pounded me thoroughly and I finally got enough
breath to tell him that I would swallow those words. In this manner a
meaningless phrase became a specially significant phrase. That phrase simply
meant a thorough pounding. (Hud.)
The boy had stumbled upon a “ fighting word.” It is important that

these “ fighting words,” as an element of culture, have survived longer
in the play group than in the workaday world of ad ults.
Hazing is sometimes in the tradition, hut even when it is not, it
appears naturally as a product of primary group life. That is why
it resists so successfully the most determined and well-advised at
tempts to eradicate it. The elders are an in-gi'oup; in the primary
group of children the elders are those who have hee.n longest in the
I group. Newcomers are not. admitted easily to this closed group. They
are for a time regarded with suspicion and distrust. I f they must
he included in the group, they must submit gracefully to the period
of probation and to some ceremonies o f initiation. So they reason
who maintain the standards of the primary group against the attacks
of newcomers. Hazing rests upon this solid rock of human nature.
Oddly enough, various kinds o f hazing are in force on most faculties,
even those m o st d eterm in ed to su p p ress all k in d s o f h a z in g am on g

stu den ts. T h e n ew m em b er is n ever qu ite received in to the fo ld . The
older m em h ers o f th e fa c u lty a lw a y s take him at first on probation .
H e does n o t r e a lly b elon g. Som etim es th is fa c u lt y h a z in g assum es a
v e r y defin ite fo r m . T h ere are m a n y jok es to be p la y e d u p on n ew -
com ers. T h ere are rid icu lo u s stories to be to ld h im , a n d he m u st be
liev e th em o r n o t. T h ere are ru les o f d ecoru m a n d o f precedence
w h ich n e w teachers fa i l to observe a t th eir o w n cost. I n one p riv a te
sch ool fo r b o y s in a n isolated c o m m u n ity o f the M id d le W e s t , a defi
n ite ce re m o n y h as been b u ilt u p . T h e n ew teach er, a lw a y s m a le , is
n e v e r received in to th e brotherh ood u n til h e has jo in e d the E lk s.
W h e n h e jo in s the E lk s , he is w ell and p r o p e r ly h azed , a n d a ft e r th at
he belongs.
H a z in g h as h a d its apologists w h o h av e stated m ore o r less clea rly

its m e rits. T h e m o st effective a n d p erh ap s the m o st ju stifia b le fo rm
o f h azin g is the sy stem o f fa g g in g as it h as been d eveloped in the
E n g lis h p u h lie schools. I t is a m o st efficient m o d e o f p a ssin g on the
school id eals in so f a r as th ey have heen assim ila te d b y the stu d en ts
d o in g the h a z in g ; it is a m eth o d o f u sin g the tam e ele p h a n ts to captu re
the w ild ones. I t does n o t in fa c t u su a lly tu rn out so, fo r th e fa c u lty
fe e ls th a t an a u th o rity con flictin g w ith its owu h as been set up b y the
h azers, a n d h azin g does u n d o u b te d ly in te rfe re w ith fa c u lt y control.
P e r h a p s the best ju stifica tio n o f h a z in g is th a t it h a s som e v alu e
as a m ean s o f so cializin g o verp rivilege d y o u n g s t e r s ; these are at
la s t b ro u g h t fa c e to fa ce w ith an a u th o rity w h ich w h e e d lin g can n ot
p la c a te or blu ffin g t e r r ify , a n d fr o m w h ich th ere is n o ap p eal. H a z in g
is a p a r t o f a p o w e r fu l en gin e m a k in g fo r c o n fo rm ity . I t is th e n atu re
o f the p r im a r y g ro u p life o f school ch ild re n to p rod u ce, b y stead y
p ressu re, c o n fo r m e d in d ivid u als. A l l a rg u m e n ts th a t s u p p o r t co n
fo r m it y m a y th erefo re be a d van ced in fa v o r o f h azin g .
The c h ie f a rg u m en t aga in st h azin g is that the p erso n w h o hazes
lack s the ju d g m e n t to deal w ith the cases w h ich h e is accu stom ed to
p a ss u p o n su m m a r ily . T h is is a v a lid ohjeetion . I t is p a r t ly overcom e
b y the fa c t th at h a z in g is borne, in the m a jo r it y o f instan ces, w ith the
greatest e q u a n im ity . I t is in fa c t o fte n ill-c o n sid e re d , bu t little vocal
ob jection is tak en to it, a n d the h azed one o fte n takes a certain pride
in the roughness o f the trea tm en t he is su b je c te d to. I f , h ow ever, a
m e m b er o f the fa c u lt y d id a n y th in g o n e-ten th as extrem e as the ty ra n t
o f the p la y g r o u n d a ttem p ts to do, th ere w o u ld be a g re a t deal o f
o b jectio n . Tb e difference is in the relation sh ip . T h ere is n o t in the
relation o f stu d e n t to stu d en t the la te n t h o stility that ex ists between
PRIMARY g r o u p s a m o n g sc h o o l c h il d r e n
185
^ «* *
at oth er tim es, a n d it is m ad e h hi&Z\* w ^llc^ ° P era tes in his b e h a lf
fo r those a l i t t l T ^ b y tbe o f the y o u n g
. ™ ; r d t . v t a r , r ; i k - tte “ * - • *
grou p r a th e r th an b e tra v it a rP ,-,n 1 a n y ln Juat,CR fr o m th a t
only p u zzled because th ey do n o t r e a h ^ ^ ^ ^ a d u lts; A d u lt s are
o f o p in ion in the p la y g ro u p o n o t realize h o w m ig h ty is th e fo rce
does n o t d ep en d u p o n a d u lt stand* ^ sta tu s in th a t g ro u p

not easy to d ecid e il *
tru stw orth y fr o m the a d u lt 's 88 govern ; th e stoo l-p ig eo n is
L in sid er A n d w h i t is h ^ i L C 1 "™ bu t M t f™ “ of
I n a life h is to r y occur* the f o l l o w t o b ° n ° r id a n o tlle r'
lick in g a t sch ool, o f w h ich I w a s „ n P ! f 1 received ™ y first
asham ed, d e p e n d in g u p o n the • 6rn ate y v e r y P rou d and v e r y
m y classm ates I w a L r o u d „ f T ” “ Whi° h 1 l o u ” d ” « « “ •
■Among m y . I d « T i w as e a l d " ^ ^ 5‘ 0 rm r f “
1 T h e T „ Iatedd S° “ e 8 iU C a ti0 M l e°n v e r d i 0^1 o T tlto T ™ ’ ' “ PP° S8'
nous w ith t h r r h o f l t clasPsrT n d y y e t OUP f- Children are n o t e °t e r m i-

relationship a p p ea r w ith in the e L s A ^ r t T f Pe™ en t p a tte r n s o f
u ve lea d ersh ip g ro w s u p th ro u g h the y e a rs ! P ®C“ llze d a n d cu m u la -
{ eerta in Jit« e g ir l becom es the actress o f a L ! T associa« ^ -
chooses a n oth er g ir l as heroine o f » ni f ’ and a tea ch er w h o
tion in th e en tire 7 T \ . f 7 a
” 0” ' 8 l 0 r "> r and “ -s te r n a ,
is so m e th in g like th a t which th ™ 11 ***! a tt ltn d es w h ich he stir s n p
- ^ e tic LZvZlytte t s Z e b „, r 0 r n W l,“ 1 8 ‘ ' b8” h 8S' ’

edged o ra to r o f the class an d h h u n y , 7 b ° beeom es the a ck n ow l-
I fb iic relation s. T h ere L a p o lite the class *
merely a sile n t boss. T h ere are v e t o t h T ’ ™ ° ,“ ay. bC th e ° ra to r or
The a tte m p ts w h ich m e m b ers of t h e ^ f / . Zatl, ° nS‘
Saniv,e the p r im a r y g ro u p life o f ? 7 W m ade to or*
» » l r o I h ave g e n e r a l ^ been u n s n c e e j f n 7 ° i u s , T ‘V " PUrp° ses 0 f
»f u s in g th e p r im a r y g r o u p sa n ction s o f e h i l t o ^ T . '■ *“
o f the sch ool, to obtain u s in io , , c m ia r e n , th e p u b lic o p in io n
toacher-ordain ed so c ia l’ e ld e But ^ P erfe<dly’ a e,JIlf° r m i t y to the
| up life have a i , : : ; S e d r : f rr lities of p r w y

school, th at o f Classes, o f ran k s a n d T f ' t l T ^ ° UP life ° f tIle
of the team s, fa ile d to take h o ld Th R ^ baS' W lth tbe exeeP t i°n
graded set o f a ctiv iti s and a it' T * ™ th th e ir ™ e l y
’ a n d a Set ° f eorresP o n d in g d istin ction s, h a v e
don e r a th e r w e ll in o rg a n izin g th e p r im a r y g ro u p li f e o f children.

T h e b o y s ' c lu b , u n d e r a su itable le a d e r,1 is p o ssib ly o u r best w eapan
f o r co m b a tin g ju v e n ile d elin q u en c y. B u t a n e n tir e ly su itable tech
n iq u e f o r u tiliz in g th e p r im a r y g ro u p life o f ch ild re n fo r the inculca
tio n o f a d u lt b e h a v io r n o rm s h as n o t y e t been devised.
T e t n o th in g w o u ld be m o re d esirab le th a n th a t w e sh o u ld h ave a
stro n g a n d w e ll-o rg a n ize d p r im a r y g ro u p lif e o f y o u n g ste rs u n der
a d u lt con trol. T h e y o u n g ca n be in itia te d in to th e social life o f the
c o m m u n ity o n ly b y slow stages, a n d ca n com e to f u l l citizen sh ip on ly
th ro u g h a n ic e ly g ra d ed a n d con tin u ou s p r o g r e ssio n o f social groups
th a t a p p r o x im a te ev er m ore a ccu ra tely th e co n d ition s o f a d u lt life.
B u t ch a racter i s fo r m e d in p a r tic ip a tio n , a n d th e g r o u p s through
w h ich the ch ild passes on h is w a y to a d u lth o o d m u s t b e su ch as J
absorb h is in te re st f u l l y a n d excite h is deepest lo y a lty . F o r m a l train - I
in g , h ow ev er n ic e ly a d a p te d an d efficient, ca n n e v e r ta k e th e p lace of
ex p erien ce i n the p r im a r y g ro u p . A n a n a lo g y su g g ests its e lf between
th e ch ild a n d th e im m ig ra n t. A m e r ic a n iz a tio n stu d ies h a v e show n that
th e a ssim ila tio n o f the im m ig ra n t p ro ceed s m o st r a p id ly w h en he is
received in to th e g ro u p life o f th e A m e r ic a n b o r n , fo r he th en absorbs
the defin ition s o f situ a tio n s in d ig e n o u s to the A m e r ic a n cu ltu re and
w ork s ou t h is p erso n a l p ro b lem s h y a d o p tin g a se t o f social roles and
a ttitu d e s n o t in c o n g ru o u s w ith the cu rren t d efin ition s o f th e situation.
T h e b a rriers w h ich sep arate th e a d u lt, e sp e c ia lly a n a d u lt who
h a p p e n s to be a teach er, fr o m th e p r im a r y g ro u p li f e o f ch ildren,
are n e a r ly im p en etrab le . B u t th ere a re ce rta in tech n iq ues b y th e use
o f w h ich th e teach er a n d th e a d u lt m a y o b tain p ro v isio n a l stan din g
in th e g r o u p a n d perh ap s a n o p p o r tu n ity to p eer th ro u gh th e door
o f th e in n e r w o r ld o f ch ild ren w ith th e con sen t o f the ohserved. These
tech n iq u e s are w e ll kn ow n , b u t w ill p e r h a p s b ea r m e n tio n here. B asic |
to all o f th e m is th e a ttem p t to m ak e th e m e m b ers o f th e g ro u p believe
th a t th is one a d u lt u n d ersta n d s th e ir p e c u lia r cu sto m s a n d p o in t of 1
view . T h e teach er m a y , w ith o u t lo ss o f d ig n ity and w ith great gain [
to h is u n d e r sta n d in g , jo i n the g r o u p o f school ch ild re n as a n e x officio
m em ber. T h e m a le teach er m a y knock out fu n g o e s to w o u ld -b e ball
p la y e r s ; in so d o in g he m akes h im s e lf a g re a t con venien ce, a n d he
does n o t en ter in to d efin ite co m p etitio n w ith th e y o u n g ste r s, so th at it
is p o ssib le to k eep h is distance. A sim ila r te c h n iq u e is th a t o f m erely
sh ow in g in te re st i n th e m o re im p o rta n t h u sin ess o f y o u n g sters, by
s u p p o r tin g team s, etc., b u t it is n ecessary to rem e m b er here th at a
'L e a d e r s w h o s e in flu e n c e is e n t ir e ly w h o le s o m e a r e u n c o m m o n .
PRIMARY GROUPS AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN
187
verbal sta tem en t o f in terest is r a r e ly effective, a n d th a t in g e n e ra l

the teach er is the m o re co n v in cin g fo r sa y in g little. L e s s e th ic a l m ean s
I o f in sta llin g o n e ’s s e lf i n th e stu d e n t g ro u p are to jo in in r id ic u le or

abuse o f the sch ool en em y, o r to b e toleran t o f th e p ersec u tio n o f
the school goat. S o m e tea ch ers w h o h ave th e sam e stu d e n ts y e a r a fte r
y ea r a tte m p t to s o lid ify th e g ro u p w ith th em selv es as m e m b ers b y
tak in g a te n ta tiv e or in to le ra n t a ttitu d e to w a r d n ew com ers a m o n g
the s tu d e n ts ; it is a n a tte m p t th a t is m ore or less su c c e ssfu l, b u t a t
w hat cost w e do n o t know . I t is im p o rta n t, i f the tea ch er is n o t to
lose h is s ta n d in g in th e g ro u p , to dep rive th ose w h o m he p u n ish es
o f th eir g ro u p s ta n d in g h efo re p ro ceed in g a ga in st them . T h e te a c h e r
is b y no m e a n s a lw a y s su c c e ssfu l in this. W h a t the tea ch er sh a ll d o
w ith th is g r o u p s ta n d in g w e sh all n o t a tte m p t to sa y , b e y o n d in d ic a t
in g th a t the possession o f i t w ill m a k e i t easier fo r h im to liv e w ith
his stu d en ts, p r o v id in g th a t he h as n o t lo st h is sta n d in g as a tea ch er
in g a in in g th is p r im a r y g r o u p r a p p o r t, a n d th a t i f he h as it h e m a y ,
i f he is v e r y s k illfu l a n d v e r y u n d e r sta n d in g , be able to g u id e th e
p r im a iy g ro u p life o f ch ild re n into w h o lesom e a n d a ccep tab le c h a n
nels. I t is th is la tte r p o ssib ility w h ich is i n p o in t here.
I t o ccasion ally h a p p e n s th at th e c o n d ition s o f life are so sa tis fa c to r y
at one stage in th e d ev elop m en t o f o n e ’s p r im a r y g ro u p ex p erien ce
th at the in d iv id u a l is n o t w illin g to p a ss fr o m t h a t sta g e to th e n ex t.
It is a sm a ll w o rld , b u t a n in terestin g one, a n d h e does n o t w a n t to
leave it. The f u ll and sa tisfa c to r y life of th e school h ero, su r
rou n ded w ith ev ery d istin ctio n a n d c o n sta n tly w a ite d u p o n b y ob
sequious a d u lts a n d co n tem p o raries r e a d y to do h im e v e ry h om age, is
a life th at one is loa th to relin q u ish . W e find th ese in d iv id u a ls, so m e
times, p r o lo n g in g th eir school life b y ev ery possible device, a n d d is
p la y in g th em selv es fo rev er a fte r in tr a ilin g clo u d s o f p re p -sch o o l
glory. T h e w o r ld o f a m a teu r a th letics is th ic k ly p o p u la ted w ith su ch
in d ivid u als. I n th e a d u lt w o rld , o f course, th e y d isp la y no h ig h degree
o f fle x ib ility . M ich a e l A r le n has in v en ted the te r m “ p r e fe c t p sy c h o l
ogy to d esign a te the state o f m in d o f those w h o c a r r y over p r e p -
school p erso n a l a d ju stm e n ts a n d so cial tech n iq u es into a d u lt life .
PKOJECTS
1. Study the political process in a self-governing play group. How am
decisions arrived at? How is discipline enforced? What is ambition?
2. Study the play group relationships of a precocious child who is con
siderably ahead of his own age group in school. What problems does his
social life present?
3. Make a list of the social groups -which have successively been important
in your life, and show the importance of each one.
4. Discover hy inductive study the moral and ethical principles which have
force in a play group of hoys.
5. Make a case study of someone who exemplifies “ prefect psychology.”
6. Study the hehavior of a “spoiled” child in his first play group. What
effect did this group have upon his personality?
7. List members and ages of the principal play groups in one school. Do
these data confirm or disprove the stair-stepping of these groups?
8. Make a case study of a younger hrother. How complete is the younger
brother's exclusion from the elder brother's play associations, and what is its
effect upon the younger hrother’s personality?
9. Make a case study of a hoy who likes to play with younger children.
10. Study the hero worship among younger boys of high-school athletic
heroes.
11. Study the fights arising on a playground in a given period. Analyze
the social situations leading up to these fights.
12. Write the life history of a congenial group.
13. Study the interplay of attitudes within a clique of high-school girls.
Study especially the attitudes of rivals and of girls only partially -within
the group.
14. Study several chum relationships.
15. Record the hehavior of an adolescent or sub-adolescent courtship group,
16. Study initiation ceremonies, o f a grou p o f boys.
17. Study a group which hazes, and analyze its psychology,
18. Make a study of "fighting words” in a group of hoys.
19. Study hazing on a faculty.
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) Cooley, C. H., Social Organization Chapters III-V.
(2) K rueger , E. T., and R eckless , W. C., Social Psychology, Chaptor III.
(3) P eters, C. C., Foundations of Educational Sociology, Chapter XVI.
(4) T hrasher , E. M., The Gang.
(5) T otjno, K im b all , Source Book for Social Psychology, Chapter IV.
P art P our
THE TEACHER-PUPIL RELATIONSHIP
C hapter X IV
TEACHING AS INSTITUTIONALIZED LEADERSHIP
L eadersh ip is the control of one individual over the hehavior of

others. Every social situation tends to polarize itself in the relation
ship of leader and led.
Some persons lead because they cannot help it. They lead spon
taneously, and perhaps they lead without any awareness of the fact
that they are leading. Park has noted that leadership depends upon
a psychic set-up of expectancy, upon a certain eager attentiveness
focussed upon the leader, and upon a willingness to take a cue from
him. Such leadership arises inevitably from the association of unlike
persons; it has its roots in the relative mental complexity of the leader
which renders him unpredictable to those he leads. The leader must
he a little readier to act than his followers, a little more determined
to have his own way, a little more ruthless in carrying his projects
through ; the led must have some faith in the competence of the leader.
These are the elementary conditions of personal leadership.
Other persons lead because they have to. A social situation has
been set up and its pattern has been determined. The pattern is one
which calls for a leader. The pattern governs also what the leader
shall do with the led. This is institutional leadership.
Personal leadership arises from the interaction of personalities.
It is an effect of personal gradients among the parts of a social whole.
Personal interchange is at its height in personal leadership; there are
no harriers shutting off one person from communion with another.
In institutional leadership, personalities must be strained through
the sieve of the social pattern hefore they can come into contaet with
each other.
In personal leadership, the properties of the interacting personali
ties determine the pattern of social interaction. In institutional
leadership, personalities arc forced to conform to the preexisting pat-
189
190 TEE SOCIOLOGY OP TEACHING
tern; they are pumped up or deflated to make them fit their station.
This is not to say that there is no pattern in personal leadership,
but that the choice of the pattern and the place of each person in it
are determined by the interplay of human forces in the situation.
The relationship of personal leadership arises when the group
waits to see what some one person is going to do, feeling that what
he does will be something very much to the point, and that it will
be such a thing as the others would never think of. Superordination
and subordination, of this land is determined by the relative range
of personality and the complexity of mental organization of those
involved in the situation. The extreme form of sueh leadership is
found in the religious sect with an inspired leader, fo r then God is
the leader, than whom no leader could possibly be more inscrutable
or unpredictable.
In institutional leadership the leader has been established by an
other process, and he steps into a situation already prepared for him.
Some sort of formal organization intervenes between the leader and
the led. The extreme form of institutional leadership is probably that
provided by the hereditary kingship. The king steps into the station
made for him by his predecessors. His subjects wait to see what he
will do, but, then, he must do what is expected of him, too. The
school teacher is another kind of institutional leader.
In personal leadership, social patterns are always more or less in
the w ay; that is why the dynamic leader breaks precedents. Per
sonal leadership is borne more or less gladly, because it conforms
to the realities of the situation; if conventionalized fictions come
between the leader and the perception of the actual situation, he is
an institutional leader. There is a need in human nature for per
sonal leadership.
Institutionalized leadership gains by a clear demarcation of boun
dary lines and by rigid adherence to them. Personal influence must
always be strained through the sieve of formality. Institutional leader
ship eannot remain institutional save by an insistence upon the lines
of demarcation, for there is always a tendency for the human inter
action in the situation to transcend those boundary lines. Where
the pattern of leadership is predetermined, there must be a continual
struggle to keep a more spontaneous kind of leadership, with the
same or a different leader, from arising.
Institutional leadership persists because it satisfies a human need
for dependence; it makes all a m an’s difficult decisions for him, and
TEACHING AS INSTITUTIONALIZED LEADEESHIP 191
carries him along in a “ moral automobile.” But institutional leader

ship, no less than personal leadership, is ever destroyed and ever
created anew; it seems likely, too, that because of its more rigid
character, leading to a certain amount of inadaptation to the dynamics
of present situations, and because of the conflict between institutional
and personal leadership, the institutional kind arouses a greater
amount of hostility.
But personal factors exist in both kinds of leadership, and patterns
exist in both. In personal leadership, the social patterns are carried
in personalities. In institutional leadership, the personalities are con
tained in the pattern— sometimes hampered by it as by a straight-
jacket, sometimes expanded and ennobled to fit it.
All leadership proceeds from a mode of defining the situation. In
stitutional leadership sets up a ready-prepared definition of the situ
ation and adheres to it rigidly. Non-institutionalized leadership de
fines the situation in terms of policies to be elaborated later, in terms
of measures to be impi’ovised according to the demands of the situa
tion. Institutionalized leadership tends to break down under condi
tions of peculiar strain, and personal leadership, with its continual
modification of measures, steps in to take its place. The peace time
army can afford to be rigid, but under battle conditions it must im
provise, and every subaltern in it must improvise, in order to adapt
to the rapidly changing situation. Personal leadership tends to be
come institutionalized when time has made its forms explicit and
usual, and when the mantle of the prophet descends upon his successor.
Some prestige is necessary for all leadership. In personal leader
ship the prestige attaches to the person. In institutional leadership,
the prestige attaches to the office (and is more likely to be associated
with a rebellion against the officer as a person).
Prestige depends upon idealization. In personal leadership, the ele
ments of the person are selected out and made to fit into some prestige-
carrying pattern. In institutional leadership the pattern is already
present, and the individual must be assimilated to that pattern or to
none. Social distance is necessary in both kinds of leadership, for
prestige is usually an illusion produced hy the partial perception of
a personality and the fitting into the picture of qualities not in
congruous with those perceived. But in institutional leadership the
necessity for social distance is greater, since the pattern is more defi
nite, and the chance of the leader's failing to categorize favorably if
all his qualities are known is immeasurably increased.
P e r so n a l a u th o r ity is the p rin c ip le o f p erso n a l lea d ersh ip . The

a u th o rity o f the office is th e p r in c ip le o f lea d ersh ip th a t is relevant
to th e in stitu tio n . P erso n a l a u th o rity , hecause i t is g la d ly h o m e and
a lw a y s in p o in t, is a rh itra r y b u t does n o t seem so. In stitu tio n a l au
th o r ity , h e in g su h je c t to stric t ru les an d a lo n g tr a d itio n , seem s ar
h itr a ry h u t is n o t. I t seem s a rh itra r y hecause it does n o t grow out
o f th e situ a tio n d ire c tly h u t is im p osed fr o m w ith o u t. I t is rea lly
th e le a d e r th at m a k es the d iffe re n c e ; w here the lea d er is d eterm in ed
h y social in tera ction in th e situ a tio n , h is p ow er is n o t arh itrary.
B u t w here the lea d er is determ in ed otherw ise, h is p o w e r seem s ar
h itra ry . I n the n o n -in stitu tio n a l situ ation the p ow er o f the in d iv id u a l
d ep en d s u p on the fa c t o f leadership. I n th e in stitu tio n , p ow er goes
w ith a certain official c a p a c ity a n d m akes the leader.
T h e school d ep en d s a lm ost en tire ly u p o n in stitu tio n a l leadership,
O u r d iscu ssio n w ill be relev a n t to th e la n d o f in stitu tio n a l lea d er
sh ip fo u n d in th e sch ool. W e sh all a ttem p t to descrih e in d eta il and
to a n a ly ze as m in u te ly a s possihle the p erso n a l a sp ects o f th is process.
M u c h o f ou r space w ill n ecessa rily be devoted to a n a n alysis o f
the tech n iq u e o f in stitu tio n a l lead ersh ip , its p ro h lem s, solu tion s fo r
its p ro h lem s, devices used b y person s to w o rk u p o n each other in
the in stitu tio n a l situ a tio n , etc. A w o r d m a y be in o rd er con cern in g
th e p o in t o f v ie w fr o m w h ich th is d iscu ssion o f in stitu tio n a l leader
sh ip is orien ted . W e do n o t fa v o r th e k in d o f in stitu tio n a l leadership
th a t is n ow in v o g u e in th e schools. A s betw een th e n a rro w ed and
ch a n n elized p e r so n a l in te rc h a n g e w h ich n ow tak es p lac e in the
sch ools, and th e b ro a d e r, fre e r co m m u n io n ad vo ca ted hy p ro g res
sive w r ite r s, ou r p refe re n c e is fo r th e la tte r so rt o f situ a tio n . B u t
we fe e l th a t hoth th e th eory a n d practice o f ed u cation h ave suffered
in th e p a st fr o m a n o v era tten tio n to w h a t o u g h t to he a n d its correla
tiv e te n d e n c y to d isre g a rd w h a t is. W h e n th e o ry is n o t h ased u p o n the
e x istin g p ra ctice, a g re a t h ia tu s a p p ea rs h etw een th e o ry a n d p ra c
tice, a n d th e consequence is th a t th e p ro gressiven ess o f th eory does
n o t a ffect th e co n serva tism o f practice. T h e stu d e n t teach er learns the
m o st a d va n ced th e o ry o f ed u ca tio n , a n d goes ou t fr o m school w ith a
fir m d e te r m in a tio n to p u t it into p ractice. B u t he finds th a t this
th e o r y g iv e s h im little h elp in d e a lin g w ith th e concrete social situ
a tio n th a t fa c e s h im . A f t e r a fe w a tte m p ts to tran slate th eories into
ed u c a tio n a l p ractice, h e g ives u p a n d tak es his gu id an ce fr o m con
v e n tio n a l sources, fr o m th e a d vice o f o ld e r teachers, th e proverbs
o f th e fr a t e r n it y , a n d the c o m m a n d m en ts o f p rin c ip a ls. I t is this
fa ilu r e o f the science o f ed u cation to deal w ith a ctu alities th a t largely
t e a c h in g AS INSTITUTIONALIZED l e a d e r s h i p 193
accou n ts f o r the slow pace o f p rogress in ed u ca tio n al p ractice. B e

it ours, then, to tr y to u n d ersta n d in stitu tio n a l lea d ersh ip in its
p resen t fo r m a n d to hope th at th at u n d e r sta n d in g m a y le a d to its
reiorm .
U n d e r ly in g ou r discussion o f d o m in a n ce a n d su b o rd in a tio n in the

school ,s th e n otion o f the school as an in stitu tio n . T h ere is a certain
r o u tim za tm n o f th e hehavior o f stu d e n ts a n d teachers. T h ere is a
p a tte rn d e term in in g the s itu a tio n ; there is a set o f in terlo ck in g defini-
tio n s o f the situ a tio n . W e are d iscu ssin g th e in teraction o f p erso n a li
ties w ith in th a t con ven tion alized situ ation . W e sh all discu ss v a rio u s
m eans w h ich teachers use f o r k eepin g stu d en ts in li n e ; th is p resu p
poses th a t there is a line. T h e o rd in a ry situ a tio n o f the o rd in a ry
classroom is th e ba ck g rou n d o f ou r discussion
W e m a y gen eralize a hit fu r th e r con cern in g th e ch a racteristic fe a
tures o f in stitu tio n a lize d dom inan ce a n d su b ord in ation . S im m e l has
en deavored to show h o w su b o rd in ation is possihle as a social a rra n ge-
m e n t hetween h u m a n heings. T h e g ist o f h is d iscu ssion seem s to he
th at su b o rd in a tio n is possihle hecauSe the relation sh ip is m e a n in g fu l
to th e d o m in a n t p erson, an d , r ela tiv e ly , n o t m e a n in g fu l to th e su b
ord in ate one. T h u s the d o m in a n t p e rso n a lity enters into su ch re la
tio n sh ip s w ith h is whole p e rso n a lity or w ith a re la tiv e ly la rg e seg
m e n t o f it, w h ereas the su b ord in ate gives h u t a sm a ll p a r t o f h im se lf
O n e m a n m a y he ru le r over m illio n s, hecause th e one m a n g iv es his
en tire s e lf to the re la tio n sh ip ; the m illio n s p a rtic ip a te in it hut
slig h tly . S o h y a p sy c h ic a rra n gem en t w ith in th e su b o rd in a te d an d
e d o m in a n t p erso n a lities the p erm an en ce o f a social stru c tu re is
m ade p ossib le.1
A certain conflict o f in terest m u st a lw ay s ex ist hetw een the p erson

who ru les a n d the p erson who is ru led. A n d there seem s a lw a y s to be a
certain a m o u n t o f fr ic tio n hetween th e person s p la y in g those roles
as lo n g as th e relation sh ip continues. B u t it is possihle fo r the rela-
10n s ip to p e r s is t; su b ord in ates do n o t a lw a y s hate th e ir m asters
a n d m f e n o r s do n o t a lw ay s rehcl, a n d th is is hecause the flow o f
e lf-fe e lm g in the su b ord in ate is a w a y fr o m the relation sh ip Su h -
K 'r s :;s t
p e r s o n . T h e s t u d e n t s h o u ld c o n s u lt N T S o v l™ P ™ P eUy- ®u ^ r d u ia t l0 I i t o a
SiiYimel rm Q7 i no. tv,. , _ 1 1 ^Py^niaiij Social TJveory o f Gcoto
“ a n d PR ™ ^ D a w son a n d G e d d e s , In tro d u ctio n to S o c io lo g y , p p . 4 6 2 4 ? 2 ■
peared in the A m erica n Journal o f S o c io lo g y , V o l.^ , 186? ** ttp‘

ordination is hearable because it, is meaningless. The self expands in

a pleasant situation, and contracts in an unpleasant one. The self
grows into a pleasant relationship, and moves away from a relation
ship in which one feels inferior or thwarted. Subordination in the
institution is possible heeause institutional and non-institutional selves
are split off from each other. The whole social order may be seen as
a tangle of interlocking social selves. Every man must have some pride,
and he must have some relationship in which he really lives. Defeated
on one surface of the tetrahedron, he grows into another. When a
thousand men come together, each striving to estahlish an equilibrium
o f superiority and inferiority in a multitude of activities, each con
tinually altering his participation in those activities and revising
from moment to moment the psychic weighting of that participation,
each striving to obtain for himself a favorable balance of trade in
that coin with which social debts are mostly paid, namely, praise,
and each disturhing the equilibrium which every other has worked
out, when a thousand men live together, then each man lives a thou
sand lives.
In terms of this psychic adjustment to the institutional situation,
the struggle hetween master and subordinate goes into a new phase;
the same mechanisms seem to operate in all kinds of institutions, in
armies, churches, schools, and penitentiaries. The dominant person
ality strives not only to maintain the relationship, hut to maintain
and if possible to increase, its meaning. He lives in the relationship,
and he expands into it. The subordinate, on the other hand, strives
to achieve a psychic reorganization which will reduce the meaning
of the relationship to nothing. The subordinate does not live in that
relationship, and therefore superiors are not important as persons.
This is a process which has many complications. It is important from
the standpoint of sociology to remark that groups of superiors and
inferiors commonly develop into in-groups. Each of these, in-groups
has its own life, which tends to be rich and full of meaning, and each
has its own standards and its own morality. It is the problem of ad
ministration to prevent these in-groups from becoming conflict groups.
The system of personal relationships is complicated by t.he entry of
various mechanisms of abnormal psychology which are brought into
play by the personal disunity which t.he complex situation engenders.
Thus the subordinate commonly refuses t.o remain conscious of the
actual meaning of the subordinate relationship, and compensates by
an unreal phantasy life. The superior, too, must often repress cer
tain elements of his personality, usually tendencies to social respon-
TEACHING AS INSTITUTIONALIZED LEADERSHIP 195
siveness directed toward his inferiors which might damage his stand
ing in the relationship.
Formality is a compromise, an accommodation, which enahlcs in
stitutional leadership to survive. Formalities, a complicated social
ritual and a hody of rules and regulations, define once and for all
the rights and privileges of all persons involved in the situation.
Formality prevents friction by preventing the contact of personali
ties. Politeness is a device enabling us to get along with persons
whom we do not like, more accurately, a device enabling us to get
along with persons whether we like them or not.1 Formality usually
relates, on the surface, to the formulae of respect and consideration
owed by the inferior to the superior; perhaps a return is exacted,
such as the salute, but it may not be, as in the case of the “ S ir”
which army officers “ rate.” But formality is not wholly one-sided,
for it confers an equal benefit upon the subordinate. It allows him,
if he conforms to all external forms, to reduce the psychic weighting
of these formulae of respect to nothing if he wishes, to mechanize
the ritual of respect as he will, and to live his inner life on another
level. W e salute the uniform and not the man. And formality pro
tects the inferior from arbitrary exactions of the superior. The social
ritual of the Japanese under the Samurai prescribed how many teeth
the peasant should show when he smiled in the presence of a nohle;
it was his privilege, then, to give of himself neither more nor less.
It is a failing of the recently elevated to demand too much; this,
formality prevents. The art of command is the adjustment of per
sonality to the roles that are most in conformity with one’s station.
Authority carries with it both privilege and Inhibition; new authority
is often irksome to all concerned, but old authority is as proper a
thing as an old hat.
The teacher-pupil relationship is a form of institutionalized domi
nance and subordination. Teacher and pupil confront each other in
the school with an original conflict of desires, and however much that
conflict may be reduced in amount, or however much it may be hid
den, it still remains. The teacher represents the adult group, ever
the enemy of the spontaneous life of groups of children. The teacher
represents the formal curriculum, and his interest is in imposing
that curriculum upon the children in the form of tasks; pupils are
much more interested in life in their own world than in the desiccated
T . H , M ea t! sp e a k s o f g o o d m a n n e r s aa a ' ‘ m e a n s o f k e e p in g p o s s i b l e b o r e s
at a d i s t a n c e ,” i n ' ‘ N a t io n a l- M in d e d n e s s a n d I n t e r n a t io n a l-M in d e d n e s a ,” I n t e r
national Journal o f E th ics, v o l. 3 9 , 1 9 2 9 , p . 393.
bits of adult life wbicli teachers have to offer. The teacher represents
the established social order in the school, and his interest is in main
taining that order, whereas pupils have only a negative interest in
that feudal superstructure. Teacher and pupil confront each other
with attitudes from which the underlying hostility can never he alto
gether removed. Pupils are the material in which teachers are sup
posed to produce results. Pupils are human heings striving to realize
themselves in their own spontaneous manner, striving to produce their
own results in their own way. Each of these hostile parties stands
in the way of the other; in so far as the aims of either are realized,
it is at the sacrifice of the aims of the other.
Authority is on the side of the teacher. The teacher nearly always
wins. In fact, he must win, or he cannot remain a teacher. Children,
after all, are usually docile, and they certainly are defenceless against
the machinery with which the adult world is ahle to enforce its
decisions; the result of the hattle is foreordained. Conflict hetween
teachers and students therefore passes to the second level. All the
externals of conflict and o f authority having heen settled, the mat
ter chiefly at issue is the meaning of those externals. Whatever the
rules that the teacher lays down, the tendency of the pupils is to
empty them of meaning. By mechanization of conformity, hy “ laugh
ing oif” the teacher or haLing him out of all existence as a person, hy
taking refuge in self-initiated activities that are always just heyond
the teacher’s reaeh, students attempt to neutralize teaeher control.
The teacher, however, is striving to read meaning into the rules and
regulations, to make standards really standards, to force students
really to conform, This is a hattle which is not unequal. The power
of the teacher to pass rules is not limited, hut his power to enforce
rules is, and so is his power to control attitudes toward rules.
Rules may he emasculated hy attrition through setting up excep
tions which at first seem harmless to the established order hut when
translated into precedent are found to destroy some parts of it al
together. One value of experience in teaching is that it gives the
teacher an understanding of precedents. A trivial favor to Johnny
Jones hecomes a ruinous social principle when it is made a precedent.
Or students defeat a rule by taking refuge in some activity just
heyond its reach; what the rule secures, then, is not conformity but
a different kind of non-conformity. Both teachers and pupils know
well what hinges on these struggles over rules and evasions of rules.
Johnny goes to the hlaekhoard hut he shuffles his feet; he is made to
walk hriskly hut he walks too hriskly; he is forced to walk correctly
hut there is a sullen expression on his face. Many teachers learn to

cut through the rules to deal with the mental fact of rehellion; this
is a negation of institutionalized leadership and requires a personality
strong enough to stand without institutional props.
Most important in making conformity to external rules harmless
are hahitnal adjustments to the inconveniences which teachers can
impose upon students. A certain hoy is in rehellion against the school
authorities; he violates many rules and he devises new offences which
are not covered hy rules. Penalties do not stop him from breaking
rules, for he is used to penalties, used, to “ walking the hull ring” or
staying in after hours, and toughened to heatings. New penalties,
likewise, do not stop him long, fo r he soon hecomes accustomed to
them as thoroughly as to the old. Likewise, it does little good to
devise rules to cover a wider range of contingencies, for the new laws,
the new risks, and the new penalties are soon a part of life. A social
machine, however finely worked out, can never make a human heing
go its way rather than his own, and no one can ever he controlled en
tirely from without.
Dominance and subordination in the schools are usually discussed
as “ discipline.” On the ohjective side, discipline is a social arrange
ment wherchy one person is able consistently to exert control over
the actions of others. Subjectively, discipline is the morale ohtaining
under institutionalized leadership. It is ohservahle in the social in
teraction of the persons concerned, and it rests upon psychic arrange
ments in the minds of those persons. “ Discipline” is often used as
a value term to denote something regarded as constructive and
healthful for the student or something of which the teacher approves.
In the had old schools, partly as a result of the school curriculum
and partly as an outgrowth of a stern ideal of character, an almost
Spartan ideal of discipline was in vogue. Children had to do things
they did not like heoause they did not like to do them. This rule
had its correlate, o f course, in that philosophy of the adult world,
a philosophy not, to he just, altogether unproductive, that we should
do every day something difficult simply hecause it was difficult, “ to
give the will a little gratuitous exercise.” When such a philosophy
ruled the schools, it was a mere incident of academic routine that if
children were forced to do certain things hecause they did not like to
do them, they did not like doing them hecause they were made to
do them. The suhtler personal effects of this sort of discipline were
not considered. Education consisted of learning things one did not
want to know because be did not want to know them. Whatever

seemed bad was therefore good and what seemed good was had. The
hest rule of school management was to find out what the children
were doing and tell them to stop it. This disciplinary ideal must
he classified with those other superstitions in our folklore, the hclief
that medicine is good if it tastes had and that asafoetida keeps away
the evil spirits. There is in fact more to be said for these primitive
medical beliefs than for their educational parallels, for had medicine
may work hecause we think it will and a hag of asafoetida around
the neek undoubtedly reduces contagion by eliminating contact. But
education that is not in some sense pleasant is not education.
Discipline is partly personal influence and partly the social stand
ing of an office. It is the resultant from the filtering of the teacher’s
personality through the porous framework of the institution. The
larger the pores in tho framework, the more personalities come into
contact through it, and the more profound and permanent, are the
effects of social interaction. The more evident the social pattern in
the schools, the less arc personalities involved.
Discipline is a phenomenon o f group life. It depends upon a col
lective opinion which superiors cause inferiors to form of superiors
and of the tasks imposed by superiors. Essentially it depends upon
prestige, which is largely a fiction, upon the ability o f leaders to
capture and hold attention (and hy shifting objectives, to maintain
the tonus o f the relationship), upon formality setting the stage for
social interaction, upon social distance which keeps primary group
attitudes from eating away at formal relations, upon the reenforce-
ment of respect for superiors hy the respect of superiors for each
other and upon the reenforcement of the inferior’s respect for the
superior by the respect which other inferiors pay him. (The main
tenance of discipline may depend also, in the long run, upon the
establishment of channels for the hostility of subordinates to supe
riors.) Discipline shows itself, in the group, as a one-way suggesti
bility.
The techniques used by teachers to maintain this mixed rapport,
discipline, may be classified, approximately in the order of their
utilization of the institutional and the arbitrary, and inversely to
their dependence upon personal influence, as follows: (.1) command,
(2) punishment, (3) management or the manipulation of personal
and group relationships, (4) temper, and (5) appeal.
(1) Institutionalized dominance and subordination appears in its
purest form in the command.1 A command is a suggestion directed by

the superior at the subordinate relating to the hehavior of the sub
ordinate. As a suggestion mechanism, it depends fo r its effectiveness
upon the general conditions of suggestibility, upon the inherent sug
gestibility of the subordinate, upon the one-way rapport between
superior and inferior, and upon the personal prestige of the individ
ual from whom the command emanates. The command as such is most
effective when most formalised, that is, when given without any
personal implications. The presumption is present that the superior
is willing to hack up the command with all the (unknown) resources
of his personality and of the organization of which both the super-
ordinated and the subordinated one are a part. Army officers are
accustomed to speak of a voice of command, which is strong and virile,
but flat and entirely unemotional, takes obedience fo r granted, and is
formalized as far as possible. On this latter point, note the military
custom of mechanizing as many commands as possible. “ Attention”
means hut one thing, and there is hut one way of calling for atten
tion. Likewise all commands relating to military maneuvers are com
pletely formalized. There is a tendency for even these bare words
to he reduced to their essential parts; thus “ Attention” becomes
“ Tenshun” with an accenting and a drawing out of the first syllable
and a sliding over of the last, and “ March” becomes symbolized by
“ H o .”
It seems clear that the reason for a command should never he ex
plained. Although it. may he desirable on other grounds to explain
it, it should he recognized that the explanation, hy introducing an
element of doubt concerning the command, or by the suggestion that
it might not he obeyed, or by the mere weakening of the stimulus
word hy bringing it into connection with others, detracts from the
force of the command. Certainly a command should never be coupled
with a statement of grievance, for that will revive hostility and some
times induce disrespect fo r the person weak enough to allow griev
ances to arise when he is presumed to be in control of the situation;
this is an error common among mothers and weak teachers. Likewise
a command that is couched in the language of the whine or the com
plaint operates powerfully to bring about its own frustration, for
it calls into heing a whole system of disgust reactions which militate
against ohedience. A plea is often used to back up a command, hut
' H . D . C o m m a n d s a r e o f t e n g i v e n in tlie n Q n -in st.itu t.io n a lize d r e la t io n s , b u t
th e s e a r e n o t f o r m a l c o m m a n d s . T h e y p r o c e e d f r o m w h o le p e r s o n a lit ie s , a n d a r e
d i r e c t e d a t w h o le p e r s o n a l i t i e s ; i t i s p r e c i s e l y t h is w h ic h is f o r b i d d e n in i n s t i t u
t io n a l r e la t io n s .
200 THE SOOtOIiOGY OF TEACHING
it seems certain that where this technique enables a person to obtain

control it is the plea that does the work and not the command. A
threat is commonly attached to a coinmaud, and the threat sometimes
operates to give force to a command hy attaching a fear sanction to
it, but the threat, detracts from the efficacy of the command as a pure
command by presenting the alternative of disobedience, and hy calling
out the hostile attitudes implicit in the situation of dominant and
dominated persons. It is likewise unfortunate to give a command in
the form of a question, such as, “ Will you shut u p ?” The giving
of a command implies authority, real or theoretical, formal or per
sonal. A command without authority hecomes a mere exhortation,
which is usually quite meaningless. In actual human relationships an
attenuation of authority occurs hy its heing spread over a field so
wide that it cannot, hold. Thus a great theoretical hut unenforceable
authority is congruous with the issuance of exhortations, while the
person of more limited authority ean give commands.
(2) The sanction enforcing the command is formal punishment.
Punishment is a measured pain or inconvenience imposed according
to rule hy the representative of authority upon those subject to that
authority. Punishment is impersonal, unemotional, and proportioned
to the offence rather than to the offender, every care heing taken, in
the pure ease, to separate the offender and the offence, and to keep
apart the punishment and the person inflicting the punishment.
Punishment is usually justified according to a hedonistic theory of
discipline. To every infraction of the rules must he attached a penalty
just severe enough to make it unattractive. Students will he good be
cause it will pay them to he good. Without emharking upon a theo
retical refutation of hedonism, we may remark that punishment often
fails to accomplish its purpose, even when the pains connected with it
are multiplied far beyond any possible pleasure connected with a vio
lation o f the rules, because the causes from which offences come are
more deep-seated than the remedies superimposed, so that the only
effect of punishment is to enhance mental conflict, or to produce a
more complex mental organization. It is not possible hy punishment
to produce very much effect upon a deep-lying personal hostility, ex
cept to increase it, or to deal with an irrational, unconscious attitude
of rchellion.
A real value of punishment is that it serves to define the situation.
It puts the student in the way of distinguishing clearly the permitted
and the not-permitted, the right and the wrong within the complex
social situation of the school. If consistently and unvaryingly applied,
it tends to set up certain rules as essential limitations to action, within

the situation, and the student comes in time, unless motivated other
wise to rebellion, to accept those basic limitations and to adapt his
behavior to them. A further value of punishment as it takes place in
the actual social situation of the school room is that it removes the
offender from the group. When the dominance of the teacher is
threatened hy some act of a student, it is imperative that action of
some sort he taken in order to prevent others from copying the he-
havior and reenforcing each other in their derelictions. It is the use
of formal punishment to put an abrupt end to the process of inter
action which might, ultimately lead to concerted rebellion hy remov
ing from the group the one from whom offence first comes. It may
he that the individual is punished hy some form of banishment, such
as sending from the room, sending to the principal's office, suspension,
or expulsion; in this case the isolation from the group is physical.
If the offeuder remains physically in the group, the faet that he is
under the ban, that he has an ordeal to face, or that he has lost
standing through humiliation serves to isolate him from the group
psychically and to lessen his influence upon other students. The
effect of the punishment on the person isolated is another matter.
It is necessary to distinguish carefully punishment and not-punish-
ment. A good deal of personal influencing that is not punishment is
commonly associated with punishment, in the schools. Punishment
consists merely in the infliction of the pain, inconvenience, or humili
ation that constitutes the substantial part of the punishment. Rarely
is punishment pure, for it is usually mingled with all sorts of mechan
isms of personal and social disapproval, with onthursts of temper,
ridicule, threats, and intimidations designed to make the occasion
more memorable or to furnish an outlet for the teacher’s temper.
These features of the actual social situation in which punishment is
administered are not punishment, although they arc almost invariably
associated with it. They are means of exerting influence, and they
operate according to the mechanisms of primary group life, which
are not the mechanisms of formal relationships. A chief difference of
effect is that these primary group influences tend to make the student
ultimately hecome similar to the teacher as he really is, and have a
deep influence upon character, constituting training hy example and
hy manipulation of the life situation, while formal punishment is
more narrowly concerned with a particular relationship, and does
not permit much transmission of actual character traits. The epigram
has it that character is caught, not taught; these personal outbursts

accompanying punishment allow character to be caught.
Punishment is probably used more often for personal reasons than
for reasons inherent in the formal relation; offences, likewise, often
arise from the clash of personalities rather than from the formal
structure. The usual thing is for the machinery o f punishment to be
made the means of carrying on the teacher’s part o f a conflict in
which teacher and student become involved but which neither under
stands. It should be noted that punishment used for personal ends
ceases to be punishment and becomes a feud or a struggle for status,
an aspect of social life in the school which we have noted elsewhere.
Some further generalizations may be made concerning the use of
punishment in the schools. The first of these is that there is in the
school very little punishment as strictly defined. It is very difficult
to keep punishment impersonal, under conditions of physical intimacy
and constant association such as those in which teacher and student
are thrown together, and therefore it is hard to keep punishment pun
ishment. When the personal element enters into punishment, an
intense hostility is aroused on both sides. The system of punishment is
apparently at its best wben the entire group, the teacher as well as
the student, is regarded as subordinated to a principle; in this case
tbc teacher is not the source and spring of punishment, hut the chan
nel through which it comes. I f the principle is consistently but not
fanatically adhered to, it may help to remove the personal element
from punishment, almost entirely. The difficulty is in finding a prin
ciple. We should note, furthermore, that punishment is bearable in
proportion to the social distance of the person inflicting it from the
person upon whom it is imposed; hence the advantage for the teacher
of belonging frankly to the adult group and the teaching group. Nor
can the necessity, for the teacher who punishes, of adhering to the
code of fairness, and of treating all students alike, ever be too much
emphasized. We should note that the personalities of students and
teachers become deeply involved in the struggle over punishment in
another way, through the attempt on tbe part of students to adapt
their lives to penalties, making them therefore of little weight, and
the opposite struggle o f the teachers to find penalties with teeth in
them. A new broom sweeps clean and a new penalty hurts, but both
deteriorate rapidly. The tolerableness of human life results from its
monotony, and any monotony is tolerable. Justice and the ease of
human life result rather from completeness of adaptation to the basic
conditions of association than from anything intrinsic in those condi-
tions. We should record, however, that the mixture Of control by

punishment and control by personal influence that is now usual in
the schools is one which does not contribute to the healthy develop
ment. of the personalities of either1students or teachers.
(3) A means of control tbat is important for many teachers we
may refer to in the absence of a better name as management. Under
this heading we should include all means of getting the teacher’s
definition of the situation accepted and the teacher’s wishes carried
out without a direct clash of wills between teacher and student. One
of the most important devices to be included under this head is that
of indirect suggestion, which many teachers have learned to use most
effectively. Indirect suggestions are such suggestions as are carried in
stories, fables, anecdotes, and general expressions of attitude toward
actual or potential behavior. We should also include under the head
ing of management the principle of precipitating conflict at the time
most advantageous to the teacher, at a time when the opponent,
though definitely in the conflict, is unready or in some other way
at a disadvantage. The policy most often followed by teachers is that
o f attempting to precipitate conflict before the student is emotionally
ready; this is the policy, to use the slang phrase of teachers, of “ get
ting the jump on them.” Many sagacious teachers have also learned
to apply this principle with reverse emphasis, to postpone dealing with
an angTy or rebellious student until his emotions have had an oppor
tunity to cool. Both tbesc empirical principles are apparently based
upon a sound psychology; the emotions are of value in a struggle, they
have a temporal quality, they cannot be called immediately into play,
and they cannot last forever.
Under the heading of management, too, should be included all
manipulation o f the student in his social relations. Isolation is a
powerful weapon. The teacher may ignore a student, or he may state
or infer that this person does not really belong to tbc group, or he
may, hy curtailment of privileges, actually deprive him, for a time,
of his opportunities for association with other youngsters. This is a
long lever that makes dreadfully for conformity. The limitations upon
it are the limitations of the teacher’s ability to manipulate the pupil
group and the undesirable effects upon the personality of the student
if this technique is used recklessly and successfully. The teacher,
again, may attempt, to manipulate group alignments so that the ukase
of the teacber appears to be backed up by the authority of the student
group; a subtle example of this is the use of the first person plural
in giving reprimands or rebukes, as, “ We don't like that, John,” or
204 THB SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING
“ You are disturbing us,” or “ Can’t you see we are busy?” Ridicule
is sometimes used as a means of depriving the individual of status
before punishing him. The effectiveness o f these devices depends upon
the effectiveness of the teacher’s personality. I f the teacher is thor
oughly in control, the members of his class may feel flattered at being
admitted into partnership with him, and will he carried on by this
feeling to form their attitudes after his; but if he is not already in
command of the situation, the whole procedure becomes absurd. Like
wise, the teacher may attempt to manipulate home and community
relationships with reference to himself and his students in such a
way as to increase his own prestige. Thus he may cultivate acquaint
ance with parents, and may, in his dealings with children, refer to
talks he has had with parents and attitudes expressed .by them in
those conversations. A classic device is that of holding the parent’s
ideals before the child. The teacher says, “ Now, John, I know your
mother would not want you to do that,” or, “ John, I know your
parents want you to do well in school and grow up to be one o f the
outstanding men in the community. ” This device is mostly ineffective.
I f the relationship o f parent to child is meaningful, and the meaning
is of a positive nature, the child may resent having his parents
dragged in by the heels by someone who has less weight or a different
kind of meaning altogether. I f the attitude toward the parent is
mixed with a considerable rebellion, as it often is, the teacher-pupil
relationship will be unduly complicated by the release within it of
affects belonging elsewhere in the scheme of life.
There are other devices for playing upon the group alignment of
children. Catching the child in one group, teachers attempt to obtain
his assent to some general principle that carries over into the school
group. I f subtly done, this technique may be effective. When it is
subtle enough to be effective, it proceeds no further than indirect sug
gestion, or at most to verbalization of things already in the child’s
mind. In the unsubtle extreme, it amounts to seizing a favorable op
portunity to preaeh a sermon without receiving backtalk, or to mere
posing in the presence of parents. The compartmentalization of the
child’s mind whereby one set of attitudes comes to expression at one
time and another at another time—so that the child is hard and then
soft— this too may be played upon. But such suggestions as are offered
to a child when he is in a melting mood must be very indirect, else
he will build up his defences and he soft no more in the presence of
that particular person. Teachers are sometimes able, by long and
serious talks, “ heart-to-heart” talks, to induce this softened mood in
their students and then to preach them a sermon. But if this is done,
the teacher must not speak from the teaching role, for that will
destroy any favorable effect, hut as one human being to another. He
must also be prepared to accept a resumption of the old relationship
when the mellow mood has passed, with reserves restored and no fur
ther reference to the incident of communion and no effect traceable
except perhaps a slight modification of the general attitude.
(4) Teachers also control by displays o f temper. The display of
temper is marked by diminution of social distance, by sloughing o f
social inhibitions and reserves, menacing behavior, and obvious,
weakly controlled, or uncontrolled emotion. Control by temper is far
down on the scale of social distance and high on that of actual human
influence. PassioD has become too much for social forms. The ritual has
broken down and human personalities have come into contact without
the intermission of buffers. It is implicit in the school situation that
hates should sometimes run so high that they break through all har
riers, and it has also become a part of the code. It is unwritten law
that, the only emotion a teacher can display is anger, that all else is
softness. It should be noted that the technique of control by anger is
often mingled with punishment, or confused with it. Strictly speaking,
anger destroys punishment as punishment, but the machinery o f pun
ishment may be used as a part of the technique of control by anger,
and it is probably so employed more often than it is administered
without passion.
A person who teaches usually acquires a temper worthy of remark,
or, if he is already blessed with such a characteristic, he learns how
to use it more effectively. The manner in which this personality change
ensues will be elaborated elsewhere, but we may note it briefly here.
The strain of a situation created by the behavior of students mounts,
in the absence o f a technique for neutralizing it, until it becomes
intolerable. An outbreak of temper ensues. Perhaps the teacher him
self is surprised at the violence of his emotion. (Most new teachers
report at least one such experience.) The teacher gains his point. He
finds the school room thereafter easier to live in, his students respect
ful and perhaps even affectionate.1 He cultivates a rapid-fire, intense
temper. He expresses his grievances as they arise without reserve.
Or the teacher docs not gain his point, in this case he becomes frantic
’ I t HPOTriR p a r a d o x i c a l t h a t a f fe c t i o n s h o u ld b e ■won i n th is w a y , a n d y e t
t h e r e is m u c h e v id e n c e t h a t I t o f t e n h a p p e n s s o . T h e e x p la n a t io n s e e m s t o b o
t h a t th e t e a c h e r h a s e s t a b lis h e d le a d e r s h ip , a n d t h a t s t u d e n t s a r e g r a t e f u l f o r th e
o p p o r t u n it y t o b e d e p e n d e n t . W e m u s t n u t f o r g e t t h a t in s t i t u t i o n a l le a d e r s h ip ,
f o r a l l t h e c o n f l i c t t h a t is in i t , i s r e a l le a d e r s h ip .
an d m e ets the situ a tio n w ith redoubled em otion a n d w ith increased

en erg y , perh ap s a tta in in g u ltim a te success. Q u ick n ess in o rg a n iz in g
anger, enough violence o f em otion to ca rry one th ro u g h th e crisis
a n d to in h ib it a ll d isp ositio n to tem porize, a h ility to m a in ta in an
a ttitu d e u n til the la st vestige o f rebellion h as b een cru sh ed, a ll
a p p ea r to he requ isites o f th e sch ool-teach er tem p e r. T h e fo r m a tio n
o f a tech n iq u e fo r e x p re ssin g a n g e r is im p o rta n t also in th a t the ex
p ression o f th e te a c h e r ’s an ger enahles h im to deal w ith th e situ ation
ca lm ly a fte rw a rd s a n d to m in im ize the h o ld in g o f g ru d g es. T h e effect
o f tea ch in g u p o n the p e rso n a lity is p ro h a h ly to increase th e to ta l
am ount o f a n g er in o n e ’s schem e o f life , a n d th is is d e p lo r a h le ; b u t
i f th e em otion is th ere, it is p r o h a b ly h etter fo r th e te a c h e r ’s m e n ta l
h ea lth a n d f o r his rela tio n s w ith h is stu d e n ts th a t it sh ou ld occa
sio n a lly h e expressed. L o n g -s ta n d in g g ru d g e s, u n e x p la in e d h u t p er
siste n t hates, are lik e ly to resu lt fr o m stro n g em otion s w h ich rem a in
lo n g un expressed. I t is th ro u g h these g ru d g e s, w e sh ou ld rem em her,
th a t m a n y teachers becom e in v o lv ed in fe u d s w ith th e ir stu den ts.
E v e n g ru d g e s do n o t a lw a y s a p p ear to w o rk u n fa v o r a b ly ; w e should
n o t ohscure fr o m ou rselves the fa c t th a t the d o m in a n t m o tiv a tio n of
m a n y teachers w h o are reg ard ed as su ccessfu l is an u n d e r ly in g a n
ta g o n ism to w ard stu d en ts. These are te a ch e rs’ te a c h e r s; th e y are as
p o p u la r as a m a n ’s m an.
T h e ch ief u t ilit y o f a n g er seem s to he in the tran sm ission o f taboos.
T h e outbu rst o f te m p e r on the p a rt o f th e teacher serves to estahlish
v e r y d efin itely ce rta in th in g s w h ich m a y n o t be done. G en eral tahoos,
p e r ta in in g to sex , to h on esty , to m a n n ers, to clean lin ess, or to fa ir
p la y , m a y he effectively tra n sm itte d in th is m a n n er. T h e effect o f
th ese tahoos u p o n the s t u d e n t ’s p e rso n a lity is n o t a lw ay s fa v o ra b le,
b u t som e tahoos are necessary, an d it sh ou ld he rem em h ered th at the
teach er is d o in g a u se fu l social service w h en h e tra n sm its th em . T h e ’
te a c h e r ’s ow n u n a d ju stm e n t, o f course, enters h ere as w e ll as else
w h ere to lim it his u se fu ln e ss; it is m u ch to he d o u b ted w h eth er the
average sp in ster school teacher co n fers a henefit u p o n h er stu den ts
or u p o n so ciety w h en she passes o n to th em h er v ersion o f the tahoos
u p o n sex. C erta in school taboos m a y also he tr a n sm itte d th ro u g h the
m e d iu m o f anger. These relate to th e con dition s o f school lif e , and
esp ec ia lly to th e social stru ctu re fo u n d e d u p on teach er d o m in ation .
U ltim a te ly the teach er, h y liv in g w ith in th e ru les a n d re g u la tio n s and
b y bein g responsible fo r th eir en fo rcem en t, in tern alizes t h e m ; as a
r esu lt she is ahle to use h er person al resources fo r the d efen c e o f the
establish ed ord er in th e school, a n d th ereh y to p ro te ct h er own peace
t e a c h in g a s in s t it u t io n a l iz e d leadership
207
ill tbe sch ool. T h e h u m a n bein g heeom es th e e m b o d im e n t o f in stitu

tion alized lead ersh ip .
Th e effectiveness o f su ch co n trol as is to he o h ta in ed th ro u gh th e
reco n d ition in g of the te a c h e r ’s te m p e r d ep en d s upon the in sig h t
which the tea ch er h as in to the a ctu alities o f th e p u p i l ’s m in d and u p o n
the in te g ra tio n o f a n g e r in to the te a c h e r ’s p erso n a lity . A n g e r w h ich
goes too f a r d e fe a ts its ow n p u r p o s e ; i t arou ses th e b itte re st h o stility
on the p a rt o f stu d e n ts a n d c o m m u n ity alike. M o s t p a th etic o f a ll is
the in effectu a l a n g er o f th e teach er w h o n ev er h a d , o r has lost, tb e
a b ility to co n trol th e d y n a m ic social situ a tio n o f the classroom . S u ch
ineffectual a n g er, real h u t h elp less, m e n a c in g h ey o n d a ll p o ssib ility
o f m a k in g good its th reats, m akes th e tea ch er f a i r g a m e, a n d it he-
eomes the p a r t o f v a lo r to torm en t h im . S u ch a n g er, in te r p r e te d b y
stu den ts as h ate, an d c o rre ctly , fu rn ish e s th em w ith a m o tiv e f o r
to r m e n tin g th e teach er a n d w ith a m e a n s w h ereh y th a t m a y he done
T h ere is little escape fr o m such a situ ation . T h e teach er h ates the
stu d e n ts hecause th ey to rtu re h im . T h e stu d e n ts h ate the teach er be
cause h e h ates t h e m ; th erefo re th ey to rm e n t h im h y a ro u sin g h im to
repeated o u th u rsts o f in effectu a l anger. T h ere is no rem e d y . E v e r y
school m a n h a s seen a n u m b er o f excellen t p erso n s goa d ed a lm ost to
in sa n ity h y b e in g m such a situ a tio n . F o r m a n y the situ a tio n is m ad e
worse b y reason o f econom ic w orries. T h e effect o f su ch teachers u p o n
stu d en ts is o f course n o t a fa v ora h le one, h u t these th o r o u g h ly in a d e
quate p erso n a lities m a y in fa c t do less h a r m th a n som e w h o are m ore
effective.
(5 ) T h e tech n iq u e o f a p p eal is m o st o fte n u sed f o r d e a lin g w ith

m in or in fr a c tio n s o f th e rules, or, in a m ore im p o rta n t case, fo r
effectin g a ch an ge in the g en eral a ttitu d e o f the stu d en t. The a p p ea l
is a n a tte m p t to m a n ip u la te the ch ild h y c a llin g into p la y , u su a lly
th rou gh v erh a l referen ce, some hasic a ttitu d e or str o n g tr e n d in h is
p erso n a lity w h ich it is th o u g h t w ill he effective in h r iu g in g h im to
co n fo rm to the te a c h e r ’s w ishes. A n a p p eal m a y he d ire ct or in d irect,
p u b lic or p r iv a te , p ositive o r n eg a tiv e in its n a tu re . A d ire ct ap p eal
is w h a t it p u r p o r ts to he a n d am ou n ts to a n ex h o rta tio n w ith sp ecia l
reference to som e su pposed a ttitu d e o f the ch ild. A n in d ir e c t a ppeal
m a y im p ly this referen ce or it m a y he couched n e g a tiv e ly , in th e
fo rm o f a ch allen ge or a sh a m in g referen ce.
Som e o f the s u p p o se d ly d o m in a n t a ttitu d es o f ch ild re n to w h ich
appeal is m a d e are th e p a r e n t s ’ ideals, f a i r p la y , h on esty , c h iv a lry ,
or self-esteem . A fa v o rite a p p e a l is th a t to th e ideals w hich the p a r
ents, esp ecia lly the m oth er, are su p p ose d to en tertain co n cern in g the
child. “ D o n ’t do a n y th in g you w ou ld he asham ed to h a v e y o u r m oth er

see y o u d o .” “ I kn ow w h a t y o u r m o th er w ould th in k o f t h a t ,” sa y s
the tea ch er, a n d th e h oy is th e n su pposed to he asham ed o f h im se lf.
L ik ew ise a n a tte m p t is m a d e to assim ilate th e school to th e h o m e : “ I
kn ow y o u w o u ld n o t a ct lik e th a t in y o u r ow n hom e. 'W h y sh ou ld y o u
do it h e r e ? ” T h ere a re reason s enough w h y he sh ou ld , h u t th e ch ild
does n o t k n ow t h e m ! T h e sense o f fa ir p la y is a lso called u p o n to
e n fo r c e a c e rta in a m o u n t o f la w and o rd er in th e sch ool room , som e
tim es effectively . “ H e n r y ,” asks th e teacher, “ do y o u r e a lly th in k i t ’s
fa ir to tre a t a sm a ller h oy th a t w a y ? ” I f H e n r y does n o t th in k it fa ir ,
he m a y c o n fo r m to the te a c h e r ’s w ishes. A n a p p ea l is lik e w ise m a d e to
h on esty , u su a lly i n th e fo r m o f p ra ise fo r ce rta in h on est action s, and
it is o fte n su ccessfu l. T h e self-esteem o f the child is o f course p la y e d
u p o n in a ll these instances. S o m etim es th e a p p eal to self-e ste e m is
ev en m o re d irect. “ I ’d he a sham ed, a g re a t h ig h o y lik e y o u , L eo , to
m ake s illy fa ce s lik e a s is y e a r o ld .” O r, “ I ’m su rp rised at you. I
a lw a y s th o u g h t y o u w e re su ch a g e n tle m a n .” W o m e n teach ers c o m
m o n ly a p p e a l to th e sense o f c h iv a lr y o f th e m a le stu d en ts. I n th e
u n su b tle cases, th e a p p ea l tak es abou t th is f o r m : “ W e ll, ju s t go on,
now . I c a n ’ t do a n y th in g w ith y o u . I ’m ju s t a p o or w e ak w o m a n .”
W o m e n w h o k n o w h ow to ca p ita lize th eir sex m ore s u b tly m a y he able
to do so w ith a con sid erable degree o f success. U s u a lly such ap p eals
are q u ite h opeless, a s is, f o r in sta n ce, th e d o u b le -h a rrelcd one w h ich
assim ilates the w o m a n teach er to th e m o th e r : “ A l l th a t I ask is th at
y o u sh ow th e sam e resp ect to m e y o u ’ d sh ow to y o u r m o th er. T o u r
m o th e r ’ s a w om an , too, a n d she w o u ld u n d e r s ta n d .”
A p p e a ls w h ich are m o st effective are th ose w h ich are m o st d e li
ca te ly m ad e. A fr a n k a p p ea l fo r h elp w h ich a teach er m a k es because
he can n ot oth erw ise go on w ill u su a lly , also, g e t a fa v o ra b le response.
M o re th an once it h as h appened th a t a class w h ich too k n o p rizes fo r
ord erlin ess w h ile the teach er w a s w ell an d h ea rty becam e v e r y co
op erative w h en she sp ra in ed h er ankle. T h e ch allenge, in th e h an d s o f
a v ig o ro u s p e rso n a lity , can a cco m p lish rem arkable results. I t is som e
tim es v e r y str o n g . “ Y o n la z y hooli, a ll y o u do is w arm a seat. D o you
th in k y o u ’ll ever le a rn a n y th in g ? Y o u ’ re th e b ig g est fo o l in sc h o o l.”
W h e n the teach er is v ig oro u s en ou gh to la y d o w n his ch a lle n g es in
such a w a y th at th ey can n ot he avoided, he can o ften secure v e ry
effective co n trol th ro u gh th at tech n iq u e . I t is a tech n iq ue, how ever,
w h ich induces fa ilu re at lea st as o fte n a s su ccess, and the w ise teacher
w ill use i t so b erly an d sp a rin g ly .
F a c to r s w h ich lim it the effectiveness o f th e tech n iq ue o f a p p e a l are
f
the social d istan ce and a n ta g on ism betw een teach er a n d stu d en t and
the lack o f a su ita b le technique on the p a r t o f the teacher fo r d isco ver
in g th e d o m in a n t com p lexes o f the stu d en t and a d a p tin g his procedu re
so th at a real connection betw een th em an d the in te n d e d a p p eal can
he m ade. Social distan ce o b stru cts a p p eal because it m akes it difficult
fo r the teach er to sp ea k to the ch ild as one h u m a n h ein g to another.
A n ta g o n is m betw een teach er an d stu d en t ten d s to n eu tralize the
effect o f a n a ppeal th at r e a lly h its the m a r k ; a fte r one or m ore a p
peals the p re e x istin g a n ta g on ism m a y cause the stu d en t to increase
the social distan ce betw een h im s e lf and the teacher. C h ie fly im p o rta n t
in m a k in g th e technique o f ap p eal difficult is the u tte r lack o f a h ility
o f m ost teach ers in p ra ctic al ch aracter d ia g n o s is ; the im portan ce o f
th is is ohvious, because one m u st kn ow w h a t to appeal to b efore he
can a tte m p t to m ake an a p p e a l; a n a p p ea l th a t goes w ro n g does m ore
h arm than good. T eachers som etim es attem p t d irect ap p eals in a v e ry
fo o lish m a n n e r a n d one th at d isre g a rd s w h o lly the e x istin g a ttitu d es
o f a child. T each ers co m m o n ly do n o t realize how n ecessa ry is a f a v o r
able ra p p o rt fo r a n y su ch su ggestion s a s those we h ave hcen d is
c u s s in g ; n o r do th e y u n d ersta n d the tech n iq u e o f g e ttin g hold o f a
p erson a little a t a tim e, o f g r a d u a lly b u ild in g u p a fa v o r a b le fe e lin g
tone before a tte m p tin g to m ake th e relation sh ip c a r r y a h ea v y w eigh t
o f su ggestion . S o little do teachers realize what, em otion al fa c to rs are
involved in the ap p eals th at th e y are tr y in g to m ake th at th ey som e
tim es d o n o t h esitate to m ake th e ir m o st in tim a te an d to u c h in g ap p eals
in the p resen ce o f a large g rou p .
These are hy no m eans all the tech n iq ues used hy teach ers in th e
attem p t to m a in ta in this m ix ed ra p p o rt which we call disciplin e. P r o b
ably all teachers use all these tech n iques and m ore, h u t w ith differen t
em phasis and in d ifferen t degrees. P a r tic u la r ly in terestin g , h u t p u z
zlin g as y e t to the presen t w riter, is th e difference betw een th e com
b ination s o f techniques used h y m e n and w om en teachers. A con sid
erab ly g re a te r la titu d e seem s to he allow ed to m en . I t is th o u g h t
th at an a n alysis o f the tech n iques used h y m en teachers w ou ld show
th at they r e ly m ore u p o n com m and th an w om en teachers. This, h ow
ever, is com p licated h y th e fa c t th a t w om en teach ers u su a lly m a in ta in
a greater social distance in th eir g en eral relation s w ith th eir stu d en ts,
alth ou gh th e ir tech n iques o f control a rc m u c h m ore in tim a te in th eir
n atu re th a n are th e techniques used h y m en. A g a in , it seem s possible
th at w om en can m a in ta in in g en eral a la s e r d iscip lin e w ith o u t lo sin g
control, and can w ith o u t d am age a llo w th em selv es to he im posed u p on
m ore fr e q u e n tly th a n can men.
T h e effectiveness o f a ll techniques d ep en d s u p o n th e p erso n a lity

in to w h ich th e y are o rgan ized a n d u p on th e te a c h e r ’s u n d e rsta n d in g
o f the stu d e n t m in d . T h is u n d e rsta n d in g m a y he in fa c t o f a v ery
lim ite d s o r t ; it m a y be e n tir e ly lim ite d to th e school situ a tio n , an d
m a y ru n ra th e r to m a n ip u la tio n th an to g e n e ra l u n d e rsta n d in g , h u t it
is a lw ay s im p o rta n t. S in ce the effectiveness o f a n y tech n ique is a p e r
sonal m a tte r , d ep e n d in g u p o n the tech n iq u e p lu s th e to ta l effect o f the
p erso n a lity o f the teach er u sin g th a t tech n iq u e , it w ill he w e ll to tu rn
to a discu ssion o f those traits w h ich seem to d eterm in e th e im pression
w h ich the te a ch e r's p e r so n a lity m akes u p o n his stu den ts.
PROJECTS
1. Study the pattern of leadership which arises in a group of college
students who, previously unknown to each other, decido to work together
on a committee.
2. Study the same pattern on a faculty committee.
3. Make a list of defence mechanisms hy which students reduce the mean
ing of ohedience to faculty demands.
4. Make a study of “precedents" established and overthrown in the daily
contact between teacher and pupil.
5. Make a historical study of rules, regulations, and precedents in a
private school.
6. Study the effect of a now rule, the effort of the faculty to enforce
it and to make it meaningful, and the effort of students to destroy its
meaning.
7. Analyze the technique of some teacher who attempts to disregard the
technical aspects of rules and to deal directly with rebellious attitudes.
8. Study a hoy who has become accustomed to punishments.
9. Watch an army officer drill the R.O.T.C. Analyze his technique. Pay
particular attention to hearing, voice, formality, etc.
10. Study the disciplinary activities of several teaehers and analyze their
use of the techniques discussed in the chapter.
11. Report incidents illustrating the definition of the situation through
punishment.
12. Describe the techniques followed hy a number of teachers in imposing
punishments. Analyze the effects of these. Relate to personalities of teachers
and students.
13. Relate incidents showing the successful and unsuccessful use of
appeals. Relate success or unsuccess to the personalities of the teachers.
14. Relate instances illustrating successful and unsuccessful uses of
“ management."
15. Make case studies of good and bad teachers, showing their use of
temper as a means of control.
TEACHING AS INSTITUTIONALIZED LEA DERSHIP 211
■
16. Study several high-seliool students carefully with a view to ascertaining
1 what kinds of appeals might, most successfully he made to them.
17. Make a number of c a s e studies with a view to comparing the tech

niques of control of men and women teachers.
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) C lare , T. A., Discipline and the Derelict.
(2) C ooley, C. 11., Human Nature and the Social Order, Chapters VIII
and IS.
(3 ) P a r k , R. E., and B urgess, E. ~W., An Introduction to the Science of
Sociology, pp. 688-708.
(■I) S orokin , P. A., The Sociology of Revolution, Chapter VIII.
(5) Y oung, K imball , Source Booh for Social Psychology, Chapters XX
and XXI. (See bihliography.)
(G) Y ouno, K imball, Social Psychology, Chapter XV.
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C hapter X V
TRAITS DETERMINING THE PRESTIGE OF THE

TEACHER
T h e realities of control do not reside in tlie theoretical institutional

structure of the school, hut in the interaction of personalities that
takes place within that structure. W e turn, then, to a discussion of
the influence of personalities filtered through an institution.
W e sh all a tte m p t to discover the in stitu tio n a l significance o f the
p e rso n a lity traits o f th e teacher. T h e m ore im p o rta n t traits know n
to affect th e p restig e o f the teach er an d h is a b ility to con trol the
classroom situ a tio n m a y p e rh a p s he discussed u n d e r th e fo llo w in g
h e a d s : age, social b a ck g rou n d , p h y sica l ch aracteristics, dress, m a n
ners, m a n n er, a ttitu d e tow ard stu d en ts a n d su b je c t m a tter, voice,
ex p ressio n o f featu res, tem p o o f reactions, ra n g e o f m ental p erson
a lity , an d the n atu re o f the organ ization o f th e p e r so n a lity (in w hich
a re in c lu d e d su ch fa c to rs as co m p le x ity , sta b ility , e tc .).
A g e , as it affects th e teacher in h is relation sh ip to h is stu d en ts, Is
n o t w h o lly a m a tte r o f years. I t is rath er a n affair o f social ex p eri
ence, poise, a n d o f the m a tu r ity o f u n d e rsta n d in g , ju d g m e n t, an d
in terests w h ich en ter in to it. I t is, as w e h ave n o te d elsew here, a
m a tte r o f th e hasic con figu ration s in to w h ich o n e ’s in n e r w orld is
organ ized , an d o f th e p o rtio n o f th e c u ltu ra l h erita ge one has ab
sorbed as w ell as the w ay in w h ich he h as ex perien ced it. (G f . th e d is
cu ssion o f d ifferen t age an d c u ltu re le v e ls.) T ea c h ers w h o are y o u n g
in th is sense, u su a lly y o u n g in y e a r s as w ell, co m m o n ly su ffer fr o m
th eir in a b ility to m a in ta in social d istan ce he tw een th em selv es an d
th e ir stu d en ts.
T h e n a tu ra l social distan ce hetw een a d u lt a n d ch ild , a distance
w h ich gives rise som etim es to m u tu a l m isu n d e r sta n d in g a m o u n tin g
to en m ity, is at a m in im u m w hen, as n ot in fr e q u e n tly h ap p e n s in the
h ig h schools a n d colleges, adolescents are ta u g h t b y late adolescen t or
p o st-a d o lescen t teachers. Teachers who are too close to th eir ow n a d o
lescent fra m e o f person al o rgan ization , and to th e social a n d m ental
w o rld o f th e late y ears o f childhood, tend to he c a u g h t up in th e social
in teraction o f ch ild ren and in volved in th eir social life . W e all ten d
to liv e m ost r e a lly an d m ost d eep ly in th e w o rld o f our con tem p o-
212
TRAITS DETERMINING THE PRESTIGE OF THE TEACHER 213
raries, an d a h ig h -sch oo l h oy or g irl takes m ore definite sh ape as a

h u m an b ein g and a considerable p e rso n a lity in th e eyes o f th e p o st
adolescent teacher th an the p rin c ip a l o f h e r h igh school ev er can.
T h e th in g s stu d e n ts sa y -will he looted a n d rem em h ered hecause th ey
are u n d ersto o d , h u t the rem a rk s o f th e p r in c ip a l w ill he th o u g h t th e
poin tless m a u n d c r in g s o f tooth less se n ility , to he la u g h e d off a n d f o r
gotten in th e n e x t m o m e n t. B ecau se o f th e essen tial sim ila r ity o f in te r
ests o f the y o u n g teacher an d h is y o u n g stu d en ts, the social w o rld o f
the stu d e n ts p resen ts the teacher with a n a llu r in g o p p o r tu n ity f o r
th at s e lf-r e a liz a tio n w h ich is w ith h eld fr o m h im in h is con tacts w ith
the teach er w o r ld h y reason o f h is y o u th , a n d w h ich is achieved th ere
in a m o st im p e r fe c t fa sh io n a t a n y age. T h e social situ a tio n s p resen ted
h y the life o f stu d e n ts m u st in e v ita h ly seem to th e y o u n g teach er v ery
in trig u in g , a n d i t w ill o n ly he h y the exercise o f the g re a test se lf-
control th a t h e w ill succeed in r e fr a in in g fr o m e n te rin g in to th em .
I t is n o t e a sy to stan d on th e sid elin es a n d d isap p ro ve an d censure, or
a p p rov e a n d a p p la u d , w h en one lo n g s to he in th e ce n te r o f th e arena.
T h e y o u n g teach er lo n g s f o r a g reater p a rtic ip a tio n . H is need is en
han ced h y th e poorness o f th e o p p ortu n itie s fo r d esirab le social life
in the c o m m u n ity a t large.
T h e teach er, h ow ever, w h o comes to he in v o lv ed in the social life
o f s tu d e n ts loses all the p riv ile ges a n d exem p tion s that w ou ld accrue
to him i f h e w ere fr a n k ly a m em ber o f the tea ch in g g ro u p an d no
other. H e m u s t p a y in the s tu d e n ts ’ w o rld fo r the crim e o f being a
teach er an d in th e te a ch e rs’ fo r th e sa crileg e o f b ein g fr ie n d ly with
stu d en ts. A n d th e a ttitu d e s w h ich hoth teachers an d stu d en ts fo rm
tow ard him are in com p atib le w ith fu r th e r fu n c tio n in g in the teacher
role. T h e p r im a r y grou p a ttitu d es w hich stu d en ts h av e tow ard him
lose h im the im m u n ity th a t teachers e n jo y fo r the in ju stic e s th e y p u t
upon c h ild r e n ; a n d w h en he is called u p on to g ive a reason fo r his
a u th o rity , it u su a lly occurs th a t he cannot answ er. T r y in g to recon
cile frie n d sh ip an d a u th o rity , he en ds h y lo sin g hoth.
T h e situ a tio n w hich arises w h en stu d en ts a n d teach ers liv e in the
same social w o rld is d a m a g in g to the teach er iri y e t a n oth er w a y . The
teacher w h o enters the w o r ld o f th e stu d en ts does so f o r the sake o f
p erso n a l se lf-r e a liz a tio n ; fr o m th is it ensues th at th o u g h he m a y
be fr ie n d a n d a lly to som e ho w ill he rival or e n e m y to others. Ri
v a lr y betw een teach er a n d stu d en t is th u s in p a r t a r e su lt o f a
p rev io u s e n tr y h y the tea ch er in to th e s tu d e n ts ’ w o rld . I t is also one
o f th e m ech an ism s w h ereb y tlie y o u n g teacher becom es d raw n in to
th a t w o rld . T h e y o u n g teach er an d stu d en t are str iv in g fo r the sam e
211 THE SOCIOLOGY OH TEACHING
sort o f se lf-e x p re ssio n , th ey are str iv in g fo r th e sam e p r iz e s ; hence

th ey com pete w ith each other to excel in this or to ohtain possession o f
that. T h is ch a n ges the te a c h e r ’s role fr o m th a t o f the somewhat, a loof
fr ie n d an d h elp er to th a t o f the com p etitor. O ld e r teachers learn
to su b lim ate th eir own th w a rte d wishes in fu r th e r in g th e se lf-d e v e lo p
ment. o f oth ers, h u t a lm ost in ev ita b ly th e y o u n g teacher, since he has
n o t fo u n d his p lac e in th e w orld , or h as n ot, as m a n y older teachers
do, given u p the h o p e o f fin d in g such a place, is con cern ed w ith the
m a k in g o f his own career. I f th a t career is n o t to be m a d e in th e
s tu d e n ts ’ w o r ld , stu d e n ts are n u isa n ces or else m ere chessm en, w h ich
is p e rh a p s the. e x p la n a tio n o f the alleged fa c t th at teach ers who are
y o u n g a n d m uch in ea rn est give the low est m ark s a n d ta k e the m ost
r u th le ss d isc ip lin a r y action . I f that, career is th o u g h t o f as capable o f
b ein g -realized , in p a r t at least, in th e s tu d e n ts ’ social w orld , the
teach er ceases to be a h e lp fu l cid er a n d becom es a co n te m p o ra ry
riv a l. E n e m y m o r a lity m otivates, as h is in ex p erien ce m a k es possible,
reb ellio n a ga in st the y o u n g teacher.
Y o u n g teach ers h a v e n ot y e t w orked o u t the p ro b le m o f their own
d e stin y , h a v in g n eith er ach ieved th a t d estin y n or y e t accepted it as a
f a c t th at th ey h ave non e. T h e y h av e not fo u n d th eir m a te s, an d often
th ey h av e n ot fo u n d a p erm a n en t vocation . F r o m th is unsettlem ent,
arise som e in terestin g consequences. T h e re is first th e fa c t, a p p a r e n tly
in ev ita b le, th a t such teachers are m ore in terested in th eir ow n achieve
m e n ts th a n in those o f th eir stu d e n ts, w h ich m a te r ia lly affects the
o p in io n stu d en ts h ave o f th em . T h e situ a tio n o f th e y o u n g teacher
w h o has n ot y e t fo u n d h im se lf is d istressin g in an oth er r e s p e c t: he is
ex p ected to g iv e g u id a n c e to others w h en he h as obtain ed non e fo r
h im s e lf ; it. is h is d u ty to give tra v e llin g d ire ctio n s in a c o u n tr y whose
to p o g r a p h y an d sp eech he kn ow s o n ly a little b etter th an do his
ch a rg e s, i n sm a ller co m m u n ities the situ a tio n o f y o u n g teachers is
affected b y the a ttitu d e s w h ich p a r e n ts take to w ard th eir efforts to
fin d a p lac e in th e w o rld . H e r e the difficu lty arises because the p a re n ts
are o ld er th a n th e teach ers a n d th erefo re have a d ifferen t attitu d e
to w a r d life , because th e p a re n ts h av e the a ttitu d es o f a p rev io u s g e n
eration , becau se p a r e n ts are u s u a lly m a rrie d persons and y o u n g teach
ers are u s u a lly not, because p a ren ts are r u ra l and teach ers h av e p ro b -
a h ly been exposed to urban influ en ces, a n d because the c o m m u n ity
does n o t believe th at teach ers sh o u ld a tte m p t to find a p erso n a l niche
in life . T h ese are irrecon cilab le differen ces in p o in t o f v iew , a n d seem
to acco u n t in la r g e p a r t fo r th e fa c t th a t p a re n ts so b itte rly criticize
teach ers who in sist u p on liv in g fr o m F r i d a y to M o n d a y . We are
TRAITS DETERMINING THE PRESTIGE OP THE TEACHER 215
here con cern ed w ith the fa c t th at th is c ritic ism o f teach ers b y p a ren ts,
esp ecia lly i f it takes th e fo rm o f g ossip , u n d e rm in e s th e sta n d in g o f
the teach er in the eyes o f h is p u p ils.
Y o u th b a s som e a d va n tag es, even in th e tea c h in g p ro fe ssio n . Y o u n g
teach ers are m ore lik e ly to represen t a n id eal th an are older teach ers
because th e y are a lm ost o f th e cu rren t gen eration a n d th eir accom
p lish m en ts an d a m b itio n s h ave n o t y e t h ecom e p asse, because th e y
have retain ed th e vig or a n d a ttra ctiven ess o f y o u th , because th e ir
faces are u n fa d e d and th eir arm s are s till str o n g , a n d because th e ir
p r e d o m in a n t in terests are still those o f adolescence. T h e id eal w h ich
th ey rep resen t is, re la tiv e ly , a tta in a b le, a n d it is u n d ersta n d ab le be
cause o n ly a fe w y e a rs o f a ch iev em en t sep a ra te th em fro m stu den ts.
B ecause o f th e p h y sica l 'a ttra ctive n ess o f y o u th , y o u n g teach ers are
m ore lik e ly th an o ld ones to becom e love o b jects fo r th eir stu d en ts,
which g iv es rise to a r a p p o r t w h ich is u n sa tisfa c to r y , b u t is o ften
u tilized . Y o u n g teachers, fu r th e r , are a ided in th eir contacts w ith
stu d en ts h y a g reater u n d e rsta n d in g , on a qu ite p erso n a l hasis, o f
the p ro b lem s o f y ou th an d o f th is p a rtic u la r gen eration — an u n d e r
s ta n d in g w h ich arises fr o m th eir n ea rn ess to the p ro h lem s an d the
people w h o h ave them . T h is u n d e rsta n d in g , h ow ever, can n ever be so
sa tis fa c to r y as th a t o f a p erson w h o h as passed th ro u g h y o u tb an d h as
solved its p ro b lem s b u t h a s n o t lo s t s y m p a th y or co n tact w ith the
r isin g gen eration s.
T h e older teach er m ore e a sily secures su b ord in ation . H e categorizes
as one o f th e elders, becom es a p a r e n t su b stitu te a n d th e re fo re e n
dow ed w ith a u th o rity . T h e o ld er teach er, fu r th e r m o r e , h as ach ieved
th rou gh age th a t ossification o f the m in d a n d social in fle x ib ility which
are o f su ch v a lu e in g ettin g o n e ’ s w a y w ith the y o u n g (th ro u g h the
channels o f in stitu tio n a l le a d e r s h ip ). H e n e v e r b ecom es in v o lv e d in
the social situ a tio n s o f the y o u n g , h e n ev er sets u p as a riv a l, a n d
his v e r y in a h ility to solve h is ow n p ro h lem s in p rev io u s y e a rs m a y even
operate to m ake h im m ore in terested in the ach ievem en ts o f th e y o u n g .
H e achieves v ic a rio u sly th ro u g h h is stu d en ts. H e can n e v e r becom e
in v o lv ed in the social life o f the y o u n g because o f h is age a n d th e
social distan ce th a t goes w ith differen ces in age. H e can n ev er be a
person to h is stu d en ts becau se h is stu d en ts arc n o t person s to b i m ;
bein g no p erso n , h e has a u th o rity , h u t n o influence.
B u t age is n o t w h o lly ad va n tag eo u s. B eca u se o f th e distan ce in
y ears betw een th e teacher and s tu d e n t a n d hecause o f th e in te r v e n in g
g en eration s, the difference o f exp erien ce, o f ideals, o f sta n d a rd s, an d
o f m o res m a y becom e so gre at tb a t tea ch er and stu d en t h ave no com-
m on g ro u n d a n d each is w h o lly unable to u n d e r sta n d w h a t the o th er

is ta lk in g about. T h is occurs the m ore fr e q u e n tly because teachers, in
ou r cu ltu re, bein g u p rooted a n d d eprived o f in tim ate co n tac t w ith the
procession o f the gen eration s o r the life o f p a r tic u la r com m u nities,
bein g regard ed n o t as person s b u t as a gen ts o f cu ltu ra l diffusion, the
sooner lose the bloom o f y o u th them selves o r a n a p p reciation o f its
valu e to others. S ch ool teachers, it h as been rem a rk ed , lose th eir
m e n ta l p la stic ity p re m a tu re ly . I f th ey do not, co m p letely lose the
id e n tify in g m a rk s o f y o u th , th ey learn to p reserve a n eu tral p e r
so n a lity an d to d ep en d u p o n the school-teacher stereotype to m ake
th em old in the eyes o f th eir stu den ts. T h e v e r y old, o f course, lose
th eir a b ility to m a in ta in au th o rity b y reason o f the d egen eracy o f age.
T h e te a ch er-p u p il relation sh ip seem s to realize its best 'possibilities
w hen the teacher is a y o u n g a d u lt, a y o u n g a d u lt f a r en ough a w ay
fro m adolescence to h ave solved his ow n p rob lem s b u t n ea r enough to
be u n d e rsta n d in g and toleran t, fa r en ou gh fr o m th e s tu d e n ts ’ w o rld
n ever to becom e a r iv a l a n d close enough to m a in ta in an interchan ge
o f fe elin g s an d ideas, fa r en ough rem oved in age fr o m his stu d en ts
to cla ssify defin itely as a m em ber o f th e a d u lt g en eration and y o u n g
en ou gh n o t to rep resen t a h orrible exam p le o f w h a t n o r m a l y o u n g
p ersons do n ot w a n t to becom e. T h is gen eraliza tio n , th o u g h based
u p o n a d ifferen t b o d y o f fa c ts, seem s to bo reen fo rced h y certain
stu dies o f gains in tea ch in g efficiency th ro u gh experien ce an d the
passage o f y e a r s ; these stu dies .show the p o in t o f m a x im u m efficiency
to be reach ed a fte r a b ou t three y ears o f experien ce. T h e fa c t th at
teach in g is a rou tin e jo b accounts in p a rt fo r the sh ort p e rio d in
which le a r n in g is possible or necessary, b u t i t w o u ld seem that, i f the
teach er w ere g iv e n an o p p o rtu n ity fo r a greater degree o f personal
gro w th an d d ev elop m en t, a lo n g er p eriod o f increase in teach in g
a b ility w o u ld resu lt.
T h e social b a ck g ro u n d o f the teach er is re a d ily a p p a r e n t to stu
d en ts, and it affects th e a ttitu d e w h ich th ey h ave tow ard h im . I n
ev ery instance th e teacher, as the p a id a g e n t o f c u ltu ra l diffusion,
m u st rep resen t a level o f a tta in m e n t in ce rta in fo rm a l valu es o f ed u
ca tio n som ew hat above the average lev el o f the c o m m u n ity . Som e
tim es these edu cation al valu es corresp on d closely to the gen eral c u l
tu ra l and social v alu es o f the c o m m u n ity . W h e r e th ey do n ot so
co rresp o n d , we m u st orien tate o u r discu ssiou w ith referen ce to the
a ctu a l values o f the co m m u n ity. I n th e sm a lle r com m u nities there are
n u m ero u s ex a m p les o f teachers w h o should be classified as to fa m ily
b a ck g rou n d , e a r ly tr a in in g , an d p erso n a l c u ltiv a tio n as m u ch superior
TRAITS DETERMINING- THE PRESTIGE OF THE TEACHER 217
to the c o m m u n ity in w h ich th ey live. W h e r e th is d istin ctio n is too

great, it in te r fe re s w ith the p restig e o f the teacher. T h e teach er is
affected, snobbish, conceited, lacks tou ch w ith the realities o f h u m a n
life, is “ h i g h - h a t ," a n d g iv e n to “ lah -d e-d a h " w ays. T h u s in a r u ra l
co m m u n ity a y o u n g w om an teacher w as sev erely criticized fo r m a n i
cu rin g h er lin ger nails. Th e m an o f u n u su a l cu ltiv a tio n is o fte n s u b
jected to criticism on the grou n d s o f u n m an lin ess. I n p r iv a te sch ools
and the h ig h schools o f exclu sive suburbs the reverse situ a tio n is to
be fo u n d . C h ild re n are ta u g h t b y teachers w ho h a v e less econ om ic
sta n d in g an d less o p p o r tu n ity to e n jo y the so-called good th in g s o f
life , i f th e y h ave n o t less cu ltu re , th an th eir paren ts. P r o v id e d th a t
the lack o f p ersonal refin em en t is n o t so extrem e as to lea d to d isg u st
reactions on th e p a r t o f th e stu d en ts, the effect, as reg a rd s the m a in
tenance o f sch ool a u th o rity , is n ot u n d esirab le. T h e p e rso n a lities o f
the tea ch ers, stab ilized , r e la tiv e ly u n co m p licated , r e la tiv e ly sim p le,
an d d ire ct, p ro d u c e u p o n the stu d en ts who have been reared in hom es
o f m u ch c u ltu re an effect o f coarse v ir ility , w h ich m a y in m a n y cases
fu rn ish d esirab le elem en ts to the u ltim a te m a k e-u p o f th e c h i ld ’s
p erso n a lity . T h e coarseness o f the teach ers an d the slig h t v a lu e th e y
p u t u p o n the a m en ities co n stitu te a reason f o r la u g h in g off th eir co n
trib u tio n s, b u t th a t docs n o t d e stro y th e p o w er o f th eir p erso n a lities
or th eir v ig o r o f speech, or p rev en t these in d iv id u a ls fro m e x e r tin g a
p ro fo u n d a n d fa v o r a b le influence u p o n th e ir stu d e n ts.1 D o m in a n c e
seems to be m o st ea sily m a in ta in e d , h ow ever, when the teacher, w ith
out a tta in in g cu ltiv a tio n w h ich p rev en ts h im fr o m h e in g u n d e rsto o d
b y his stu d en ts o r k n o w in g w h a t th ey are th in k in g abou t, rep resen ts
a level o f a tta in m e n t s lig h tly above th a t know n to his stu d en ts. T h e
teacher h as m o s t p restig e when he h as attained those th in g s w h ich the
p a ren ts o f the ch ild re n h e teaches w o u ld like to attain.
“ A recent study at Pennsylvania State College shows the following (special

technique) correlations between teacher success and father’s occupations:
Father'a Occupation Elementary Teachers IJigh-School Teachers
P r o f e s s io n a l m e n ..................................................................................... n. 124 0 .1 0 4
Business men............................................... 0.004 0.077
F a n n e r s ......................................................................................................... 0 .0 0 0 0 .3 6 1
A r t i s a n s ........................................ * ............................................................. 0 .2 8 1 0 .0 0 4
L a b o r e r s .......................... ............................................................................ 0 .4 8 4 0 .0 1 7
(From “ Pre-Training Factors Predictive o f Teacher Success,” pp. 7-12, doc

tor’ s thesis at Pennsylvania State College, 1931, by Harry L. K rin cr; unpublished.
Abstract published in Abstracts o f Studies in Education, edited by C. C. Peters
and F. T. Struck, School o f Education, Pennsylvania State College.)
The above figures seem approximately to bear out our theory. The present
writer would suggest that the reason for the smaller correlations foT the group
o f high-sehool teachers is perhaps the longer period o f time spent in training,
emancipating them more completely from the social backgrounds o f the parents,
and the fa ct that a more select group survives the longer training period.
213 THE SOCIOLOGY OF T E A C H IN G
C erta in em p irica l g en eralization s m a y be offered w ith reg a rd to the

effect u p on stu d en ts o f p h y sic a l ch aracteristics o f teach ers. T h e p h y si
cal a p p earan ce o f the teach er is im p o rta n t, b u t hecause o f the different
m e a n in g s attach ed to different traits w hen tb e y are in corp o rated into
d ifferen t p erson alities it becom es v e r y difficult to reach a n y th in g f u r
ther th a n the m o st ten ta tiv e con clu sion s co n cern in g p a r tic u la r traits.
T h e p ro b lem is fu r th e r co m p lica ted b y the f a c t th a t m e n and w om en
d iffer w id e ly . S ize, the a p p earan ce o f h ea lth a n d stre n g th , stam in a,
som e str e n g th , a n d th e absence o f rid icu lo u s ch aracteristics are a p
p a r e n tly im p o rta n t f o r both m e n a n d w o m e n , b u t th e y are im p o rta n t
in s lig h tly d ifferen t w a y s, so th at it w ill be n ecessa ry to discu ss them
sep a ra tely . F o r m en , size an d the ap p eara n ce o f str e n g th are a p
p a re n tly the m o st im p o rta n t p h y sic a l ch aracteristics. T h e m an below
th e a vera ge in size, or p e rh a p s th e m a n n o t a p p a r e n tly above the
average, is at a h a n d ica p in dealin g w ith ch ildren o f h igh -sch ool age.
T h e sm a ll m a n a p p a re n tly fa ils as a d iscip lin arian fo r tw o re a so n s:
one, the f a c t th a t he ap p ears som ehow r id icu lo u s to h is stu d en ts, an d
the o th er th a t he is v e ry lik e ly to h ave a fe e lin g o f in fe r io r ity th a t
m a k es h im eith er tim id and u n assertive or causes h im to loo k fo r
trou b le. T h e reason w h y the sm a ll m an is rid icu lo u s, u n less h e be
in d eed a h o m u n c u lu s, is n o t easy to fin d , b u t we do k n o w th at the
rid icu lo u s elem ent is there. I t h as o ften been rem ark ed th a t the ahsu rd
p erso n o f th e stag e is n ea rly a lw a y s a v e r y sm a ll or a v e r y fa t m an .
P e r h a p s th e essen tial a b su rd ity lies in th e c o n tra st b etw een the e x a g
g era ted c la im s w h ich su ch men m ake u p o n o u r a tten tion a n d co n sid
era tio n a n d th eir rea l im p ortan ce w h en th ey are ju d g e d , a s m en m u st
a lw a y s be ju d g e d b y m a n y people m u ch o f the tim e, in term s o f their
size. T h e p h y sic a l in sign ifican ce o f the sm a ll teach er co n trasts sh a r p ly
w ith his in stitu tio n a l im p ortan ce, a n d th erefo re he is fu n n y . A n y
p h y sic a l tr a it other th an size w h ich a p p ears rid icu lo u s w ill h in d er the
teach er in h is a tte m p t to m a in ta in d om in an ce over h is stu d en ts.
E ffe m in a c y o f fe a tu r e s, or lack o f p h y sic a l fo rc e , m a y in th is sense
h a n d ic a p a m a n .
H e ig h t is a p p a r e n tly the m o st im p o rta n t elem ent in size. W h a t its
influence is rem ain s so m eth in g o f a m y ste r y , b u t it is a ssu red ly tru e
th at m u ch o f d om in an ce and su b o rd in ation is in te r m s o f loo k in g u p
and lo o k in g d o w n , esp ecia lly as betw een m em b ers o f the sam e sex.
B r e a d th o f sh ou ld er is also im p o rta n t, a n d in a m ore obvious m an n er.
T h e set o f th e ja w , the p itch , in flection , a n d th e in to n a tio n o f th e
voice, a n d th e expression o f the eyes h ave a re a l sign ifican ce. Th e ap
p earan ce o f stre n g th is m ore im p o r ta n t than the a c tu a l stren gth of
TRAITS DETERMINING- THE PRESTIGE OE THE TEACHER 219
tbe te a c h e r ; actu al stre n g th m a y be considered o cca sion a lly , b u t it

is considered less th a n the m ere appearan ce. A m o n g b u sin ess people
the h an d cla sp is reco g n ized as o f extrem e im p o r ta n c e ; d o m in a n ce and
subordination, as w ell as those first im pression s o f stre n g th , v ig o r,
and co rd ia lity , are decid ed in term s o f the stren g th o f th e g r ip .
Im p o rta n t in the h an d clasp are the stren gth and the v ig o r o f sh ak in g,
both o f w hich are u tte rly sp o iled i f th e y ap p ear self-c on scio u s. ( H a n d
shaking is p r o b a b ly o f v e r y little im p o rta n ce fo r th e te a c h e r.)
I t is n ot easy to e x p la in h ow the size and str e n g th o f th e m an
teacher influence the a ttitu d e s w h ich stu d en ts h a v e to w a r d h im . A n
exp lan ation w h ich h a s p o ssib ly been overw orked in the p a st is th a t
tbe larg e m an m akes a good lea d er because he is an a tte n tio n -g e ttin g
object m ere ly b y v irtu e o f bis size. O n e is in clin ed to r e je c t the
h ypothesis th at size h elps the m an teach er hecause he ap p ears a b le
to m aster h is stu d en ts p h y sic a lly , h u t the p o ssib ility d eserv es co n
sideration . T h is s o r t o f th in g cou ld h e im p o r ta n t as a su b co n sciou s
h an gover o f p h y sica l d o m in a tio n . A con sideration o f th e n e g a tiv e
cases a lm ost fo rc e s one to con clu de th at size an d stren gth are a p a r t o f
our m ascu line id eal, p erh ap s derived fr o m the early im a ge o f th e
fath er, a n d th a t th e la r g e , stron g m an has p restig e h ecause he c o n
fo rm s to th e id eal. O f som e im p o rta n ce, too, is th e f a c t t h a t the la rg e
m an is ea sily d istin gu ish a b le fr o m stu d en ts. T h a t the p re stig e of
the large m a n h as a su bration al b a sis seem s sure hecause o f th e fa c t
th at th e p restig e p ersists even w h en the a p p earan ce o f str e n g th a n d
com petence is show n to b e fa lla e io u s. O n e generalization th a t m a y
be m ade w ith a con sid erab le fe e lin g o f sa fe ty is th a t the a d ju stm e n ts
of p erso n a lity th a t go w ith sa tisfa c to r y size are at lea st as im p o r ta n t
in d eterm in in g tea ch in g efficiency as is size itse lf. T h e r e la tiv e ly g re a t
stab ility , the h ig h m a r g in o f e q u a n im ity , self-assu ran ce, and fre e d o m
fr o m r iv a lr y w ith stu d en ts th at go w ith size do m u ch to m ake larg e
m en fo r tu n a te in th e ir relation s w ith stu d en ts. T h is b e lie f is fu r th e r
corroborated b y th e fa c t th a t sm all men have occa sion a lly fo u n d
it possible to su b stitu te p erso n a lity a d ju stm e n ts fo r co n sp icu ou s size.
An even m ore p u zz lin g top ic is the relation o f th e p h y siq u e o f
women to th eir p restig e am on g stu d en ts. Size is a p p a r e n tly o f less
im portan ce fo r w om en because it is n ot defin itely a p a r t o f the f e m i
nine ideal an d hecause w om en teach ers m a in ta in a k in d o f r a p p o r t
fu r th e r rem o v ed fr o m any conceivable resort to p h y sic a l stre n g th
than th a t o f m en. E x tr e m e ly sm a ll w om en, h ow ever, are d efin itely at
a d isad v an ta ge in h o ld in g th e atten tion an d m a in ta in in g the respect
o f high -sch ool classes. F o r d ifferen t reasons, e x tre m e ly la r g e w om en
are likew ise at a d isa d v a n ta g e ; the reason s h ere are th a t la rg e wom en

h ave in fe r io r ity fe e lin g s analogous to those o f sm a ll m e n , a n d that
la r g e size, esp ecia lly i f it is the size o f corpu lence, is m u ch m ore likely
to he rid icu lo u s in a w o m a n than in a m a n . A p p a r e n t ly hulk is still
an adva n tag e fo r w om en teachers. It seem s also th a t w om en are
m ore lik e ly to succeed in tea ch in g w ho h av e a ra th e r la r g e dash o f tbe
m ascu lin e in th e ir p h ysica l m a k e-u p an d h e h a v io r ; th a t th is is a
circu m stan ce la d e n w ith d a n g er fo r th eir fe m in in e stu d e n ts is a con
clusion th a t seem s obvious. A n a ly s is o f the role o f p h y sic a l ch aracter
istics o f su cc essfu l teachers forces u s to con clu de th at fo r w om en,
a s w ell as fo r m e n , the influence o f these tr a its u p on th e gen eral p er
sonal org a n ization is p roh ah ly m ore im p o rta n t th a n are the traits
them selves. One fr a m e o f p ersonal o rg a n ization which' is o ften con
n ected w ith certa in p h ysica l q u alities is th a t which lea d s stu d en ts to
look u p o n the teach er as a real or p o ten tial lov e oh ject. T h e p erson ality
m a k e-u p is th a t w h ich gives the teach er a low ered th resh old fo r
coqu ettish in te r p la y w ith h er stu den ts. G en eraliza tio n is again diffi
c u lt, h u t it seem s th at r a p p o r t hased u p o n sex u a l a ttra ction is sh ort
liv e d an d u n stah le, lik e ly to be easily m eta m o rp h osed in to definite
cou rtsh ip o r active sex antagon ism .
T h e dress o f the teach er is th o u g h t to affect h is p r e stig e noticeably.
AH extrem es are th erefore u su a lly a void ed h y th ose fa m ilia r with
teacher tra d itio n . M e n teach ers arc u su a lly q u ite co n serva tiv e in dress,
r u n n in g to the m id d le -a g e d styles a n d th e u n d istin g u ish e d colors. I t
seem s the ru le th a t m en teach ers p a y r e la tiv e ly little a tten tion to
dress. P e r h a p s th is is hecause dress h as chiefly a n e g a tiv e v a lu e fo r
t h e m ; th ey can lose p restige th ro u gh d ress, th ro u g h ex tre m e sloven
lin ess or d a n d y ism , h u t th ey can g a in n o n e ; clothes are th erefore a
req u irem en t to he slig h ted i f possihle. T h ere is a v e r y e x p lic it tr a d i
tio n co n cern in g the dress o f the w om an teach er. A lm o s t e v e ry reader,
in fa c t, w ill find h im se lf ca llin g n p some definite v isu a l im a ge o f the
dress o f the ty p ic a l school m istress. E v e n m ore th a n m e n , w om en
teach ers m u s t dress co n serva tiv ely . A s do the m e n , th ey dress fo r
u t ilit y a n d n o t fo r d isp la y , b u t th is ch aracteristic is m o re notieeahle
in th eir case hecause stan d a rd s o f dress fo r w om en are different.
W h e r e a s o th er w om en dress to em phasize fe m in in e characteristics,
w om en teachers dress to obscure them . P r o m th e la r g e r p o in t of view
it is regrettab le th at in tim e th ey lose either th eir in terest in dressing
fo r d isp la y o r th e ir a h ility to d ress sex-con sciou sly, and it is a fa c t
th a t m a y have som eth in g to do w ith th e g en eral u n m a rria g e a h ility
o f school teach ers. B u t fr o m the p o in t o f view o f tb e schools, the
dem ure d ress o f 'women i s possih ly a v e r y good th in g . O ccasion ally,

how ever, there a p p ea r in the schools w om en w h o hy the qu iet good
taste o f th e ir ap p arel are ahle to g ain th e resp ect an d ad m ira tio n o f
all th eir stu d en ts. I n such eases, dress is a n asset. W o m e n w ho g a in
prestige h y dress are m u ch m ore n u m ero u s th a n m e n .
Th e m a n n ers o f th e teach er are chiefly im p o rta n t as th ey cause
him to categorize fa v o r a h ly or u n fa v o r a b ly on the m a tte r o f h is social
background. T h is w e h av e elsewhere discu ssed. T h is i s n ot a ll, h ow
ever, f o r m a n n ers, esp ecia lly decorous, even c o u r tly , m a n n ers are
im p o rta n t m e a n s o f m a in ta in in g social d istan ce. I n a d d itio n , good
m an n ers su g g e st th at the teacher respects stu d en ts an d argu e p o w er
f u lly f o r respect f o r h im .
A d ifferen t m a tte r, bu t an allied one— no p la y on w ord s, a t a n y
rate— is m a n n er. M a n n er, too, co n ve ys a n im pression as to social b a ck
grou n d. P e r h a p s it co n ve ys a tr u e r im p ression th an do m an n ers.
M a n n ers are in decay. ( I t has heen t r u ly said th a t th e m em h ers o f
certain y o u n g e r sets have n o m a n n ers h u t a m a n n e r .) M a n n e rs, too,
m a y he m ore c o n v in cin g ly im ita te d in th e syn th etic v arieties th an a
m an n er m a y . B u t to give a fa v o ra h le im p ression o f o n e ’s p resu m ed
social b a ck g rou n d is b y no m e a n s the ch ief fu n c tio n o f m a n n er. W h e n
we speak o f a m a n n er w c r e fe r to a to ta l im pression o f th e p erso n
ality, a n im p ression to he th o u g h t o f as la r g e ly a b y -p r o d u c t o f the
p e rso n ’s hahits o f social expression . I n the m a n n e r th ere is a lw ay s
an elem en t o f self-con sciousn ess. M a n n e r is d em ean o r rath er th an
sim ple h eh avior. C ertain m a n n ers w h ich are ea sily recogn ized are:
the co m p eten t m a n n er, the efficient m an n er, th e a rro g a n t m a n n er, th e
m odest m a n n er, the t im id m an n er, th e fa u lt-fin d in g m a n n er, the
hrusque m a n n er, etc. T o analyze the effect o f each o f these m a n n ers
u pon th e classroom life o f stu d en t and teach er w o u ld he lo n g , p e r
h aps i t is enough to rem ark th at each m a n n e r has its o w n m e a n in g
in the school. O ne d eserv in g o f special a tten tion is w h a t is p o p u la r ly
kn ow n as the classroom m a n n er, a m a n n e r su p p osed to he acqu ired
hy teachers i n the classroom a n d carried over in to life outside. T h o
classroom m a n n er is d r y , a u th o rita tiv e, and ru n s to d id ac tic inflec
tio n s ; it represen ts an a d m ira b le a d a p ta tio n to tea ch in g con d ition s.
M a n n erism s represent the h reakdow n of th e m a n n er, the p o in t
where i t fa ils to convince, o r w here it becom es so ob vio u sly artificial
as to h old a n elem ent o f th e rid icu lo u s. M a n n e rism s have no little
im portan ce in th e social life o f the school room . M a n n erism s are p e r
sonal p ecu liarities, u su a lly con sid ered r id icu lo u s, a n d so m etim es ch ar
acterizin g th e p erson sh a rp ly . U su a lly th e y are c o m p en sa to ry in th eir
n atu re. A p erson who has ad op ted a m a n n e r w h ich he ca n n ot qu ite

ca rry m a y g ive expression to the other side o f h is p e rso n a lity in
occasional gestu res, w h ich h ave deep p erso n a l sign ifican ce as express
in g the less visible side o f an am bivalen ce. O r a person conscious
o f a w eakness m a y fa ll in to som e m an n erism in h is a tte m p t to rem e d y
the w eakness or to conceal it fr o m others. N e r v o u s teach ers fa il
into m a n y m a n n erism s o f gesture, w h ich either serve a s releases o f
u n consciou s tension o r are in ten ded to f o r t i f y th em i n the ey es o f
th eir class. M a n n e r ism s m a y a p p e a r otherw ise, as a so rt o f expression
o f a g en eral a t t i t u d e ; th e cy n ical m an learn s to sh ru g h is sh ou lders
c y n ic a lly . I t is difficult to gen eralize abou t m a n n e rism s because they
m a y m ean a n y th in g . A s a ru le th ey h ave, a s w e h a v e rem arked gre at
person al significance. S tu d e n ts lea rn these m a n n erism s q u ick ly and
lea rn also to ju d g e accu ra tely o f th eir sign ifican ce, a t lea st as r e
g a r d s them selves. T h e y le a rn , o f course, to m im ic th e m a n n erism s
o f the teach er, w h ich h elp s to m ake life m ore bearab le fo r them
an d on ly in th e extrem e case less bearable fo r th e teacher P u p ils
also acqu ire a certain k in d o f co n trol over th e ir teach ers b y a k n o w l
edge o f th eir m a n n erism s. W h e n the teacher sa ys, “ D o n ' t , ” b u t does
n o t ch a n ge h is fa c ia l expression , h e i s m e re ly e n fo r c in g disciplin e
a n d th e consequences m a y n o t be disastrou s if, a ft e r a discreet in
te rv a l, th e offence is repeated. B u t w h en h e sa ys, “ D o n ’t ” in ex a c tly
the sam e tone o f voice, b u t fo llo w s th a t w ith a settin g o f the m o u th
so firm th a t little w rin ld es a p p ea r on each side o f it, it i s .n o tim e
fo r tem p o rizin g . T h u s m an n erism s, b y m a k in g com m u n ication m o re
com p lete th an eith er teach er or p u p il realizes o r in ten d s, m a y serve
a very u se fu l p u rp ose in th e classroom . T h e social in tera ction of
teach ers an d p u p ils becom es stereotyp ed , and p a tte rn s r e c u r - th e
m a n n erism s a n d expressions o f the teach er (som etim es th ose o f stu
den ts as w e ll) are likew ise stereotyped a n d in c o rp o ra te d into th is
socia interaction . T h e resu lt is a co m p lica tio n o f th e processes o f
social in terch a n ge b y a n increase in the k n ow led ge o f a ll p a rties o f
w h a t the oth ers are g o in g to d o ; th e g am e becom es a chess gam e
th a t d ep en d s u p on th e o p p o n e n t’s m a k in g th e b est possible p la y .
M a n n e rism s m a y , m th is m an n er, ad d so m eth in g to th e te a c h e r ’s
actu al effectiveness b y m a k in g h is m e a n in g clearer, b u t th e y do n ot
ad d a n y th in g to his prestige.
O f v a st im p o rta n ce in d eterm in in g the o p in ion stu d en ts h old o f

teach ers is th e attitu d e w h ich those teach ers have tow ard stu d en ts
an d the su b je c t m a tte r th ey are a tte m p tin g to im p a r t to stu den ts,
t h e a ttitu d es w h ich teach ers m a y have a n d those w h ich th ey m a y
co rresp o n d in g ly evoke in th e ir stu d e n ts b ra n c h off in to su ch a n in

fin ity o f social processes th at we sh all here be able to d o no m ore
than to m e n tio n ce rta in ty p e a ttitu d e s a n d in d ica te th e ir effects. Th e
a d va n tag e is se e m in g ly w ith th e teacher w h ose a ttitu d e to w a r d h is
stu d en ts is r e s p e c tfu l, earnest, as fr ie n d ly as possible an d a s little
hostile a s m a y b e, im p a rtia l, and r e la tiv e ly u n y ie ld in g . D e fin ite p e r
sonal in te re st in th e stu d en t there should b e, b u t it creates fe w e r
p rob lem s i f it is fo rm a lize d a n d restricted . L e t u s take u p each o f
these p h ases o f the te a c h e r ’s a ttitu d es to w a r d h is stu d en ts in tu rn .
R esp ect o f th e teacher f o r th e p erson alities o f stu d e n ts i s so m eth in g
of a sine qua non o f a n y rea l respect f o r th e teacher. T h e tea ch er
m u st a ccep t th e stu d en ts fo r w h a t th e y are, and a s fa r as possible
fo r w h a t th ey th in k th e y are, fo r stu d en ts are v e r y quick to detect
a n d to resen t a b e littlin g attitu d e. W h a t is p erh ap s e v e n m ore im
p o rta n t, a teacher m u s t respect th e reserves o f h is stu d en ts. I t f o l
low s likew ise th a t th e teach er m u st be q u ite earn est a n d sincere
in h is d ea lin g s w ith stu d en ts. W h a t th e y do i n earn est, he m u st
tak e earn estly. W h a t is an earnest bu sin ess to th e m m u s t be one
to h im . F r ie n d lin e s s a n d h o stility m u st both be strain ed th ro u g h th e
channels of th e in stitu tio n . U n y ie ld in g n e ss and im p a r tia lity are
also in d isp en sab le a ttrib u te s o f the te a c h e r ’s a ttitu d e tow ard h is
stu d en ts. T h e u n y ie ld in g n e ss is n ecessary in th a t th e teacher m u st
m a in ta in a con sisten t pose a n d a con sisten t a n d u n v a r y in g d efin ition
o f th e s itu a t io n ; th e rea son in g b y w h ich one m a y establish th e neces
sity fo r im p a rtia lity is n o t m ore o b scu re: th e teach er m u s t be im
p a r tia l because it is th e code, a n d because th e fa v o r e d ones w ill
take a d v a n ta g e o f th e ir special p o sition and p e rh a p s both fa v o r e d
an d u n fa v o r e d w ill rebel a ga in st th e n ep o tism . A n im p a r tia l a p p lic a
tion o f all th e school law s req u ires th a t th e teach er h av e a respect
fo r the establish ed ord er som ew h at in excess o f h is re sp e c t f o r h is
stu d e n ts (su b o rd in a tio n to a p r in c ip le ).
W h e t h e r th e teach er m e e ts h is stu d en ts and th e p ro b lem s th ey
presen t c o u ra g e o u sly or w h eth er h e fe a r s th a t co n tact is a question
u p on w h ich stu d e n ts soon m ake u p th eir m in d s. W r i t e r s u p o n th e
p ra ctic al aspects o f tea ch in g h ave rep ea ted ly em p h a sized th e q u a lity
o f cou rage as one o f th e n ecessary requ isites o f the g oo d teach er.
T h a t these w riters are sa y in g so m eth in g v e r y tru e th ere seem s no
d ou b t, b u t one is in c lin ed to w o n d e r w h a t k in d o f cou rage th e y
h ave in m in d . P h y sic a l cou rage is n o t a lw a y s n ecessa ry in the teach er,
th ou g h its lack , i f it is ever d iscovered, m a y d is q u a lify a n in d i
v id u a l as a teach er. N o r is i t correct to s a y m e re ly th a t “ m oral
THE SOCIOLOGY o r TEACHING
224
c o u r a g e " is req u isite, f o r fe w teachers, even the m ost su ccessfu l, have

d istin gu ish e d th em selves in th at d ire c tio n ; fe w o f th em w o u ld take
u p a ru in o u s course o f a ction because th ey th in k it rig h t. W i t h re
sp ect to m oral cou rage, teach ers arc p r o b a b ly little better and
c e rta in ly no w orse th an th e rest o f the co m m u n ity. N o r is the fr a n tic
d esp era te cou rage o f the teacher w h o is fa ilin g an d k n ow s th a t he
is fa ilin g o f an y v e r y g re a t v alu e. W h a t is p erh ap s in p o in t is th a t
th e teach er m u st h ave an in stitu tion a lized cou rage, w h ich is in its
best fo r m m e re ly a p a tie n t w illin gn ess to fa ce ou t a il the little u n
pleasan tn esses th a t arise as in cid en ts o f the rela tio n o f teacher to
stu d en ts. In stitu tio n a liz e d co u rag e is su p p o rte d b y an in stitu tio n a l
tem p er. B oth o f these traits o f character are a p p a r e n t in the effect
th ey h ave u p o n the te a c h e r ’s a ttitu d e to w ard stu d en ts. ■
T h e te a c h e r ’s in sigh t into stu d e n ts in the in stitu tio n a lize d situ a
tio n , h is u n d e r sta n d in g o f th e boy in school a n d o f the co n d ition s
a ffe ctin g th e co llective op in io n o f th e g ro u p o f b o y s a n d g ir ls in. th e
school room , is a d eterm in a n t o f p restig e both d ire c tly an d in d i
rectly, b u t ch iefly in d irectly in th a t i t affects th e t e a c h e r ’s a ttitu d es
tow ard stu d en ts. "W h at is w a n ted is n ot the ex a c t m easu rem ents o f
the clin ica l p sy ch o lo g ist, fo r these m e asu rem en ts do n o t help m u ch
w hen one h as a w hole class to in str u c t, a n d to k eep in ord er, n o r
th e co m p lete com p rehen sion o f a fu n c tio n in g p e r so n a lity which the
n o v elist an d th e p sy ch ia trist striv e to a ttain . I t is sufficient fo r th e
n a rro w er p u rp ose o f the school i f the tea ch er h as in stitu tio n a l i n
sigh t, i f he k n ow s h is w a y a b o u t in the so cial w orld o f the school
room , I t w o u ld be b e tte r i f he k n ew m o re, i f h e kn ew so m eth in g ,
a t lea st, o f th e le a rn in g n ow b u ilt u p abou t p ro b lem c h ild r e n ; it
w o u ld be b etter i f be k n ew a gre at deal ahout h u m a n n atu re in
g en eral. B u t in stitu tio n a l in sigh t, an u n d e r sta n d in g o f th e social
in tera ction o f the school a n d th e cla ssroo m , is a b so lu tely n ecessa ry ,
and th a t is w h a t th is book is about.
W e b e a r o f teach ers who h a v e " a sen se o f p r o p o r tio n ,” and o f
less fo r tu n a te colleagu es w h o h a v e none. W h a t is m e an t b y a sense
o f p ro p o rtio n is a degree o f u n d e r sta n d in g o f th e m e n ta l sets a n d
co n tex ts o f stu den ts. Th e teacher w h o h as th is kind o f in sig h t know s
h o w f a r he can g o, and he does n o t, b y p u sh in g the w r o n g b u tto n ,
evoke a n in a p p r o p ria te m e n ta l set fr o m h is stu d en ts. T h e hab itu al
m e n ta l set o f stu d en ts is one w hich tak es lea rn in g seriou sly, and is
disp osed to be g re a tly p lea su red b y even a little lea rn in g . T h is h ab itu al
set tak es g ra d e s a n d ex am in a tio n s seriou sly, an d resents an u n seem ly
lack o f in terest o n the p a rt o f th e teacher. P r o b a b ly , th is m e n ta l
TRAITS DETERMINING THE PREBTIOE OF THE TEACHER 225
set takes the teach er seriou sly, bu t it is disp osed to resent any te n d
en cy o f the teacher to exceed his a u th o rity . T h e teach er w ho give3
an u n au th orized com m and or encroaches u p on a r e g u la r ly scheduled
vacation lacks a sense o f proportion . W e m a y illu str a te our p o in t
fu r th e r b y b riefly con sid e rin g classroom hum or. T ea ch ers w ho are
“ so c ia lly h ard o f h e a r in g ” n ever lea rn to use h u m o r p ro p e rly . A
danger o f h u m or, im p r o p e r ly u sed , a d a n g er o f h u m o r th a t is n ot
labelled a s h u m or, a d a n g er o f good h u m or, th erefo re, is th a t it p re
disposes stu d en ts to in te rp re t the te a c h e r ’ s rem ark s in a h u m o ro u s
con text. I f d irected a t stu d en ts in a b e littlin g w a y , it arouses hot
resentm ent. I lu m o r has a use in a lle v ia tin g a n ta g o n ism a n d secu r
in g fr ie n d ly r a p p o r t ; one m o m en t the teacher is tea ch in g , b u t w hen
th at begin s to be boresom e, he m akes a gesture of co m in g fr o m
behind his desk, s ittin g on the benches w ith his stu d en ts, an d jo k in g
a b ou t the teacher. B u t th is device m u st be used w ith care. T h a t is
w h a t w e m ean b y in stitu tio n a l insight.
In s titu tio n a l in sig h t an d in stitu tion a l cou rage are ind isp en sab le
q u alification s, a n d the attitu d e o f the teach er to w a rd h is stu d en ts
sh ow s stu d en ts a t once w h eth er he has them or not. Th e teacher
w h o m stu d en ts like a n d ad m ire above all others is the teach er who
kn ow s w h a t it is all a b ou t, and b o ld ly d em a n d s h is rig h ts, a ll o f
th em , b u t no m ore, th e w hile h e insists u p on th e a m o u n t a n d k ind
o f su b o rd in ation th a t is correct w ith in th e in stitu tio n a l situ a tio n .1
O n the college level a ce rta in a m o u n t o f in tellectu a l cou rage is also
necessary, a so rt o f fa ith in the a u th oritativen ess o f o n e ’s ow n m e n ta l
processes, a n d te x t-sla v e s an d teach ers w h o are a fr a id to answ er
sim p le questions f a i l fo r the la c k o f it.
S im ila r gen eralization s m a y be n m de co n cern in g the a ttitu d e o f
th e teach er tow ard th e su b ject m a tte r w h ich it is h is bu sin ess to
im part,. T h e teacher must, be q u ite in ea rn est a b ou t his su b ject. H e
m u st ta k e the b u sin ess seriou sly, fo r it is im p o ssib le fo r young
persons to realize th a t so m eth in g m a y be im p o rta n t fo r th em which
is n o t im p o rta n t f o r th eir g ro w n -u p teacher. T h e cavalier a ttitu d e
to w ard su b je c t m atter, how ever m u ch th e p a rt o f sense fo r th e teach er
1 An eighth-grade Htudent compared two teachers in this manner: "M ia s W .’s

fine. W e all liked her. She told yon. Shu’d yell at you anywhere. I don 't like
Miss J. ho well. Aw, she gives us candy.” This reflects no mnaoehiBm, hut the
reaction to contact with, first, a vigorous, tonic personality, and, second, a less
adequate personality, the contact, in hotli eases, taking place through the porec
o f an institution. The situation might he different outHide the institution, yet
this h oy ’H statement expresses a fundamental need o f human nature, the need
for leadership, and his affection for the vigorous teacher is merely the gratitude
which attaches to the person who, within the hounds o f the situation, is able
to furnish leadership.
as a m e m b er of the la rg e r w o rld , m u st in e v ita b ly b ill w h atever

in terest stu d e n ts w ou ld otherw ise have in it. T r a d itio n requires
th at the teach er sh o u ld be hoth earnest an d en th u siastic over his
s u b je c t ; th e co m m a n d m en t to earnestn ess is m ore ea sily m et th an
that to en th u siasm . L o n g tea ch in g experience in one su b je c t w orks
both fo r and a ga in st th e success o f the teacher w ho w ish es to p r e
serve these v alu ah le a ttitu d es. A person w ho is con cern ed over
a period o f y e a r s w ith p a ssin g on some p a r tic u la r su b je c t, w h o is
regard ed as a success or b ra n d e d as a fa ilu r e a c c o rd in g ly as his
stu d en ts develop proficien cy in th a t s u b je c t or f a i l to develop it,
m agn ifies the im p ortan ce o f th e su b ject. B u t it is h a r d to see h ow
loss o f en th usiasm can h e a v o id e d ; th at is p a r t o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l
d ifficu lty o f b ein g a teacher, th a t one m u st g o on d o in g 't h in g s th at
h ave lo st their a p p ea l because one has done them so m a n y tim es.
T h e a d v a n ta g e h ere, as in som e other respects, is w ith the teacher
w ho h a s n o t too h ig h a n in tellig en ce, fo r it is the less in telligen t
teacher w ho h as le a st difficu lty in b e e p in g h im s e lf con vin ced of
th e fu n d a m e n ta l im p o rta n ce o f h is w o rk and in r e ta in in g h is en th u si
asm o ver th e obvious. Som e of the stu p id ones, in d ee d , take a
keen d e lig h t in its a n n u a l rediscovery. R a tio n a liza tio n a n d the com -
p a rtm e n ta liza tio n o f the m in d help some teachers to p reserve th eir
halance and enth usiasm . A co n tin u ation o f-r e a d in g an d research in
o n e ’s field k eeps one fr o m fo r g e tt in g th a t an academ ic s u b je c t is
r e a lly a liv e ph ase o f h u m a n th o u g h t an d n o t m e re ly a set o f fa c ts
a n d fig u res to he m em o rized by so p h o m o re s; one w h o tak es this
w ay ou t fig h ts off the h oredom of sp ecialism by t a k in g on more
specialism . F o r th e tea ch er w ho in sists u p on e v a lu a tin g his in str u c
tion a n d h is su h je c t c o rrectly , an d u p o n p r e se r v in g a g en eral h u m a n
p ersp ectiv e, th e b e st re fu g e fr o m e n n u i is in the p erso n a lities o f his
stu d en ts, fr o m w hose d ev elop m en t he m a y take such sa tisfa ction as
th e in stitu tio n a l se ttin g allows.
P e r h a p s the m ost im p o rta n t sin gle ch aracteristic o f th e teacher in
d e te r m in in g th e lo n g -tim e relation sh ip o f stu d e n t a n d teacher is h is
voice. O th e r ch aracteristics o f th e teacher m a y , w h en stu d en ts h av e
g ro w n a ccu stom ed to th em , fa d e into the m a rg in s o f p erception , b u t
the voice, c o n tin u a lly active, carries th e b u rd e n o f in stru ctio n , and
it m u st th erefo re sta y n e a r the cen ter o f a tten tion . Im p o r ta n t ele
m e n ts in the tota l im p ression o f the voice are its p itc h , its volu m e,
an d its in to n ation . T h e lo w er-p itc h ed voices h av e in g e n e ra l a m ore
im p ressive a n d a m ore so oth in g effect, a n d th ey are m o re lik e ly to
be associated w ith a v olu m e w hich is ad equ ate fo r sch ool-room p u r -
TRAITS DETERMINING THE PRESTIGE OE THE TEACHER 227
poses and is y et re la tiv e ly effortless. The in ton ation s o f the voice are
a p p a r e n tly m ost im p o rta n t in th eir u n consciou s betra ya l of th e
te a c h e r ’s state o f m in d a n d his character. T h u s fr o m the succession
o f tones in w hich a statem en t is m ade we can te ll w h eth er a teach er
rea lly m ean s w h a t he is sa y in g an d is quite su re th a t there w ill he
no a rg u m en t ahout it, w h eth er he m eans it and th in k s th a t there m a y
arise som e discu ssion , w hether he is t r y in g to con vin ce h im se lf,
w hether he is tr y in g to b lu ff som eone else, etc. T h ese in terp reta tio n s
ch ildren m ake w ith o u t analysis o r w ith ou t r e a liz in g th at th ey are
subtle in terp reta tio n s, b u t th ey m ake th em . T h is is one phase of
social lif e in th e school W'hieh has a p p a re n tly escaped the atten tion
o f stu d en ts o f edu cation altogether. W h e n we fo llo w o u t th is h y p o th
esis we find th at it h elp s to exp lain some o f th e otherw ise su rp risin g
successes o f stu d en ts in character in terp reta tio n . For in stan ce, a
su p erin ten d en t a fte r lo n g and ca refu l stu d y em p lo y s a teacher who
w ill, h e thinks, be sa tisfa cto ry in all respects, in c lu d in g h is a b ility
to disciplin e. H e h as h ad sa tisfa cto ry p rep a ra tio n , an d he kn ow s his
su h ject. F r o m the in terview the su p erin ten d en t g a in s th e im pression
th a t he is in te llig e n t, alert, a n d com p etent. H is referen ces show some
y e a rs o f a p p a re n tly su ccessfu l experien ce. F o r all the su p erin ten d en t
can te ll h e is a m ost capahle classroom p erso n a lity . B u t in tw o days,
in a t m o st a w eek, h is stu d en ts h ave located all h is w eak points,
a n d a great tea ch er-h aitin g h o lid a y is in process. H o w do th ey do it?
V ery lik e ly th ro u g h those in tu itiv e ju d g m e n ts w h ich , fr o m th eir
ow n p o in t o f v iew , th ey m ake v e ry accu rately. A n d th e p itc h and
the in to n ation o f th e voice h av e n o t a little to do w ith th ose ju d g
m ents.
T h ere are recognizable ty p e s o f good a n d had voices f o r class
room pu rp oses. One o f the w o rst o f th e h ad voices is th a t ealled
effem inate w h en it is fo u n d in a m a n ; rea lly it is in fa n tile . T h is
voice p lac es the in d iv id u a l at once a s a person w h o h as n ot o u t
g row n h is in fa n tile h a b it o f depen den ce u p o n the decisions o f others.
T h is v oice, ch iefly th rou gh its use o f r isin g in stead o f f a lli n g i n
flections, fa ils to g ive an im p ression o f fin ality o f decision. I t ch ar
acterizes th e in d iv id u a l d eep ly , as th e y v a g u e ly realize w h o seize
u p o n such voices as p o in ts o f m im ic r y or takeoff. I n a n y p ron ou n ced
fo r m , th is voice hy itse lf is fa ta l to the teacher, a n d it a lm ost goes
w ith ou t s a y in g th a t it is m ore q u ic k ly fa t a l in th e m a n th an in
the w om an. I t is fa t a l because, stra n g e ly enough, it arou ses resen t
m en t. S e e m in g ly even th e m ost equ able a n d c o n fo rm e d in d iv id u a ls
resent a n y fo r m o f d o m in a tio n h y a p erson la c k in g a u th o rity and
228 THIS SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING
self-relian ce. “ W h y , ” asks th e h igh -sch ool stu d e n t, w ith an in d ig

nation th a t we ca n n ot sa y is en tirely u n fo u n d e d , “ W h y should I
h a v e to m in d a g u y lik e t h a t ? ”
A n o th e r voice which is m o st u n fo rtu n a te in its effects is th at w ith
em otion a l overtones. B y em otion a l overtones w e m ean to denote th a t
em otion is som ew here in the voice, and is recognizable, rou g h ly , as
an em otion o f one p a r tic u la r sort. T h ese are, o f course, n ot o ver
tones in th e m u sica l sense. T h e y are m o st co m m o n ly ton es o f fe a r
or o f h atred , or o f h ravad o co v erin g fe a r an d h a tr e d , as in th e
h lu stery voice. An overtone o f affection is so m etim es fo u n d . Th e
voice tin g e d w ith em otion is a p p a r e n tly d a m a g in g to th e teacher be
cause it show s th a t he is em o tio n a lly in v o lv e d in classroom situ a
tion s, a n d i t ten d s to call o u t in others a co rresp o n d in g in volvem en t
o f segm en ts o f th e p erso n a lity w hich sh ou ld n ot he in p la y in the
in stitu tio n a l situ ation . I f th e em otion th a t com es o u t is m a in ly fe ar,
th is m a k es th e teach er a tem p tin g m ark fo r teasin g. I f th e o ver
tone is one o f h atred , th e voice in vites an em o tio n a l response of
like character. B lu s te r is an in v ita tio n to a ll h a r d y sp irits to ca ll
th e b lu ste rin g o n e ’s blu ff. I f , as o ften h a p p e n s, h lu ster is accom
p a n ied b y d ire th reats, it m etam orph oses those th reats in to definite
ch a llen g es w h ich m o re reb elliou s stu d en ts find it difficult to avoid
tak in g u p . B lu s te r , o f course, im presses so m e stu d en ts, the m ore
tim id ones w ho r a r e ly m ake trou b le a n y h o w ; h u t it creates m ore
p ro b lem s th a n i t solves. T h e voice w ith an overtone o f affection does
n o t a lw ay s prod u ce had resu lts i f th e affection w h ich com es out is
sincere, tem p ered , a n d d ign ified , b u t i t r esu lts u n fo r tu n a te ly i f there
is in it the slig h te st trace o f sop p in ess, se n tim e n ta lity , or fav oritism .
P e c u lia r ly u n fo r tu n a te is th e voice w hich w e m a y r e fe r to fo r
w a n t o f a b etter n a m e as the voice o f strain . A p erson u n d e r a ten
sion is lik e ly to sp eak w ith pressure on his v o c a l chords. T h is m a n
n er o f sp ea k in g causes th e ton es o f the voice to he flattened ou t,
im p a rtin g an effect o f sh rilln ess, a n effect w h ich is u su ally enhanced
hy a raisin g o f the pitch . I n a d d itio n to th is sh rilln ess, th is voice
u su a lly acqu ires a ra sp in g q u a lity. Som etim es it h as a n asa l tw ang.
In fine, th e effect o f strain seem s to he a distortion o f the voice
n o t u n like th a t p ro d u c ed b y a p o orly a d ju sted a m p lifier. T h e over
tones o f nervousness and fe a r are u n m istak able. I t h a s o fte n been
n oted th at stu d en ts in th e classes o f teachers whose voices are strained
show m ore eviden ces o f restlessness an d unease th an they do under
the influence o f teach ers w ho lab or u n d er less tension. I f a stu d en t
has h im se lf the sligh test ten d en cy to n ervo u s in sta b ility , it w ill he
enhanced by the influence o f a n ervo u s teacher. Tn ad d ition , th e

n ervou s ton es o f the teacher are sooner or la ter co rrectly in terp reted
as com in g o u t o f a w a n t o f confidence in his a b ility to con trol th e
school situ a tio n , and th at fa c to r m akes likew ise f o r a fa ilu r e o f the
teacher to h o ld h is class.
A b etter voice, u n q u e stio n a b ly , fr o m th e sta n d p o in t o f th e n eces
sities o f the school room , is th e d r y , im p erso n a l, and d id actic voice
w h ich teachers u su ally fa ll into th e h a b it o f u sin g . A p p a r e n t ly it
is p ro d u c ed b y co n tin u ou s exp ositio n . E x p o sitio n is its e lf d r y an d
im p erson al, an d since it is rath er the te a c h e r ’ s fu n c tio n to te ll people
th in gs than to raise qu estion s or to in v ite them to w o n d er, th e
tea ch er’s w hole p erso n a lity com es to be east into th a t fo r m o f d is
course. T h e d ry n ess o f th e tea ch in g voice is increased b y the n eces
sity fo r m a n y rep etitio n s o f fa cts w h ich w ere n ever v e r y m e a n in g fu l
to th e teacher, and fr o m w hich all v e stig e o f m e a n in g h as lo n g since
been d ra in ed out. T h e d id actic voice is th e voice o f a u th o rity an d
the voice o f en n u i. T h e re is in it no em otion, no w on der, n o qu es
tion , a n d n o a rg u m en t. I t im p a rts facts. T h e re enters likew ise in to
the classroom voice th e im p e rso n a lity o f th e voice o f com m and. Th e
voice o f co m m a n d is also in larg e p a r t a p r o d u c t o f the social ex
perience o f the person w h o m u st c o n tin u a lly ord er oth ers about. T h is
ton e o f voice goes w ith a fo r m a liz a tio n o f a ll social rela tio n sh ip s and
a stereo ty p in g o f the w ord s o f com m an d. P r o b a b ly m ore desirahle
fr o m the h u m a n p o in t o f view , c e rta in ly ranch rarer a n d less a tta in
able by th e average teach er, is th a t tone o f voice w h ich is co m p letely
h u m a n , co m p letely p erso n a l, an d e n tirely relax ed . I n any case, as
schools are at presen t con stitu ted, such a voice needs to be cou pled
w ith a p erso n a l organization w h ich interposes g reat social distan ce
between the teacher an d the stu d en t. I n actu al tea ch in g p erso n a li
ties, there are o f course a ll com b in ation s o f these q u a litie s o f voice,
r a n g in g fr o m the. com p letely desiccated and d id ac tic th ro u gh th e
quizzical, th e urban e, and th e b la n d to th e en tire ly d ire ct and
personal.
Those w ho live b y c o n tro llin g others m u st take th o u g h t even o f
th eir lau g h te r. T h ere are some teachers w ho th in k th a t th ey sh ou ld
n ever sm ile, T h ey m a y he rig h t, fo r w h ere th e m o ra l order is fr a n k ly
im posed u p o n stu d en ts fr o m w ith o u t th ey w ill w elcom e a n y sh ow
o f relaxation on the p a r t o f the im p o sin g a g e n t as an o p p o rtu n ity
to b rea k th ro u g h . T eachers w h o n ever sm ile, h ow ever, lose an o p p o r
tu n ity to g a iu statu s as h u m a n b ein gs, fo r the th o u g h t th a t a fte r
all “ O ld S o -a n d -S o ” has a sense o f h u m o r or “ know s h ow to take
THE (SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING
2 SO
a j o k e '1 is one which m a k es stu d en ts less in im ical a n d teach er do m in a

tio n less u n bearable. S o m e tim e s teachers com p rom ise by ackn ow l
e d g in g the rid icu lo u s w ith the g rim sm ile, w h ich does n o t sim p ly
m ean, “ I a m a fe llo w h u m a n bein g a n d like y o u I find some th in g s
a m u s in g ,” b u t sa ys rath er, “ I am o f course the teacher. B u t I am
w illin g to a d m it th a t th is is am u sin g. B u t do n ot fo r g e t th a t I am
still the te a c h e r .” A s f o r la u g h in g alou d , th a t is fo r m a n y teachers
e n tirely ou t o f the qu estion . W hen th e y do la u g h a u d ih ly, it is
u su a lly n o t fr o m a m u sem e n t b u t fr o m a rea lization th a t ce rta in s itu
ations m u st be recogn ized by la u g h te r. The b itter la u g h is so m e
tim es fo u n d in teachers. S tu d e n ts can recognize it fo r w h at it is,
b u t since th ey h ave r a r e ly su ffered the so rt o f p erso n a l fr u str a tio n
w h ich is lik e ly to be the lot o f teachers, th ey do n o t u n d e rsta n d and
th ey do n o t s y m p a t h iz e ; teachers th erefore lose statu s rath er th a n
g a in b y it. T h e ta u n tin g la u g h d irected a t p a r tic u la r stu d en ts is
u su a lly resen ted. L a u g h te r w h ich is quite fr e e a n d u n re stra in e d m a y
h elp m u ch to establish a fa v o ra b le ra p p o rt betw een teach ers an d
stu d en ts, p r o v id e d th a t the teacher has a tech n iq u e fo r m a k in g the
tr a n sitio n fr o m the lig h t to the serious m o o d , a n d p r o v id e d th at he
k n ow s w h a t he ough t to la u g h at.
I n all social situ a tio n s the ex p ressio n o f the fa ce an d ey es o f the
p erso n s con cern ed is one o f the m o st im p o rta n t fa cts. T h e expres
sion o f th e face sets the stag e fo r all social in tera ction , it v ery
la r g e ly d eterm in es h ow a ll statem en ts are to he tak en a n d g iv es com
p le te r m e a n in g s to a ll w o rd s a n d declaration s. I t is reg re tta h le th a t
th e m e n ta l a n d social sciences h av e discovered so little abou t th e
basic exp ressio n s or their influence u p o n the a ttitu d e s o f others. I n
th e absence o f la b o ra to ry fin d in g s on th e su b ject, we m u st again offer
o u r e m p iric a l g en eraliza tio n s, fr a n k ly o n ly a p p ro x im a tio n s o f the
tr u th , b u t w o rth w h atever th e y are w orth . T h ere is in th e social life
o f h u m a n bein gs n o t u n der in stitu tio n a l con dition s a co m p lex in te r
ch a n ge o f p erso n a l a ttitu d e s as m irro re d in the face, and, corre
s p o n d in g ly , a con siderable ap p eara n ce o f sp o n ta n e ity o f expression .
A n d m ost o f th e in tera ction o f h u m a n bein gs is relev a n t to th is in ter
p la y o f a ttitu d es and gestures rath er th an to overt acts. B u t th e
teach er, w h o m u st p la y ce rta in roles a large p a rt o f the tim e, m u st
sacrifice so m eth in g o f his sp o n ta n eity , an d develop fa cia l exp ression s
co rresp o n d in g to his roles ra th er th a n to h is feelin gs.
T h e b etter to keep th eir secret th ou g h ts secret, an d th e better,
th erefore, to m a in ta in th e con sisten t pose of th e teach er, some
teachers a d o p t an im p a ssiv e ex p ressio n o f th e fa ce . T h is m ask-like
cou n tenan ce, th is poker face, d rop s over th eir fe a tu re s w h en th ey

enter the school r o o m ; and fr o m th en on th ey are, or th ey fa n c y
them selves to be, inscrutable. Th e m o u th is set in a str a ig h t lin e ;
p erh ap s it is tig h tly pressed. I t is d istu rb e d b u t little w h en sp ea k in g ,
which h as a p a r t in the close-clipped, d r y en u n cia tio n o f the teacher.
T h e fa c ia l m u scles are quite inactive. W i t h some teach ers they are
relaxed. W i t h others th ey are set in som e p a tte r n w h ich is n ot in
consistent w ith th e tea ch in g a ttitu d e or w h ich is e a sy fo r th e p a r
tic u la r teacher to m a in tain . T h u s th e expression som etim es is one
o f stern ness, som etim es it is bla n d , som etim es vacuous. Th e m uscles
arou n d the eyes h ave also to be iron ed out or set in som e p a rticu la r
p a t t e r n ; u su a lly the p a tte rn a d op ted is one o f gen eral d isa p p ro v a l.
G lassy eyes, p r o tr u d in g eyes, or eyes w h ich fo r oth er reason s fa il
to give the o rd in a r y clues to in tern a l states arc here a n a p p a r e n t
a d van tage. T h e im pression o f the entire cou n tenan ce is w ooden , m a sk
like, u su a lly v acu o u s as w ell. It is slig h tly ste m an d fo r b id d in g ,
it is the expression o f one p r issily concerned w ith the n eg a tiv e v ir
tues. Th e F r e n c h have an expression Vair -pion, th e unîer-teachcr
look. I t m a y be w orth w hile to p o in t ou t th a t th e im p a ssiv e teacher
fa ce is an a tte m p t to m ake the school in fa c t w h a t it a lw a y s is tak en
to be in th e theoretical treatm en ts o f it, a p lace w here lea rn in g goes
on qu ite u n atten d ed b y a n y b y -p r o d u c ts o f h u m a n life or person al
influence. Th e im passive fa ce is con sidered b y som e teachers an aid
in the im p a rtin g o f su b je c t m a tte r as w ell as in th e m a in ten a n ce o f
d iscip lin e, f o r the teach er whose fa ce is in sc ru ta b le g iv es no cues
to h is stu d en ts w hile th e y are re citin g , and it n eed s th erefo re a
g re ater m a ste ry o f su b ject m a tte r b efore stu d en ts can essay a sa tis
fa c to r y recitation . T h is p sy ch o lo g y seems flawless.
P r o b a b ly all teachers adopt th e im p a ssiv e cou n tenan ce to a greater
or a less degree. S e e m in g ly some such influence o f a d o m in a n t role
is in ev ita b le in every relation sh ip w h ere one p erso n m u st con trol,
m a n ip u la te , or fe n d off others. T h e im p a ssiv e fa ce com es because it
is a n ecessity o f the situ ation . I t is the fa c e o f social d istan ce. Th e
im p assive countenance is som etim es colored b y other expression s, such
as the cynical or the sn eerin g appearance. C y n ic ism p r o b a b ly does
n o t co n trib u te to the p restig e w h ich a teach er en joy s, since it is
m o s tly w asted u p o n persons y o u n g en ough to a tten d sc h o o l; b u t
i t docs n o t a lw ay s detract m a rk e d ly fr o m th e resp ect w h ich a teacher
gain s, i f it h as n o t a p ersonal ob ject. T h e sn eerin g co u n ten a n ce, h o w
ever, w ith its im p lie d person al dero ga tio n , its a ir o f b e littlin g , d is
trust, and a n tagon ism , is g re a tly resented.
Th e co n trol w h ich teach ers a ttem p t to e x e r t o ver th eir fa c ia l ex p res

sions h y n o m ean s stop s here. T h ey m u st he able u p o n occasion to
assum e m ore ch eerfu l expression s. F o r these p u rp oses som e teachers
h ave w orked o u t a syn th etic sm ile. I t is used fo r p a re n ts w h en th e y
call at school, w h en sp ea k in g to p a ren ts o f ch ildren, fo r ch ild ren in
th e presence o f p a ren ts, a n d u p on certain occasions o f state. I t is a
rath er h road sm ile w h ich ap p ears u p o n th e fa ce su d d e n ly , w ith ou t
th e cu sto m a ry p ro leg o m en a of th a t expression o f am u sem ent. As
su d d en ly i t d isap p ea rs, as i f i t h a d heen c o n ju re d into n oth in gn ess.
T h e artificial sm ile is u su a lly identifiab le as such. Th e absen ce o f a
p re lim in a ry stage is one elem ent w h ich g iv es it aw ay. The sm ile o f
real am u sem en t either spread s slow ly over th e fa c e or, a fte r a
m o m e n ta ry pause in w h ich it th reaten s to break o u t, su d d e n ly seizes
possession o f th e face. T h e sm ile o f recogn ition has lik ew ise a p r e
lim in a r y ; so h a s u su a lly th e sm ile o f response. A sm ile th a t is n o t
artificial, too, u su a lly leaves a trace u p o n the fa ce w h en i t h as gone,
h u t th e school-teacher sm ile d isap p ea rs m irac u lo u sly. I t m akes one
th in k o f the p erfo rm a n ce o f one o f those rath er p o or stage m a gician s
w ho p a ss th eir b a n d s over th eir faces a n d m e et y ou w ith a changed
cou n tenan ce. T h ere a re other d efects in the w illed sm ile w h ich be
t r a y its a rtificiality. T h ere is, f o r instan ce, th e f a c t th a t o fte n the
u p p er lip does n o t b rea k as i t does in th e spon tan eou s sm ile. Th e
a tte m p t by teach ers to m a in ta in fr ie n d ly relation s w ith th e ir s tu
d en ts an d p a tro n s th ro u g h the use o f th is “ p u h lic relation s rep re
s e n ta tiv e ” h elps to accou n t fo r th e fe e lin g am o n g p a ren ts an d stu d en ts
th at teachers are n ot real h u m a n b ein gs. U n less th e p erfo rm a n ce
is m u ch m ore co n vin cin g th a n it u su a lly is, it ad d s n o th in g to the
te a c h e r ’s p restig e, an d it m a y , b y co n trib u tin g to the g en eral fa ilu re
o f the te a c h e r ’s p e rso n a lity to convince, detract co n sid era b ly fro m
h is stan d in g.
A recognizable v a r ia n t is the w a n sm ile. T h is is the sm ile one uses
w h en he fe els th a t h e o u gh t to sm ile or th a t the occasion deserves
a sm ile, or w h en he is slig h tly am used, h u t is in no case qu ite rea d y
to le t g o com p letely fo r fe a r o f sta r tin g a riot. I t show s som e real
fe e lin g , o r a fa ir ly c o n vin cin g fe e lin g th a t one h as th e fe e lin g , plus
th e h ope th a t ev ery th in g w ill " g o o ff s m o o th ly ,” th a t is th a t a
d istu rb a n ce w ill n o t im m e d ia te ly b rea k out, an d some fe a r th a t th in g s
w ill n o t go o ff sm oothly. T h is is th e sm ile th a t the h ig h -sch oo l p r in
cip a l p u ts on on a lu m n i d ay. T h e p rin c ip a l h as w r itte n som e quite
co rd ia l letters in v itin g the alu m ni to retu rn fo r the occasion as guests
o f the school. ( I s i t ch aracteristic o f teachers to h ave a greater fa c ility
on p a p e r th an o th e r w is e !) The a lu m n i sec re ta ry h as w r itte n en

thusiastic le tte rs in v itin g th em to “ com e hack an d ren ew th eir s t u
den t d ays, com e hack an d h av e a w h o o p in g good t i m e .” T h e p r in c ip a l
has rea d these letters w ith m isg iv in g s. T h e a lu m n i h ave r etu rn ed .
The p r in c ip a l is a fr a id th a t th ey arc g o in g to fo llo w th e su g g e stio n
o f th e a lu m n i secretary. He is m in d fu l of oth er occasion s w h e n
certain ev en ts took place w hich g av e him no p lea su re. Y e t th e occa
sion calls fo r a sm ile. H e does the h est he can. T h e re su lt is th e
w an sm ile. T h is is lik e w ise u sed in the classroom . I t is o n e o f th e
reasons w h y th e teach er fa ils to reg ister w ith stu d e n ts as a real a n d
fo r c e fu l h u m a n h eing. W e h ave m e n tio n ed th e g rim sm ile. I n th is
there is no a rtific ia lity , h u t th e fr a n k ly a m b iva len t ex p ressio n of
hoth a m u sem e n t a n d the desire to m a in ta in order. It sh ow s real
am u sem ent, or real frie n d lin e ss, seep in g th ro u g h stro n g ba rriers.
I t docs n o t h reak d ow n the harriers, hut it p e rm its r e a l co m m u n ic a
tion in spite o f th e m . T h is com p rom ise o f a u th o rity a n d fr ie n d lin e ss
is fo r m a n y teach ers, fo r a ll th ose w h o h av e n o t le a rn e d h ow to g e t
th e classroom s itu a tio n h ack u n d er th e ir con trol a t once a fte r th e y
have a llo w ed i t to take its ow n n a tu r a l course fo r a w h ile, the h est
com p rom ise fo r classroom p u rp oses. I t a llow s stu d en ts to see t h a t
one has a sense o f h u m o r, or th a t he is fr ie n d ly , h u t it does n o t
open th e gates.
It fo llo w s fro m th e ahove discu ssion th at teach ers p ro fit fr o m
a certain fa c ility in actin g . I t is n ecessary fo r a teach er to co n tro l
th e m ood o f a g ro u p . N ec essarily , th a t m ood m u st s h ift fro m m o m e n t
to m o m e n t. Th e te a c h e r ’s face m u st give the sign al th a t the m o o d o f
the gro u p has n ow ch a n ged , an d th a t a d ifferen t d efin ition o f the
situ a tio n h old s. T h e re fo re it is desirah le th a t a teacher sh ou ld have
certain ea sily recogn izab le expression s to serve as sign p o sts. A s a
resu lt o f th is n ecessity, the suhtler nu an ces o f exp ression som etim es
becom e lo st, b u t th a t is p ro h a h ly n o t, fro m the p o in t o f view of
the cla ssroo m , a d isad v an ta ge .
Th e p e r s o n a lity traits w h ich we have hith erto d iscu ssed in th e ir
relation to the p restig e w h ich the teacher b u ild s u p a m o n g h is s tu
den ts m a y he th o u g h t o f as co m p on en ts o f p e r so n a lity . W i t h o u t s p lit
tin g h airs, i t seem s possihle to d istin g u ish a n o th er set o f q u a litie s
w h ich arise ou t o f th e m a n n e r in w h ich th ose c o m p o n e n ts o f p e r
so n a lity are o rg a n ized , o u t o f th eir in te rre la tio n in th e en sem b le o f
p e rso n a lity . These m a y h e th o u g h t o f as q u a litie s o f the p e rso n a lity
as a w hole. S o m e o f these q u a lities o f the en tire p e r so n a lity w ill he
fo u n d to he even m o re im p o rta n t th an the tr a its w h ich go to m ak e
234 THE SOCIOLOGY OX1 TEACHING
up p erso n a lity . We h av e h ad to n ote a g a in and a g a in th at th e

m e a n in g o f p a r tic u la r tra its w as i n terras o f th e en tire p e r s o n a lity ;
w hen w e discu ss th e qu alities o f th e to ta l p e r so n a lity w e a re at lea st
a step n ea rer th e u ltim a te re a lity o f p e r so n a l in tera ction . C erta in o f
the qu a lities o f the to ta l p e r so n a lity w h ich seem w o rth o u r a tten tio n
a t th e p resen t tim e a re th e tem p o a n d ra n g e o f p e rso n a lity , the co m
p le x ity o f p erso n a l org a n ization , a n d the sta b ility o f p e rso n a lity .
T h e tem p o o f th e te a c h e r ’s p e rso n a lity c o n d ition s th e relation o f
dom inan ce and su b o rd in a tio n as estab lish ed b etw een stu d e n t an d
teacher. It. seem s a lto g eth er a d va n tag eo u s i f th e te a c h e r h a s a m ore
ra p id in te lle ctu a l tem p o th a n h is stu den ts. W h e n th ere is a stru g g le
fo r m a ste ry , th e race i s u s u a lly to th e s w i f t ; th e o p p osite is a doc
trin e th a t is h ea rten in g b u t n o t tru e. T h e p e rso n w h o th in k s m ore
r a p id ly th a n h is o p p o n en t ca n a lw a y s m a n a g e to be a fe w m oves
ahead o f h im , and h e c a n b e p r e p a r in g to ch eck c o n tr a r y m oves
b efore his o p p o n en t h a s th o u g h t o f m a k in g th e m . T h is p resu p p o ses
th a t the te rra in is e q u a lly fa m ilia r to both a n ta g on ists, w h ich is n o t
tru e in th e case o f th e stu d e n t a n d th e teacher. T h e teach er h as
a lw ay s been o v er th e sam e g ro u n d m a n y tim e s b e fo re , an d he m a y
m ake u p f o r a rela tiv e slow n ess o f m e n ta l reaction b y kn ow in g all
th e la n d m a rk s. I f it is n ot associated w ith n e rv o u s in sta b ility , the
a b ility to m o b ilize em otion a l resources r a p id ly is a lso a n ad va n tag e
to the teacher. W hen associated w ith q u icker th in k in g , th is is a n
a d v a n ta g e of m u ch im portan ce. T h e p erson w h o th in k s q u ic k ly and
fe els q u ick ly can b ew ild er h is o p p on en t w ith a su ccession of u n
an ticip ated reaction s, he ca n an ticip ate m o v e s an d check th em before
the a n ta g o n ist h as h ad a chance to m o b ilize h is resources. These
gen eralization s seem to hold w h eth er it is a qu estion o f co n stellatin g
th e atten tion o f a n o th er or o f b ea tin g h im into su bm ission . I f , h ow
ever, r a p id ity o f em otion al reaction is obtain ed a t th e cost o f m en tal
in teg ration , i f it is obtained th ro u g h d issociation o r co m p artm en -
taliza tio n , it p r o b a b ly , i n the lo n g ru n , ceases to be a n ad van tage.
F o r e m o st of the su b tler d eterm in an ts o f d om in an ce a n d su b o rd in a
tio n is th e ra n g e o f m e n ta l p erso n a lity . T h is is a fig u r a tiv e exp res
sion , b u t it is a figu re w h ich seem s a p t fo r the su m m in g u p o f c e r
tain aspects of p erso n a lity . P erson a lities vary in th e n u m b er of
th eir in terests, in the a m o u n t o f k n ow ledge an d w isd o m th e y e n
com pass, in th e n u m b e r o f fa ce ts w h ich th e y d is p la y to o th er people,
in th e n u m b e r o f g ro u p c o n ta c ts; th e y h ave b oth b rea d th a n d depth.
These aspects o f p e rso n a lity are in c lu d ed in th o ra n g e o f m en tal
p erso n a lity .
I f other fa c to rs rem a in co n stan t it is n e a r ly a lw a y s possib le f o r

the person o f w ide in terests to m a in ta in a n a scen d en cy o v e r the
person whose in terests are n arro w . T h e ex cep tion occurs, o f course,
where the p erso n o f m ore n a r r o w ,in te r e s ts h a s c o m p a c tly o rg a n ized
his p erso n a lity abou t the fe w in te re sts th a t he h as a n d h as closed
his m in d to o th er p ossibilities. P erh ap s th is o u g h t n ot to be th e s itu a
tion in the schools. T h e teach er is dea lin g writh c o n tin u a lly e x p a n d
in g person alities an d is in a p o sitio n to e n jo y fa v o r a b le reco g n itio n
fo r h is a b ility an d a cco m p lish m en ts in diverse lin es. P e rso n a l a s
cendency of the teach er based u p on b rea d th o f in terests is ideal. N o t
on ly does it en cou rage stu d en ts to w id e n the ran ge o f th e ir ow n
interests m ore r a p id ly , b u t it raises the inh eren t con flict o f teach er
and p u p il to a n oth er lev el o f em u la tio n , and p u ts it in to te rm s b e a r
able f o r b o th teach er a n d stu d e n t. In ste a d of an o v ert (dash of
person alities a risin g fr o m a stru g g le co n cern in g d ead s u b je c t m a t
ter, the con flict becom es m e re ly a co m p etitio n b etw een th e w id e r a n d
the n arro w er in terests o f the stu d e n t. A w id e ra n g e o f in terests is
u su a lly associated w ith a w id e ran ge o f fa v o ra b le g ro u p co n tacts.
The p erso n a l a u th o rity o f th e teach er is m u c h stren g th en ed b y w id e
grou p m e m b ersh ip , esp ec ia lly i f he, receives fa v o ra b le reco g n itio n .
I n college c o m m u n ities, p a r tic u la rly , even a m a n ’s co lleag u es do n o t
ju d ge h im b y th e ir o w n sta n d a rd s, b u t b y the re p u ta tio n w h ich he
has a cq u ired i n h is field o f specialization . I t is th u s p e c u lia r ly u n fo r
tunate th a t so m a n y avenues o f p ersonal g ro w th an d e x p a n sio n are
closed to the teacher.
Th e a m o u n t o f k n ow led ge an d w isd o m o f the teach er o f course
affects h is p re stig e d ire c tly in th a t stu d en ts ju d g e fr o m it h is g en eral
com petence or incom peten ce. I t also affects his p restig e in a qu ite
irration al w a y , an d w h en one considers the stren gth o f th e m e ch a
nism in v o lv e d , one w on d ers w h y the influence of teach ers is not
u su ally g re a te r th a n it is. Th e teacher has an o p p o r tu n ity to acqu ire
the p restig e o f a p erson w ho leads others in to a w o rld to th e m u n
known, an d th is u n fa ilin g ly con d ition s dom inance an d su b o rd in a tio n .
The qu estion s w hich a p p ea r too p u zzlin g to stu d e n ts h ave lo n g since
ceased to h o ld a n y c o m p le x ity to the te a c h e r ; w h a t stu d e n ts lab or
over fo r days he ca n answ er in a m om en t. "W here th e tea ch er in fa c t
assum es th e role o f g u id e an d h elp er, w here h e in tro d u c es h is s tu
dents to a n e w w o r ld w h ich g r a d u a lly u n fo ld s a n d tak es sh ape, h is
p restig e is en orm ou s. B u t th e teacher docs n o t o ft e n assum e th a t
role, f o r u s u a lly he m u st d rill h is stu d en ts in to a fa ls e a n d u n n eces
sa ry m a s te r y o f fu n d a m e n ta ls (b u t one n e v e r m a sters fu n d a m e n ta ls
9^0 THE S O C IO L O G Y OP TEACHING
u n til one u n d erstan d s som eth in g else b esid es) ; he m u st im pose upon
stu d en ts kn ow ledge in w h ich th e y h av e no interest. I t w ill be to the
la stin g cred it o f those edu cators who h av e ch a m p ion ed the p ro je c t
m eth od and o th er en lig h ten ed m odes o f tea ch in g i f th e y succeed in
d evisin g m eans w h ereb y the stu d en t ca n be b r o u g h t to do sy stem a tic
w o rk w ith o u t sacrificin g h is interest, f o r th ey w ill also have solved,
p o ssib ly w ith o u t a com p lete recogn ition o f all th a t is in v o lv ed , some
o f t.he m o st p u zz lin g social p ro b lem s o f teach in g. W e sh ou ld rem ark
fu r th e r th a t th e situ ation in. th e schools a t p resen t is less fa v ora b le
th an it, m ig h t otherwise, be because th e c u rric u lu m is u n a d a p te d to
the needs o f th e average stu d en t, so th a t th e teacher is fo rce d to
take h is stu d e n ts in to in tellectu a l te r r ito r y w h ich th e y h av e n o desire
to visit.
Th e depth as w ell as the b rea d th o f the te a c h e r ’s interests w ill
influence th e a ttitu d e s o f stu d en ts to w ard him . T e a c h in g does not
req u ire a deep m a ste ry o f a n y su b je ct, an d it m a y in fa c t p u t the
p re m iu m rath er upon a m a n y -sid e d fa c ilit y than upon com plete
and p ro d u ctiv e m a ste ry o f a n y one t h i n g ; but, even stu d en ts have
w a y s o f detectin g th e fr a u d a n d disco u n tin g the d ile tta n te , a n d w ays
o f d istin g u ish in g the gen uin e en th u sia st fr o m the sp u rio u s. A l l th is
is n o t to sa y th a t the a d v a n ta g e, in the actu al social situ a tio n o f th e
average school, does n o t lie w ith the h a p p y a n d u n th in k in g sort o f
extroversion w h ich sincerely experien ces b road and sh allo w en th u
siasm s.
T h ro u g h dissociation there is som etim es p ro d u c ed a m a n y -fa c e te d
p e r so n a lity w h ich gives the a ppearan ce o f h a v in g a g re a t range.
Th e large n u m b e r o f sides w h ich teachers o f th is so rt show to the
w o rld resu lts fr o m th e fa c t th at th ey are n o t a t one w ith th em selves.
T h e y have split, off certain segm en ts o f th eir p erson alities, a n d th ey
h av e seg reg a ted certain others fr o m a ll con tact w ith each o th e r ;
fr o m the str a in in h eren t in th is so rt o f o rg a n ization a n d the p sych ic
stru c tu re s w h ich th e y h ave w orked o u t to b u ttress it th ere resu lts
a fa c titio u s a n d delu sive appearan ce o f g reat ran g e o f p erso n a lity .
C om p lete in teg ra tio n is n o t alw ays u sefu l in th e school ro o m , an d
it w ou ld be f o l l y to dem an d th at the m e n ta l h y g ie n e of teachers
sh ou ld be v a s tly in advance o f th a t o f the c o m m u n ity in w h ich th ey
liv e , b u t it ough t to he w o rth n otin g th a t w h atever p restig e the
teacher g ain s fr o m th is fra m e of personal o rg a n iz a tio n is u n stab le
an d c o stly b oth to h im self and others.
A n o th e r asp ect o f p erso n a lity w h ich is o f v a st im p o rta n ce in de
term in in g dom inan ce a n d su b o rd in ation is its co m p ara tiv e co m p lex ity .
/
G en erally sp ea k in g , th e ad u lt p erso n a lity exceeds in c o m p le x ity , th a t
of the y o u n g e r person. T h e a d u lt h as m e t th e d ile m m a s o f y o u th an d
has resolved th em h y tr a n sla tin g th em into d ilem m as o f a h igh er
order. T h e c o m p le x ity o f the a d u lt w h o h as a ch iev ed a w orth -w h ile
life organization m a y th erefore be th o u g h t o f as in c lu d in g th e com
p le x ity o f y o u n g e r person s fo llo w in g th e sam e g en eral cou rse o f
d e v e lo p m e n t; the a d va n tag e in te rm s o f d om in an ce a n d su b o rd in a
tion is m a n ife s tly w ith the p erson w h o h as achieved th e m ore com
plex m ental o rgan ization . A difference in a b ility to d o m in a te the
situation arises here in term s o f u n d ersta n d in g . Th e m ore co m p lex
personality, since it can com p reh en d an d u n d ersta n d a ll th e m ental
states o f the m ore sim ple one, can con trol it, b u t the sim p ler p e r
son ality can n ot u n d ersta n d the m ore co m p lex one, and th erefo re i t
can w age no su ccessfu l battle w ith it over th e issue o f control. The
teacher has, an d sh ou ld h ave, the a d va n tag e o f u n p re d ic ta b ility . S t u
dents do n o t kn ow w h a t his n e x t m ove w ill b e ; th e y do n o t k n o w
w h at he is th in k in g , or w h y ; th e y are ig n o ra n t o f w h at he is th in k
in g o f th em , a n d th e y d o n ot k n ow w h eth er he is g o in g to te ll th em
or n ot. B u t the teacher know s w h at th e stu d en ts are g o in g to do,
w hat th e y are th in k in g , a n d w h a t th ey th in k o f h im , a n d w h y ; he is
th erefo re g re a tly a d van taged in the stru g g le fo r m a stery . T h is is a
practical p sy ch o lo g y w h ich school m e n use e v e r y w h e r e ; it is boiled
dow n in th e h it o f practical w isd om w h ich asserts th at “ you have to
keep th em g u e s s in g .” H ere aga in w e are th in k in g o f one k in d o f co m
p le x ity o n ly, o f the c o m p lex ity o f org a n ization ra th er th a n d isor
g an ization , o f the co m p lex ity th a t g ro w s out o f com p lete in tegration
rather th an o u t o f the fa ilu re to deal w ith a ll o n e ’s fu n d a m e n ta l
im pu lses. T h e co m p le x ity o f d iso rg an iza tio n , th o u g h it h as its a d
v an ta ges in p a rtic u la r situ ation s, is on th e w hole p r o b a b ly a h a n d i
cap. W h a t i t g a in s th rou gh u n p re d ic ta b ility , it loses th ro u g h la c k o f
u n a n im ity in a c tio n ; w h a t it g a in s th ro u g h occasional n e u ro tic b r il
liance or n eu rotic v igor, it loses th ro u g h lack o f sta b ility .
I f the teach er h as a m a r g in o f su p e r io r ity over his stu d en ts in
the respects w h ich we h ave m en tion ed , th ere sh ou ld arise betw een
him and h is stu d en ts th e relation sh ip o f the con tain er an d the con
ta in e d .1 Th e teacher, h a v in g the m ore co m p lex p erso n a lity , a greater
1 For this concept we are indebted to the psychiatrist, Jung. As Jung has
developed the concept, this ia a relationship which arises chiefly between hus
band and wife, though the concept may be applied to other relationships us
well. On the basis of the differences in ranges o f mental personality (Ju n g's
phrase), and differences in tempo, arises a discrepancy between persons such that
the personality o f one o f them is apparently completely contained in the other.
The contained one is wholly bound up in the relationship, and his attention and
238 THE S O C IO L O G Y OF TEACHING
ran g e o f in terests, an d a m ore co m p lex in sig h t in to the n atu re of

h u m a n life , m a y he able to constellate the a tten tio n o f h is students
com p letely, at least d u r in g school h o u r s; he m a y be able to contaiu
them . I f so, th e dom inance o f the teacher has been c o m p letely tran s
fo r m e d into p ersonal ascendency, an d a fo r m o f ascen d en cy th at is
ea sily b o r n e ; the teacher no lo n g er con trols because he is the teacher,
h u t e x e rts influ en ce because o f w h a t he is. Th is is silken dom ination .
B eca u se o f the lim itation s im posed b y the in stitu tio n a l situ ation , be
cause o f p erso n a l lacks in teachers an d defects in th eir tra in in g , this
fo r m o f leadership is rare.
U p o n the sta b ility in h eren t in the fra m e o f person al org a n ization
w orked out b y the teach er hin ges m u ch . W e think o f sta b ility as in
c lu d in g a r e la tiv e ly high m a r g in o f eq u a n im ity, p e rh a p s o f im p e r
tu rb a b ility , a n d the a b ility to fo llo w a settled course o f a ction w ith ou t
undue tem p ta tio n to deviation. S ta b ility is one o f the great fa c
tors co n d ition in g dom inan ce an d su b o rd in ation in gen eral and the au
th o rity o f th e teacher over h is stu d e n ts in p a r tic u la r. S ta b ility is
im p o rta n t n o t m e re ly as the opposite o f in sta b ility , b u t fr o m cer
ta in q u alities o f its own. In sta b ility , o f course, h as a n eg a tiv e valu e in
the stru g g le fo r ascendency. T h e u n stable teach er m akes in con sisten t
d em an ds upon h is stu d en ts, an d he th erefore finds h im s e lf in con
flict w ith h im se lf f o r the co n trol o f his class. Som e o f th e d isa d
v an ta ges o f th is procedure m a y be avoided, as we h av e elsew here d e
scribed, b y establish in g co m p lem en tary definitions o f the situ a tio n
an d m a k in g tran sitio n s fr o m one to the other v ery clear. B u t th is is
(I i n fa c t a device w h ich is best em p lo y ed b y a stab le p erso n , fo r the

u n sta b le one cannot even m a in ta in con sisten cy in h is d efin ition o f
in h e re n tly in con sisten t situ ation s. To e m p lo y th is device success
f u l l y requires ra th er the a b ility to fo llo w ou t tw o o r three settled
p olicies a n d to keep them separate th an the in a b ility to fo llo w any.
T h e u n stable teacher, how ever, ca n establish no clear d efin ition o f th e
situ a tio n , fo r the good reason th at he ca n n ot h im s e lf decide w hat he
w a n ts to do or w h at he w a n ts others to do. W h e n a teach er is not
interest are entirely centered in the container, The contained one finds the re
lationship completely satisfactory, except for his lack o f security. But the con
tainer is not so completely held, and often wishes to get away from the
relationship. Jung thinks of the container as surpassing the contained in range
of personality usually as a result o f what we have called the complexity of
disorganization. For a more complete discussion o f the concept see Jung, C, G.,
"M arriage as a Psychological Relationship,' ’ in Keyserling, Hermann Alexander,
T h e Book o f Marriage, pp. 354 if., HaTcnurt, Brace and Co., New York, 1926.
P ot our own comment upon the concept see Waller, Willard, The Old hove and
the H e w , pp. 163-169, Horace Liveright, New York, 1930.
fa ir ly clear in h is o w n m in d w h a t d em an d s to m a k e o f h is stu d en ts,

to exp ect th em to show a n y g re a t con cern over th e sta te o f his m in d
would be a sk in g too m u ch o f h u m a n n a tu re .
I t seem s a g e n eraliza tio n o f some v alu e th a t w e a lw a y s a d ju s t to
the stable elem en ts o f ou r en v iro n m en t. T h is m e a n s th at w e a d ju s t
to th e stable p erso n as a p a r t o f o u r social en v iro n m en t. I n a n y situ a
tio n w e fo c u s ou r a tten tion u p on th e a sp ects o f it w h ich are capable
o f b ein g m a n ip u la te d . I t is the m o v in g p a r ts o f a m ach in e th a t catch
our eye. I t is th e rem ediable ills o f h u m a n life th a t excite ou r ire, and
th erefore th e best a rg u m en t o f the co n serva tiv e is th a t i t h as a lw a y s
been so. S ta b le th in g s w e accept. T h ere w a s no n eed o f the p ro v e rb ,
fo r w e en d u re w h a t w e c a n n o t cu re becau se we ca n n ot see it, o r ca n
n o t see it lo n g , or can n ot get. e x cite d a b ou t it.
L ik ew ise w e accept th e stab le p e rso n as one o f th e u n ch an g eab le
elem ents o f life , p e rh a p s regre tta b le, b u t there. H e c a n n ot be ch an ged,
an d effort d irected n.t h im is e ffo rt w asted . D ir e c t ly we lose in terest
in r e fo r m in g th e p e rso n w ho does n ot w a v e r ; it tak es a v e r y h ig h -
p ressu re sa le sm a n o r a v e r y stu p id one to keep on tr y in g to sell a
m an w h o g iv es n o fa i n t in d ica tio n o f y ie ld in g . L ik ew ise the v e ry
sta b ility o f the u n c h a n g in g person g iv es us con trol o f h im , a con trol
w h ich does n o t, h ow ever, ch allen ge the fa c t o f his do m in a tio n . “ T h a t ’ s
ju s t h is w a y ,” w e say. I t m a y n o t be a w a y th at pleases us, b u t it
is a settled w a y and w e a ccep t it. H i s w a y s are -ways th a t com pel us
to a d ju s t to h im , a n d p u t it a lto g eth er ou t o f the q u estio n th at he
sh ou ld a d ju s t to u s, b u t w h e n w e have lea rn ed his w a y s and a d ju ste d
o u r b eh a vior to th em , w e h ave a h a rm le ss con trol over h im , a con trol
analogou s to th a t w h ich m an has over th ose p a r ts o f the p h ysical u n i
verse w hose processes h e u n d ersta n d s b u t ca n n ot m a n ip u la te . In th is
m a n n er w e can a d ju s t even to a settled a n d stable in sta b ility .
T h e stab le teach er defines classroom situ a tio n s once a n d f o r a ll.
lie does n o t d ev ia te a n d h e does n o t o fte n a lter h is p o licy . W h e n
he m akes a rule, he en fo rces i t ; th ose q u estio n in g s o f s e lf a n d o f
m o tiv es w h ich to rtu re oth ers do n o t bother h im . W h e n he p u n ish es,
h e does n o t relen t. W h e n he assign s a task, h e sees th a t i t is com p leted .
H is p o lic y w orks n ot o n ly because he establishes a clea r-cu t d efin ition
o f Hie situ a tio n , b u t becau se he h im s e lf becom es in c o rp o ra ted in the
situ a tio n as one o f its changeless com p on en ts. H e r e we find one reason
w h y the w e ak teach ers are the sy ste m b u ild ers, w h y th e y are th e
ones w h o p u t in to effect the la rg e st n u m b e r o f in stitu tio n a l devices.
W e a k teachers are sy ste m b u ild ers in p a r t because sy ste m b u ild in g
m akes them w eak. I t is th e u n sta b le w h o are w eak. I t is the u n sta b le
who cannot wait, f o r the v alu es which tim e can give to any established
order, ju s t as, in anoth er sph ere o f life , it is the u n sta b le who cannot
w a it fo r the v a lu e s w hich tim e can give to a n y m a rria g e . F r o m this,
the ra p id s h iftin g fr o m one sy ste m o f school d isc ip lin e to a n o th e r;
fro m the s h iftin g com es d efeat.
Th e co n trol o f th e stable p erson is op erative on a n u m b er o f d i f
fe r e n t le v e ls o f so cial in tera ction . C o n tro l som etim es goes to the
p erson w h o is p h y s ic a lly im m obile. F a r t o f th e s tr u g g le fo r d o m in a
tion can be stated as a stru g g le to d eterm in e w h o sh all m ove fr o m his
place and w h o sh a ll, th erefo re, a d ju st h is behavior to th at o f the other
person. O ne m e ch a n ism o f control is to establish o n e ’s s e lf in a p a r
tic u la r sp ot a n d to m ake a ll others come to h im . T h is sa m e m echanism
is em p lo y ed on a d ifferen t lev el b y those who cu ltiv a te in a ccessib ility .
E x a m p le s o f the op eration o f this m e ch an ism are n o t h ard to find. I n
th e fa m ilia r classroom situ a tio n , one person h as a piece o f p a p e r to
give to another. T h ey are, let u s sa y , ten step s a p art. W h e n it has
been d ecid ed w h o is to take those te n steps, p a r t o f the p ro b lem o f
d o m in a tio n h as been solved . T h e p erso n w h o tak es th e step s tak es the
resp o n sib ility f o r the jo in t a c tiv ity . T h is is h ow it com es a b ou t th a t
the p r in c ip le o f least in terest o fte n d eterm in es d om in an ce in coopera
tiv e a c t iv i t y : T h e p erson less in terested in th e a c tiv ity con trols it. H e
who d islo d g es h im s e lf fr o m h is p lace an d m eets the other person
u pon his o w n term s m u st m ake the a d ju stm e n t, w h ereas the other p e r
so n m e re ly a grees to let h im m ake th e a d ju stm e n t. A p a ra lle l is the
p ro verb th at in e v e ry love affair th ere is one w h o loves a n d one w ho
a llo w s h im s e lf to be lov ed . T h is is a p r in c ip le n o t new to the w o rld
in g en eral.
T h e whole life o f th e classroom r e v o lv e s ahou t the stable teacher,
w h o m a y th u s in a p e r fe c tly effortless fa sh io n , and o fte n w ith o u t
the lea st kn ow led ge o f how he does it, secure dom inan ce. H e is th ere,
ch angeless, im m itig a b le . W hen stu d e n ts w ish to con su lt h im , th ey
go to h im . W h e n th ey h av e p a p ers to show h im , they take them to him.
Th e im m o b ility o f th e teach er sy m b o lic a lly argu es th a t it is not the
te a c h e r ’s jo b to ed u ca te, b u t o n ly to h elp the stu d en t edu cate h im
se lf. H e has defin ed the classroom situ ation c lea rly a n d fin ally , and
th ere is no d o u b t th a t h is defin ition w ill persist. T h e s ta b ility of
such a te a c h e r m a y be, in d eed , the sta b ility o f ph legm . S ta b ility is
likely to be fo u n d in a ch aracter in w hich some o f the su b tler p er
sonal a ttrib u te s are la c k in g , so m ew h a t m ore lik e ly , p erh ap s, th a n in
person s w ho h a v e ach ieved a g re a t a n d v a ried sop h istication . The
sim p ler fo r m s o f ch aracter o rg a n iza tio n are the m o st u s e fu l fo r th e
teacher. Those who have observed the high degree of success of the
highly stable, relatively simple personalities in teaching have some
times been inclined to argue that fools were the best teachers. What
may rather be argued is that there are personal qualities of more
value than mere intelligence, and that stability is one of them.
Some teachers who are successful in maintaining discipline hecanse
of their stability do not in fact accomplish very notable results in
passing on knowledge to their students. They are nevertheless known
as successful and reliahle teachers, for they can keep order. And
students like them, as a rule, for they need some stable and secure
persons in their lives.
The stability of the strong character should never be confused with
the ohstinacy of the weak. There are teachers of this latter descrip
tion who are conscious of their weakness and who nightly resolve on
the morrow to be stronger. “ Tomorrow,” they say, "Tom orrow I
will be firm.” Usually the resolution does no harm, for it is forgotten
in the first excitement of the next day’s confusion, and the harassed
teacher does not attempt Lo he firm on that day more than on any of
the others because he is still at a loss as to what to be firm about. But
in some instances he actually carries out his resolution and suffers
from it more than he previously had from his policy o f irresolution.
He makes a rash and ill-considered decision and chooses that as the
point upon which to establish his firmness. He chooses his course, and
he persists in it though he learns that it is w rong; he clings to it the
more frantically the more obvious the insanity of his policy hecomes.
The effect upon students is merely to stir up all the latent hostility
in the situation. Students very quickly learn to regard such privileges
as they are accustomed to take in the classroom as rights. Who indeed
can say what is and what is not right in an arhitrary system ? When
the teacher revokes those privileges, and does it in a tactless and
arbitrary manner, the only reaction of the students is one of re
sentment, nor does it soon penetrate into the students’ minds that
the teacher is really cultivating the respectahle quality of firmness,
that he is not simply being tyrannical. This impression is usually en
hanced by the total want of judgment with which these overnight
despots enforce their decrees. The pitiable feature of it all is that,
if the weak teacher has really let his students get out o f hand, it
will take him some months to establish himself as a firm character
and a disciplinarian, and his strength is usually insufficient for such
a struggle. The next week will see both him and his students hack
in the same old rut.
Superintendents, ohserving the weakness of a particular teacher,

commonly advise him to cultivate a greater firmness in his dealings
with students. In other cases, teachers themselves become aware of
this crucial fault in their teaching and resolve to correct it forth
with. It is, however, much to be doubted whether stability of charac
ter can be attained by a mere resolution or whether it can be imposed
upon another personality through exhortations. Desirable stability
is not self-conscious and synthetic. Stability of the sort we are here
discussing arises naturally out of good mental hygiene and a thor
ough knowledge of wbat one is about. A teacher may set himself the
task of learning from his experience wbat the important things are
that go on in the classroom, or a superintendent may attempt the
laborious task of giving him some insight into the intricacies of this
social interaction, and from this a stability based upon a grasp of
fundamentals may he born; but much more than a good resolution is
needed. Resolution without insight is little better than irresolu
tion without insight, and if tbe irresolution is established it is bet
ter left alone. There are, of course, some eases in which a teacher
possesses all the needed traits except some knowledge as to a de
sirable social technique for dealing with students; a school super
visor who steps in in sucb a case will probably not be wasting his
time. Further, if the day ever comes W'hen the importance of psy
chiatric work with teachers is realized, it will be possible for quali
fied persons to increase the stability of teachers’ characters by re
solving tbeir mental conflicts, thereby making them at once better
disciplinarians and more wholesome influences upon their students.
In tbe meantime, those supervisors wbo counsel stability must at
least be given credit for correct diagnosis. The teacher must seek
first a stable domination, an^L such other things as friendliness and
cordiality may be added to it. Contrast the pleasant domination of a
good teacher with tbe vacillating command of a weak one. The good
teacher can afford to be pleasant and good-bumored; he may even
dare, because be has tbe situation in band and knows wbat means to
take to restore tbe balance, to introduce moments of relaxation and
amusing interlude. But as a commander be never exposes his sub
jects to the pain of any mental conflict concerning his commandments,
and they are grateful to him because he always orders them to do
the right thing and does not permit them to think. His prestige—
which is tbe greater because he has weeded out of his personality those
traits which are not consistent with tbe prestige-carrying image—
makes his commands acceptable, even welcome. He is strict, because
TEAITS DETERMINING THE PRESTIGE OE THE TEACHER 243
pleasant working conditions for his students demand strictness; but

he is evenly strict, and he is strict without being unpleasant. It is
the strictness of high tonicity, vibrant, and somewhat inspiring.
All these factors contribute, contrariwise, to the unpleasant feeling
tone which pervades the relationship of the inept teacher to his
students. The teacher is judged on the hasis of those qualities which
affect his official relations, and tbe personality of the successful
teacher may be less well integrated and less attractive— perhaps, in
matters that do not concern the school, less stahle— than that of the
unsuccessful teacher. Many who fail as teachers have more merit as
persons than most of those who succeed, and some of the most valuable
human qualities of successful teachers are sacrificed to their academic
success. But so long as we have a system which aligns personalities in
tbis particular pattern, we must have teachers who get results accord
ing to the rules.
It seems possible by way of an aside to evaluate certain, educa
tional theories and classroom devices in terms of the principle estab
lished above, that control usually goes to the person wbo remains
motionless while the life of others revolves around bim, or, on the
higher level, that control of a situation is most easily achieved by
the person wbo demands that others adjust to him. Various writers
on educational practice have advocated on what seem to he good
grounds various policies which involve a large amount of motion in
the classroom and study ball by the teacher, or the assumption by the
teacher of much responsibility for giving help to students or for
educating students. It is argued that teachers should distribute and
collect papers in order to avoid the confusion of having students belp
themselves or crowd about the teacher’s desk. Confusion is a very
real problem for the classroom teacher, but it should he remembered
that the teacher who moves from his place may create confusion as
well as prevent it. The best solution seems to be some such sort of
monitorial system as Bagley suggests, which avoids tbe chief evils
of the other alternatives.
The essential idea of some of the newer educational theories seems
to be to put as much as possible o f the responsibility for tbe process
of education upon tbe shoulders of the teacher. The teacher must be
ready with belp at every difficult stage. He must watch, supervise,
and explain. He must drill. He must kindle enthusiasm. Yet every
hardened veteran of the classroom knows that the real problem is to
get students to take the responsibility for their own education. Young
teachers commonly start out with an ambition to be higb-powered
teachers. They explain vigorously, drill long and patiently, help their
students to get their lessons and help them to recite. This is the ideal
of educational practice that has heen drilled into them. Gradually
they become aware of the fact that their efforts are wasted. Their
students do not prepare their lessons hecause they know that the
teacher will help them to recite. Canny students even learn how to
get these teachers to work out the answers to examination questions
for them. In time the young teacher learns that the educational prin
ciple of most value is that every person must educate himself. The
amount of responsibility which the teacher can bear is limited in any
case, hut the situation is further complicated hy the fact that the
teacher loses something of his control of the classroom when he takes
too many of the burdens of adjustment upon himself. The best rela
tion, ideally as well as institutionally, seems to he that in which the
teacher, mostly at rest and active only in emergencies, serves as men
tor and guide through the intricacies of the curriculum hut docs not
do the students’ work for them. A clever colleague once characterized
his role as one of “ masterful inactivity.”
PROJECTS
1. Investigate the relationship o f a very young teacher to his students.
Round out his attitudes toward students and attitudes of students toward
him. Compare with similar information concerning an older teacher. Inter
pret your results.
2. Describe the social world of the very young teacher, paying attention
to the relative significance of different relationships, and to the imaginative
weighting of projected and wished-for contacts. Ask young teachers to
introspect upon the subject,
3. Describe the relationship of a very young teacher to his students of
opposite sex.
4. Make observations over a period of months upon a teacher who allows
himself to become involved in the social life of students.
5. Make observations upon the rivalry mechanism which cnteTS into the
relationship o f the young teacher to his students.
6. Make extended observations to determine exactly when “enemy morality”
arises between students and a particular teacher. Base your conclusions
upon observation of behavior, but use introspective evidence of students and
teachers to obtain clues.
7. Make a ease study of a teacher whose deficiency in the social graces
interferes with his teaching efficiency.
8. Make a case study of a man of vigorous, coarse personality who has
marked influence upon students.
9. Make case studies of very small teachers. Note devices by which they
TRAITS DETERMINING THE PRESTIGE OE THE TEACHER 245
attempt to compensate for lack of size. Probe into attitudes of students

toward tbcm. Analyze and interpret.
10. Make extended observations to establish the truth or falsity of the
generalizations in the text concerning the physical characteristics of teachers
in their relation to student attitudes.
11. Hale a number of teachers in the matter o f dress and compare with
ratings of teaching efficiency,
12. Describe the dress habits of a group of successful teachers. Find out
their- attitudes toward dress.
13. Make observations upon good teachers who have good manners and
upon good teachers who have bad manners. Compare and analyze.
14. Compare a number of teachers as to manner. Give definite incidents.
Analyze manner in relations to teaching efficiency.
15. List the mannerisms of a group of teachers. What meaning have
these mannerisms in terms of personal adjustment and teaching efficiency?
16. Collect instances showing the bearing of teachers’ mannerisms upon
social interaction in the classroom.
17. Discover by observation typical attitudes of teachers toward students
and subject matter and the interaction of students and teachers.
18. Relate instances to show the exact meaning of “institutional courage,”
and “institutional insight,”
19. Analyze the classroom voices of your own teachers. Interpret in terms
of your own attitudes.
20. Analyze the laughter of teacher and students in a particular class for
the light it sheds upon the rapport between teacher and student.
21. Compare a group of successful teachers with a group of unsuccessful
teachers with regard to measurable traits. Analyze and interpret results.
22. Analyze the classroom techniques o f teachers who have and others
who have not adopted the mask-like expression.
23. Make observations upon the behavior of the principal of a small high
school on some gala occasion.
24. Analyze the techniques used by a number of teachers for signalling
to a class that the group alignment has been changed from humor to seri
ous study.
25. Rale a group of teachers on the range of their interests and teaching
efficiency. Superimpose the two curves.
26. Make case studies of pairs of persons between whom exists the rela
tionship of container and contained.
27. Work oul and analyze the mechanisms by which stable persons force
other persons to adjust to them.
28. Study a teacher who continually devises new social schemes to secure
discipline, a “system builder.” Analyze his personality and his relationship
to his students.
29. Record the new decisions and resolutions of a teacher who is having
disciplinary difficulties.
30. Make careful observations and record incidents in order to determine

exactly what “firmness" is.
SUGGESTED HEADINGS
(1 ) E merson , R~ W ., Representative Men.
(2) G ow in , E. B., The Executive and This Control of Men, Chapter III.
(3) MitiLER, G. P-, Letters From a Hard-Roiled Teacher to His Half-Raked
Son.
(4 ) W aples , D., Problems in Classroom Method, Part II, Sections III
and V I.
C hapter X V I
VARIETIES OF PRESTIGE AND OF DISREPUTE
P r e s t ig e is what makes the leader different from anybody else. It

is not a real quality, but a consequence of the way in which those who
are under his sway think about a particular leader.
Prestige is carried by social images to which the leader is assimi
lated. Flesh-and-blood humans do not conform to these prestige-carry
ing patterns, but are made over into them by the dream-work of
idealization. The leader is always made over in the minds of his
followers. What fits the pattern they have decided upon for him is
kept. What does not fit is thrown away. So it occurs that every man’s
leader is a man after his own heart, and no man lives in a universe
populated by heroes who exceed him in complexity o f mental organi
zation. Prestige is a quality of the whole arising from the way in
which the parts o f the hero are fitted together.
In unrestricted social life, the varieties of prestige-carrying images
are infinite. In the institution they are few'er, because only certain
types of images can sift through the institutional network. Within
every institution certain typical images are the usual carriers o f pres
tige or its opposite.
We leave aside the questions of the origin of social images, of their
relation t.o the imagined qualities they carry, and of their effect upon
the contact human beings have with each other. We turn now to a
consideration of certain social images to which school teachers are
assimilated- These images are configurations, or patterns, into which
the teacher’s personality is organized in the child's mind. Some of
the images existed before the teacher came into the life of t.he par
ticular youngster; these were superimposed upon the teacher from
the early experience of the child, particularly his experience of his
parents, and relevant attitudes were transposed with the images.
Other images appear to have been manufactured on the spot from
t.he materials at hand. It is our purpose here to be thoroughly induc
tive, and to present descriptions of these organizations of ideas and
attitudes rather than interpretations of them. That important and un
solved problems of theory are connected with the social image is
247
248 THU! SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING
clear, but. we have not here the space, nor do we presume the ability,
to make any contributions to them.
Let us consider first those social images whose value to the teacher
is a positive one. Some images which carry prestige when the teacher
is assimilated to them are: (1) the parent substitute, (2) the image
of the cultural or social ideal, (3) the image of the officer and the
gentleman, (4) the image of the patriarch, (5) the image of the
kindly adult, and (6) the image o f the love object. These images are
not always clearly distinguishable, hut we can roughly classify
teachers as deriving prestige from one or more of the images just
noted.
When the child assimilates his teacher to one of his parents, atti
tudes are transferred from teacher to parent. Men' and women
teachers acquire meaning for the child, in so far as they do acquire
meaning, in terms of the parent to whom they are assimilated. The
man teacher, as in after life the employer, the doctor, and the priest,
among others, is assimilated to the father image. I f the father is
feared, the teacher is feared with a fear that emanates from no per
sonal experience of him. I f the father is hated, the teacher is royally
hated, since he may be made to serve as a convenient outlet fo r a
father hatred which the child may not wish to admit to himself. The
woman teacher is frequently assimilated t,o the mother. I f the atti
tude toward the mother is one of unalloyed affection, then the attitude
of the child toward his teacher will tend to reproduce the same un
divided pattern. Tf the mother is thought, of as a thwarting agent, the
child will clearly see the thwarting activities of the teacher and will
treat her accordingly. Women teachers, especially in the early grades,
find it a very convenient technique to play the part of the mother to
their pupils, and apparently there are no very serious objections to
it. Women teachers are also occasionally assimilated to the father
image.
The discussion of the cultural or social ideal as a prestige-carrying
image has heen anticipated in the discussion of the social background
of the teacher. Social classes exist in all societies, and the admiration
of each class for those above is one of the fundamental social facts.
A teacher enjoys prestige derived from this source if he manages to
categorize as a memher of the upper classes. Students may dislike a
teacher who manifestly does not belong to their own group, hut they
hold him none the less in awe. In the rural districts, where learning
is not widely diffused, the school teacher is often held in near rever
ence because he is a learned man, but to be accurate we must remark
VARIETIES OP PRESTIGE AND OP DISREPUTE 249
that this attitude is not wholly a matter of class feeling, being in part
produced hy the superstitious veneration of the unlettered for one
who knows the esoteric lore of hooks. The native American teacher
has great prestige in immigrant districts because be was horn in this
country, and this seems a purer case of respect for the cultural ideal
than the former example. In the slums, also, pupils who have had
experience only of slatternly and dirty women will often venerate and
well-nigh worship their clean and well-dressed teacher. It, may he
argued that prestige due to the supposed superiority of one social
class over another is not to be had in a democratic society, hut this is
not true. Because of the great social mobility of American society
both parents and teachers set much store by a person who embodies
upper-class qualities, and whom they can use as a model of imitation.
Lower-class parents and lower-class students tend to see the problems
of the upper-class teachers in terms of tlicir own daily dilemmas, and
to judge these teachers by their own unreal standards of what ladies
and gentlemen ought to be; many amusing situations and some tragic
ones arise from this fact, hut on the whole the masses judge fairly
both the person and his qualities, and appropriate only those qualities,
as they respect only those persons, that may lie of some use to them.
Some teachers acquire prestige quite like that of tbc army officer.
We may therefore speak of them as conforming to the image of the
officer and the gentleman. The prestige of the officer lias a long tradi
tion behind it, and it usually assumes a definite form. The officer is
a member of the ruling group, as such different from enlisted men
and set off from them as the members of self-conscious ruling groups
always arc set off from those they rule. The officer represents the
dominant grou p; he must cast his personality into that mold when
ever he is in the presence o f members o f the subordinate group. The
officer is made of finer clay than men, certainly of different clay, lie
wears better clothes than the enlisted man, and different clothes. His
clothes are different to distinguish him from the men and they are
better to help him maintain his prestige. Neatness is required of en
listed men, but the officer must attain in this respect an unbelievable
perfection; wbo is not, immaculate is no officer. The officer must live
like a gentleman. He must stop in a good hotel. He must eat in the
better restaurants, n e must smoke expensive cigarettes. lie must
travel on the Pullman, n e carries no packages. He engages in gentle
manly sports and avocations. He does not consort with women to
whom privates have access. lie can go to the head of a queue but he
cannot shine his own shoes. The officer never slops over. Certain cere-
monies of respect are due him. A ll these things serve to mark tbe
officer oil from the men. Very important are tbe things tbe officer
cannot do. It is what one does not do that determines whether be is
a gentleman or not. As James puts it, “ To ignore, to disdain to con
sider, to overlook, are the essence o f tbe ‘ gentleman.’ ” One wbo is
an officer and a gentleman is distinguished from all others by a cer
tain kind of poise, a characteristic “ seeking-avoiding balance,” an
inhibition of action and reservation of opinion which enables tbe
individual to preserve the integrity of bis personality in crisis situa
tions. The person who most lacks tbis poise is tbe diffuse and poorly
balanced extrovert..
Likewise a teacher wbo is erect, a little stiff, who dresses with a
quiet good taste and is scrupulously neat, who takes the respect paid
him as bis right, wbo is always the poised and inhibited member of
the. ruling class, who uses tbe technique of command skillfully and
always keeps his distance— a teacher of this sort acquires a prestige
which is the first cousin of tbe prestige of tbe army officer. Because
of the almost complete cessation of human intercourse which tbis
prestige requires, it is perhaps unfortunate for the school room, but
it is nevertheless important in the schools as they are.
Prestige of a special sort usually attaches to tbe patriarch in tbe
schools. This is prestige derived from association with the father
image, in all probability, but it is prestige which not uncommonly
exceeds the prestige of the father image (perhaps because it is less
ambivalent than the prestige o f the real father). The typical case
seems to be that of the elderly man who takes a fatherly interest in
all bis students, controls by influence only, applauds achievement but
does not, always insist upon details, and excites tbe liveliest affection
in all bis students. It may be that, be teaches with unparalleled incom
petence, but bis students hear him gladly and always insist that they
have learned much from him. His very foibles, bis very weaknesses,
his inability to be severe, his willingness to be sidetracked from the
lesson, and his absent-mindedness on examination day are great
points in his favor. These elder teachers play a very important role
in the impressment of mores, and it could easily be argued that they
choose the better part, that wbat they lose in academic efficiency they
gain in personal influence. Many a school system contains such a
patriarch, but there is rarely room for more than one in any system.
Colleges and universities develop a cult ahout the school patriarch.
His sayings, even the bitter ones, his anecdotes, his whimsies, his kind
deeds, and tbe memory of his face and voice are passed down rever-
VARIETIES OF PRESTIGE AND OF DISREPUTE 251
ently from one generation to the next. It is noteworthy that age alone
does not make a patriarch. It is rather certain personal qualities
which make one known and remembered as “ the old man,” and by
no means all old men have those qualities. There are naturally many
more persons who have certain elements of patriarchal effectiveness
than persons who conform to the pure type. The pure type is rela
tively rare, and is therefore, for our purpose, not very important, but
the patriarchal rapport is not rare. Witness the number of teachers
of whom students speak, jestingly but not without respect, as “ the
old man. ” Even those teachers with a mixed form of the patriarchal
rapport are very important to students, for they furnish them an
opportunity to express symbolically their emotions toward their own
fathers. Even women teachers are sometimes known to embody a
mixed form of patriarchal authority.
Another important image sometimes imposed upon the teacher, or
formed about his personality, is that of the kindly and understanding
adult. The image has certain overtones from either the father or the
mother. I f the home life of the child is happy, the kindly teacher may
derive elements of prestige from both parents. Sometimes, however,
especially where the child’s relationship with bis parents is not for
tunate, the kindly teacher becomes very important without such re-
enforcement. In such a case the teacher becomes emotionally sig
nificant simply because we grow into a relationship that is pleasant
and satisfying and away from one that, is not. Usually the under
standing and kindly adult is the praising adult as well. It is part,
of the technique of a certain kind of social work to find something
that the child can do well and then to praise him for it. This involves
giving the child the impression that one understands him and appre
ciates bis real qualities. Slightly different is the rapport established
by the sympathetic adult. This is the adult who attempts to win the
child’s confidence, to listen to the story of his troubles, and endeavors
to let the child know that he realizes the nature of bis difficulties and
feels with him in them. This rapport is likely to be very strong on
account of the transference mechanism. Because it is so very strong
it is a little dangerous for the child, who is then unduly susceptible
to any injury which the teacher, as a teacher, might work upon him.
The whole matter of control by praise is puzzling and a bit para
doxical. Where it is wisely carried on, it may result in the most happy
relations between students and teachers. Where it is unwisely applied
it is absurdly ineffective and ultimately very damaging to the student.
Praise must always be merited, and it must, always be discreet, else
a ll stan d a rd s d isa p p ea r. C heap p ra ise hoth offends a n d d isap p o in ts,

a n d it hreaks d o w n the d istin ction betw een good a n d b ad p e r fo r m
ances. P ra ise m u st a lw a y s be m e a s u r e d ; it m u st n o t resort to su p er
lative s, fo r su p erlatives g iv e the co m fo rta b le b u t d ea d en in g sense o f
a g o a l a tta in ed . S u ch p ra ise as is u sed m u st open th e w a y to d ev elop
m ent an d n ot close it. P ra ise m u s t a lw ay s be sincere, f o r otherw ise it
is v e r y difficult to m ake i t seem sincere, a n d i f it does n ot seem sincere
i t fa ils to h earten . P ra ise as a m e a n s o f con trol m u st be a d ap ted to
p a rtic u la r stu d e n ts. I t is a device to be u sed fr e q u e n tly b u t o n ly on
a fittin g occasion rath er th an an u n v a r ie d p o lic y . C o n tro l b y a rap>
p o r t based u p o n s y m p a th y likew ise calls fo r d elica te distin ction s.
S y m p a th y , to be o f valu e, m u st n ot be th e fa cile em otion alism o f a
fo o l, b u t th e m easu red fe e lin g o f som ebody w h o co m p letely u n d e r
stan d s. O n e o f the uses o f u n d e rsta n d in g is to know w h en one is
bein g im p osed u p o n .
T h e ca te g o ry o f th e love o b ject is one w h ich m a y h a v e e ith er p o si
tiv e or n eg ative v a lu e fo r th e teacher. T o m a k e o n e ’s s e lf a love oh ject
to stu d en ts is a tech n iq u e w h ich h as its g reatest u t ilit y in the first
fe w g ra d es o f school. T eachers o f p r im a r y g ra d es m a y a p p a re n tly
co n trol th e ir stu d e n ts m o st easily a n d m o st p le a sa n tly b y m ak in g
them selves acceptable m oth er su b stitu tes. T h is r a p p o r t is r a p id ly re
p laced , fo r the m a jo r ity o f stu d en ts, h y the tra d itio n a l o rd er o f d o m
inance an d su b o rd in ation w ith social d istan ce, b u t fo r a fe w y e a r s
m ore the teacher m a y retain her p o sitio n as a love o b je ct in spite o f
the in terp o sition o f d istan ce, sh a p in g u p th en as a resp len d en t g o d
dess to be w o rsh ip p ed fr o m a fa r off. E v e n in h ig h school, w o m en
teach ers som etim es p ro fit b y g o in g to som e p a in s to categorize fa v o r
a b ly as w o m e n ; su btle a d ap ta tio n s o f dress a n d m a n n e r m a y allow
th em to do th is w ith o u t losin g th eir effectiveness in th e tea ch in g role.
T h ey m u st, o f course, su rro u n d th em selves w ith sufficient distan ce to
rem a in fa r off and m y sterio u s. T h is r a p p o r t is o ften o f g re a t u tility
in th e m a n ag em en t o f h igh -sch ool b o y s, whose id ealism a n d ch ivalry
m a y be u tilized b y such a tech n iq u e w h en th ey w o u ld reb el at m ore
o b vio u s a ttem p ts to e x p lo it th em . O n e o f the m o st im p o rta n t valu es
o f p r e stig e as a love ohject com es fr o m a n a h n o rm a lity o f sex life ,
fr o m the h om osexu al crushes w h ich h igh -sch ool g irls, p a rtic u la rly ,
conceive f o r their w om en teachers. W o m e n w illin g to p la y u p o n these
g ir ls o f th e Sch w arm erei age h a v e no difficu lty in o b ta in in g a fo llo w
in g in a n y h ig h school.
T h e d isrep u te into w h ich teach ers fa ll, th e h atred w hich th ey heget,
and th e con tem p t w h ich th ey som etim es arouse, m a y likew ise be
VARIETIES OF PRESTIGE AJSTD OF DISREPUTE 253
th ou gh t o f as the p ro d u c t o f certain p erso n a l con figu ration s in to

which th ey fit. W e tu r n n ow to a con sideration o f th e m ore com m on
o f th e u n fa v o ra b le categories.
One o f these is the easy m a rk . T h ere are som e teach ers w ho ca n be
p u t u p o n ; th ey are easy m a rk s. F r o m th e easy m a rk a stu d e n t can
get a good g ra d e w ith o u t w o rk in g fo r it, or h e ca n com m it Cn offence
in h is presence an d rem a in u n p u n ish ed , or he ca n offer h im a p ersonal
affron t w ith o u t h a rm , or get off fr o m a n im posed p u n ish m e n t w ith a
flim sy excuse or a h a lf-h e a r te d apology. S o m etim es p erso n a l q u alities
o f th e h igh est v alu e m a y m ake a teacher an e a sy m a r k ; excessive
am iab ility m a y m ake h im su ffer too m a n y a ffro n ts or be too ch aritable,
a h ig h ly sy m p a th e tic n a tu re m a y b e tr a y h im to im p ostors, or a keen
sense o f h u m a n v alu es m a y m ak e it difficult fo r h im to ad m in ister
rou tine d iscip lin e to the ch ild re n fe d into th e h op p e r o f th e ed u ca
tion al syste m . O r it m a y be a tr a it o f a d ifferen t n atu re th a t betra ys
h im , a lack o f courage w h ich he tries to h id e ben eath a pose o f good
n atu re, a la c k o f m e n ta lity w h ich enables stu d en ts ea sily to h ood w in k
h im , or a lack o f u n d e rsta n d in g o f ju v e n ile social life w h ich p rev en ts
him fr o m k n o w in g w h a t it is all a b ou t. W h a te v e r th e cause, th e re
su lts are the s a m e ; stu d en ts do n o t resp ect a n d th e y quite p o ssib ly
hate su ch a teacher. T h e ca ta stro p h e is p erh ap s n ot so co m p lete in
cases o f the first sort as in th ose o f th e secon d, f o r teach ers w h o fa il
b y reason o f th e ir v irtu e s m a y h av e oth er v ir tu e s to red eem th em , o r
com p en satin g vices. P e r h a p s the w o rst case is th a t o f the p erson who
lacks cou rage to fa ce the b a rb arism o f y o u n g person s in school, fo r
his a tte m p t to m ask h is fe a r ben eath an am iab le e x terio r n ev er qu ite
succeeds an d he is u ltim a te ly fo u n d out.
T o the y o u n g teacher, one o f the m o st d isillu sio n in g discoveries
th at he m akes abou t the social realities o f school life is th a t teach ers
are o fte n m a d e to suffer f o r th e ir v irtu es. I n a com m on-sen se w o rld ,
it w o u ld seem th a t am iahle a n d sy m p a th e tic teachers, teach ers who
try to a p p ly the gold en ru le i n the school room , w o u ld h av e a h ig h
rep u tation in the eyes o f th eir stu d en ts. B u t th ey r a r e ly do, a n d
th ey n ever do in th e orth o d ox school u n less th ey are able to fo r m
som e sort of com prom ise betw een fr ie n d lin e ss and d ig n ity . It is
p a in fu l to see fe llo w teachers w h o m one k n ow s to be p erso n s o f
u n u su a l qu alities in d isrep u te w ith stu d en ts b ecau se o f those q u a li
ties, p a in fu l to see th em su ffer because th ey are gen ial and s y m p a
thetic, p a in fu l to see th e eviden ces o f d isresp ect a n d h a tre d w h ich
stu d en ts give th em . Th e y o u n g teacher casts a h o u t f o r a reason. I t
is n ot easy to find. P a r t o f th e answ er m a y be m ade b y referen ce
2oi THE SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING
to the general disrespect which young persons in our culture have

for a person who impresses them as “ soft,” and this explanation baa
particular weight because of the traditional patterns of social inter
action in the school; the teacher’s personality must be a little hard
if it is to survive the strain of the hard situation in which the
teacher is placed. A related principle is that the competence of
teachers is judged by reference to other teachers, and a teacher who
does not do as others do, or as others would obviously like to do,
is judged incompetent. Since most teachers are strict, one who is
not strict does not know his business; either he does not know that
he ought to be strict or he does not know how to be strict. In
either case he is incompetent. He who would be good to students
must first “ sell them the idea.” The definition o f the situation is so
clear in most classrooms, in terms of dominance and subordination,
strictness, mutual antagonism, offences and punishment, that it is
not possible fo r any but a most unusual teacher to adjust his rela
tions with students to any other pattern. F or a teacher who shows
other traces of incompetence, this is probably a sufficient explanation
o f his disrepute.
The experienced teacher has a ready explanation for the failure
o f her good-natured colleague. Miss Jones fails “ because she doesn’t
make those students respect her.” Apparently this is a true expla
nation, but it still leaves some important questions unanswered. Why
is it necessary to force students to “ respect” the teacher, in the
sense that her colleague, who has in mind a definitely institutional
sort of respect, means? Why is it ever necessary for a teacher to
“ make students respect her” ? Why do students not respect the
pleasant Miss Jones rather than her cross and bad-tempered col
leagues? These are puzzling questions, and one can never be quite
sure that he has worked out a satisfactory answer to them. Something
may be gained by going back on Miss Jones’s steps and trying to
discover what, by reason of her extreme equability, she did or failed
to do that made the difference.
One important fact is that she failed to establish any boundary
between teacher rights and pupil rights; she failed to establish a
clear definition o f the situation.1 As a result, her students from day
to day kept extending the boundaries o f their own rights and priv
ileges at the expense of those of Miss Jones. In the absence of a
rigid definition o f the situation, a definition is worked out by the
1 For a discussion of the definition of the situation in the school see below, pp.
292 ft.
interaction of human forces; it is natural, then, that students should

extend their activities until they come into contact with tbe real
boundaries of the situation. Older persons sometimes learn not to
impose upon good nature, for they have internalized the rule; but
young persons have rarely attained to this moral delicacy. A fu r
ther important fact is that there is here a motivation for imposing
upon Miss Jones, a hostile motivation which prompts students to
see just bow fa r they can push things with her. This is not hostility
toward Miss Jones, not personal hostility— not yet. It is the hostility
which most students feel for most teachers. Miss Jones is pilloried
for the misdeeds of all her students’ other teachers. The activities
of her students continue to push this good-natured teacher into a
corner; they will push her as far as she will go. It is now a process
beyond her control and more or less beyond the control o f students;
they are bound up in the process because they are involved in a
rivalry to see who shall go furthest. Ultimately, whatever her good
nature, whatever her phlegm, a point is reached where she feels the
situation to be unbearable. JShc makes a stand. I f she tries the tech
nique of appeal, her appeals fail because she has no personal stand
ing, and she becomes pitiable and somewhat odious. I f she tries to
command, she fails and makes herself ridiculous. By this time some
thing has happened to her equanimity, and she has decided to fight.
She enforces her commands with punishments. She defends her
position desperately. Now the students begin to hate her. They hate
her as they do not hate the teachers who have been strict from the
first. Iler stand has come too late, and the things which she is pun
ishing now have become established as the rights of the students
in her classes. Has she not permitted them on previous days? The
precedent is against her. She must use more punishments than
other teachers in order to enforce her points; her students will feel
that it is unjust that they should be made to suffer for her incom
petence. Have they not already decided that she is incompetent? She
must use stronger punishments than other teachers; she must punish
right and le ft ; sometimes she imposes quite unreasonable penalties;
she never dares relax. It is thought that she hates students, that her
previous good nature was an illusion, Soon students hate her; they
hate her so much that no penalties will be sufficient to restore her
authority. That is the end.
The above may be regarded as a natural historical account o f the
life of the good-natured teacher. It is a process observable over and
over again in any school system. W ith different classes, it is often
repeated several times over with the same teaeher, fo r the amiable
are often slow to learn. The process has many variants, but the
same general outline seems to underlie them all. Especially does the
ahove pattern come out sharp and clear in the case of the teacher
whose good nature with students is coupled with a considerable
regard for their good opinion and some eifort to be popular with
them, popular as a person rather than as a teacher, fo r a chasm yawns
between these two types of popularity. In some eases the teaeher,
after a long struggle, or through the use of heroic means, wins his
struggle to establish domination. More often some sort of compro
mise arrangement is reached wherehy the relation is enahled to con
tinue, although it never hecomes satisfactory to either side. I f the
teacher repeats the process in his second year, it is not likely to he
so extreme. Many cases, however, are so extreme that the teacher,
however well trained and skillful in instruction, is without value
for the ordinary school system, and has to be dropped in the middle
of the year or relieved of many of his duties.
The experienced teacher who has learned “ how to make those
students respect him ” is involved in no such situation as that which
centers about the teacher who is too good-natured or the teacher who
wants to he popular. lie at once sets up a rigid definition of the
situation in terms of his own dominance. I f he sets it up quickly
enough and firmly enough, it is never questioned afterwards. Such
minor threats as are made upon his dignity he is ahle to repel easily.
It costs him, to be sure, something in the way of initial unpleasant
ness. He has to accept the disrepute which goes with heing a school
teaeher, and there may he, early in the year, some pretty definite
evidence that his students find him unpleasant and some less definite
evidence that some of them dislike him. But if he has established
his dominance so that it. is not again questioned, the hatred toward
him never really heeomes personal. And, what is even more to the
point, the absence of friction het.ween personalities leaves the way
clear fo r real friendliness to grow up within the known boundaries
o f the situation. Primary group attitudes spring up which make the
situation human and hearahle. Often such a strict teacher wins the
liking of his students after the initial hate has passed away and
his dominance has been softened hy hahit and acquaintance. Of him
the students say, “ He is strict and he puts up with no nonsense.
But he knows his husiness and I guess h e’s not such a had old fellow
after all.” In the “ after all” is something significant. Earlier im
pressions are contradicted by later ones, with both the teacher who
begins hy heing popular and the one who begins by being unpopular;
the latter is in a hetter position hecause it is human nature to react
excessively to such contradictions, to he more hitter over a quarrel
with a friend than over a'quarrel with an indifferent person^ and to
he more grateful for friendly advances from an enemy than for
like advances from a friend. Prom this fact arises the practical
wisdom of superintendents who advise their teachers to “ come down
on them pretty hard at first, hecause it is hetter to relax after a
while than to tighten up.” All very good i f one knows how to
“ come down on them.”
Nor is our explanation of the disrepute of the amiable yet com
plete. It will never he complete, for we must leave it suspended from
certain paradoxical generalizations about human nature, for it is
a true fact, and one not easy fo r the optimist to accept or the scientist
to understand, that throughout the whole of human life the quali
ties of amiahle persons are held at a low valuation. It is contrary
to common sense, hut it is true. Perhaps the reason is that those
who fail to make themselves felt are not considered as persons, for
which reason their favors, heing taken as a matter of course, get no
thanks, and they themselves get no love.1 The meaning of good temper,
then, is in had temper. Prom a realization of this fact and an at
tempt, to compensate for it, as well as the notion that it is not fair
to impose upon good nature, arises the terrihle wrath of some good-
natured men. Some teachers, indeed, knowing themselves to he
afflicted with the vice of laxity, try to establish themselves in the
minds of students as persons who are usually quite easy hut merciless
when aroused. It is not at all a bad arrangement, for it permits them
to he aroused rarely.
It Is less difficult to account for the ill repute of teachers of the
sort next to he described, for they represent a type of human heing
that has little standing in any group. This is the type of the egregious
ass, or the nincompoop. We use these terms with a perfect awareness
that they lack that exactness which terms should have which make
any pretension to scientific accuracy, hut since we are speaking of
social types, and looking at them from the outside through the eyes
of others, and since this is exactly what we think of such persons as
1 Cf. the following statement ^rom Park and Burgess, Introduction to the Sci
ence of Sociology, p. 571: “ In general, we may say that competition determines
the position o f the individual in the community; conflict fixes his place in so
ciety. Location, position, ecological interdependence— these are the characteristics
of the community: Status, subordination and super-ordination, control— these are
the distinctive marks of a society.”
being, the value terms will have to stand. The ass is usually a person,
of rather low intellectual power, though he need not show any de
fect of intelligence in the usual sense of the term; his lack is rather
on the side of mental flexibility. The ass has little social sense, prac
tically no awareness of the meaning of his activities or those of others
in group life, no “ sense o f proportion.” Most of all docs he lack a
true conception of his own place in the group; his exaggerated idea of
his own value distorts all his perception of others. The ass is out
of touch, and he makes the most amazing blunders in that subtle
interchange of human reactions which makes up our life. His humor
is humor relished almost entirely by himself, if it is relished at all.
There is a certain laugh, a forced giggle, in the upper register of the
voice, given with a rising inflection rather than the usual falling in
flection of laughter, often coupled with a shaking of the head or
other evidence of enjoyment, evoked by situations which others do
not think of as funny, indulged in with a total disregard of what
others may be thinking of him— this laugh we think of as asinine, and
we know that the man who laughs that way is an ass. Or it may ap
pear merely as an overloud laugh over a joke in which others do
not participate. It has a correlate in a fairly well identifiable smile.
What effect such a personality has upon students may well be left
to the imagination. "When the revolt begins, ho rarely has personal
force enough to meet the situation vigorously, and he attempts to
meet it with piteous but unmoving appeals. It is difficult to be sym
pathetic with such a person, however pathetic his plight may be.
It is especially difficult for the young.1
Another type of teacher who frequently gets into trouble is the
one who is known to be incompetent, either in subject matter or in
the disciplining of classes. In smaller systems, and occasionally in
the larger ones, it commonly oceurs that teachers are called upon
at the last minute to teach subjects in which they have not adequate
preparation, so that sometimes the most well-meaning instructors
are put into situations where they arc incompetent. There are others,
of course, who feel that they can teach any subject by keeping a few
minutes ahead of their classes, an opinion which obtains some support
from certain alleged authorities on educational method. The situations
in which incompetent instructors are put, and the shifts to which they
resort in order to maintain their prestige, are sometimes ludicrous.
There was the case of the foreign language teacher who was called
’ See Somerset Maugham's description of an irresistibly comic, though tragic,

character in The Moon. and Sixpence.
VARIETIES OF PRESTIGE AND OP DISREPUTE 259
upon to teach. English. His students, suspecting the inadequacy of

his grasp of the subject, laid a trap for him. In the day’s lesson there
occurred an 4ng form o: an English verb. “ Professor Smith,” came
the question, “ is this word going a gerund or a participle as it is
used here ? ’ ’ The professor was completely baffled, but did not desire
to admit it. Quickly he thought of a way out. “ W ell,” he said, “ there’s
some question. I would not want to settle that arbitrarily fo r you.
That wouldn’t be democratic. L et’s take a vote on it. How many say
it’s a gerund? One, two, three, four, five. Is your hand up or not,
Nelson? Now Johnson, if you don’t stop malting those silly faces
I shall have to send you from the room. Now how many say i t ’s a par
ticiple? How many say this form of going is a participle? Oh, easily
the majority. How many? Ten. Yes, easily the majority. Well, it is
a participle. Now don't laugh, I ’ll stick you every one. I t ’s a par
ticiple.” First-year Latin is sometimes taught by teachers com
mandeered for the purpose without reference to their preparation
for the task. One person who struggled through a year of teaching
Latin without having studied it previously reported that he had
been able to get quite satisfactory results by his “ answer-your-own-
questions-method. ” This meant that when a question was asked or a
dispute arose the teacher refused to be called into it, but forced the
entire class to look through their books until they found something
relevant. I f there was a dispute, that suited him all the better, for be
was the debating coach, and besides it helped to pass the class hour.
The discipline of this teacher was not good, but he ascribed his
failure in that respect to his policy of “ being human” with his
students rather than to his incompetence. Either factor, in his case,
would have heen sufficient to account for difficulty in discipline. A
defect in preparation which becomes obvious to students is fatal to a
teacher’s prestige, although it goes without saying that such a defect
must be extreme before students can become aware of it. Further, if
a teacher’s inahility to discipline his classes becomes obvious, he also
categorizes as an incompetent.
Another kind of disrepute into which the teacher falls is that of
the tyrant. The teacher ideal of the stricter sort of school is probahly
that of the benevolent despot, as that phrase is used by some school
men. But a benevolent despot knows how far to push his domination,
and he knows how to relax it. The martinet, put in the same posi
tion, knows neither of these things; he requires too great a p e r fe c
tion, he attempts to maintain too complete a domination, and he uses
260 THE SOCIOLOGY OS' TEACHING
m eth o d s too v ig oro u s f o r h is p u rpose. T h e fo llo w in g e x c e rp t w ill

p erh ap s m a t e th is clear. P w in
I * th° Pi:Vate, " f 0?1 “ wbieb 1 tau^ t there were two divisions, known
as the upper and the lower schools. Military organization is difficult enough
among hoys of high-school age, hut in the lower school it had frankly been
given up as an almost impossible job. Some of the lower-school hoys were
b ^ / l T B,tr!S T “g t0 a n° minaI ten years ° f age' 13,0 smaller b°ys.
barely liberated from the nursery, had not reached an age at which it seemed
reasonable to expect of them the extreme self-control required for a strictly
military unit. There were other difficulties inherent in the situation' the
hoys were so badly assorted as to size that a uniform step was practically
possible them parents would not have approved of a rigidly military
system for them, many of them were too small to wear a uniform satisfactorily
and much too young to he expected to have spotless uniforms,' and many of
the teachers were youngsters who had had no military experience. On the
whole it was a reasonable arrangement by which the lower school was not
expected to maintain the same military standards as the upper school. They
wore a uniform, and they marched in a body in a quasi-military formation,
but otherwise the control of them was a friendly, firm, paternalistic domina
tion. The military forms were present, but it was impossihle to take them
senously.
Then came Captain N. to take charge of the military system of the lower
school. He was a Scandinavian, with that devotion to duty and utter lack
o± a sense of proportion which is not unknown among those of that
nativity. He was a war veteran, who had achieved no more than moderate
success m the army. Nevertheless, the military idea had got into his blood
He was more military than any bona fide officer, and more officer-like than
any West Pointer. He was, in fact, a perfect martinet. It was his job to
take charge of the military system of the lower school. He never had complete
charge of the discipline, of course, but be was responsible for the military
machine. What followed was the natural result of the fact that he took his
duties very seriously. Other men there had been who in his position had
done then- duties conscientiously, but they had never been so vigilant and so
unremitting; they had some sense of the humor of it all, and one felt that
tney were not above smiling about it on occasion. But Captain N. did not
feel that way about it, and he worked out a reductio ad absurdum of the
military idea.
Grimly he set about his task of whipping the lower school into shape He
demanded and tried to get from his ten-year-olds a perfection which could
reasonably have been expected only of mature men and soldiers. He was on
the heels of the boys when they fell out of step, as the smaller boys must
inevitably do because of the shortness of their legs; he boxed their ears for
talking and scolded them for standing unsteadily in ranks. He imposed
penalties for spots on clothes; be made the small boys march in and out of
VARIETIES OF PRESTIOE AND OF DISREPUTE 261
tbe dining room in the most ligidly military fashion. Ho was everywhere
Tsdth his sharp voice and his terrifying manner, trying to reproduce the
spirit of the United States Army among children still damp behind the
ears. He was in deadly earnest, and apparently he never smiled about his
task. He may have known that what he was trying to do was hopeless, but
it is a safe bet that he did not realize that it was silly.
The first effect of this military enthusiasm was a real improvement in
the appearance and prohably also in the morale of the lower school. For
this, Captain N. received the plaudits of the faculty, especially of the
administrators. He was a hit forward for a new man, and he took himself
too seriously, hut he “was doing a good job.” At the height of his popularity
be had the lower school clicking its heels in a very acceptable small-boy
imitation of the army, and he had a considerable following among the
faculty. At one time he had enough influence on the faculty to induce several
members of the faculty, including at least one whose appearance in uniform
had never been anything for the school to be proud of, to order made-to-
measure puttees through him and to submit to his instructions concerning
their conditioning and care.
Slowly Captain N.’s system went to pieces. One noticed that the number
of penalties he imposed, of cases of discipline referred to authorities, in
creased somewhat. One noticed that the numher of minor punishments, of
cuffings, shakings, thumpings, and scoldings, increased greatly. Apparently
Captain N. had. whipped the lower school into shape and now he was whip
ping it out of shape again.
Then the memhers of the faculty began to find bis everlasting “pep talks”
concerning discipline in the mess hall and on the way in and out quite horing,
later unbearable. The school was usually treated to one of these after each
meal. Faculty members were supposed to remain in their seats in the mess
hall until both schools had marched out of the room. Captain N. fell into
the habit of making a short address on military amenities. After the upper
school had left the hall, when the lower school had been called to the uncom
fortable dining room position of attention, with arms crossed and held
stiffly in front of them, Captain N. would arise and go to the front of the
ball for his short speech. It was about as follows:
“Now I want the lower school to get up now and march out briskly,
without any of this silly business, and without looking so foolish. Table One,
right here, should march out first, and then table Two should fall in right
behind. I want you all to keep step. It’s a shame the way some of you can’t
tell your left foot from the right. You ought to be old enough by now to tell
one foot from the other. Stand erect and swing your arms slightly as you
march. And there’s altogether too much noise when you get up from your
chairs. There ought to be just one noise when everybody gets np and puts
back his chair at the same time. After that, come to the position of attention,
with your thumbs even with the seam of your trousers. Now let’s see you
do it right. All right. Lower school, Rise 1”
During this harangue the faculty, upper school as well as lower school,
sat quite still and remained silent. But they were anxious to he off about
their business, at morning and at noon for a short smoke and a little relaxa
tion before beginning the grind, and in the evening to get away. So they
came to resent the man, with his airs and his inspirational lectures. The
upper-school men resented also his unspoken hut plain helief that the ad
ministration of that school was inefficient, that if he had it, he could make
a real military machine of it, that the lower school, for all its handicaps,
was a better organization. Faculty hostility toward Captain N, grew rather
rapidly as a result of certain disputes which he had concerning jurisdiction,
the ordinary private-school quarrels, which are rarely fatal for others, hut
were very deadly for him since few persons liked him anyhow. The faculty
sympathized somewhat with the boys who were suhjected to his hrowheating
tactics, and that received attention, too. All in all, the faculty felt that
Captain hT., far from becoming an important person in the school, was very
fortunate to he allowed to finish out the year.
The words of a person wbo talks much are little considered; those
of persons who speak little have a scarcity value which makes them
heeded. Especially is this true of teachers and of all persons wbo must
live by ordering others about. Explanations of commands detract from
their force, and completeness of personal expression, by filling in
all the gaps in the picture o f a personality, makes idealization diffi
cult and therefore detracts from prestige. Especially does excessive
loquacity operate to a teacher’s discredit i f be attempts to discipline
by a flow of words, or mingles burnor and discipline, or talks so much
that be becomes ridiculous. There is no more incompetent teacher than
the fool who talks too much, and talks rot. This type of disrepute is
well illustrated by the following excerpts from a case study:
Soon after l hegan teaching in the private school which I have mentioned,
the school decided to change its policy hy incorporating a Tegular evening
study hall into its program. Previously the boys had been studying in their
rooms under the supervision of the teacher who happened to he in charge of
the harracks that evening. It was thought that hy instituting a regular
evening study hall, to last two hours, it would he possible to insure more
continuous application to studies. Students who were ahle to maintain a
satisfactory scholastic standing were to be exempt, and it was thought that
this would he an added inducement.
It was plain that whoever was in charge of the evening study hall would
have a difficult joh. The boys were not used to it, and they would probably
resent the study hall as cruel and unusual. It was certainly contrary to cus
tom. There would be problems of lighting, ventilation, supervision of the
hoys during intermission, etc. There was the added difficulty that the study
v a r i e t i e s o f p r e s t ig e a n d o f d is r e p u t e 263
hall would he heavily weighted with the irresponsible and the rebellious, all
the good students having been excused. Apparently no memher of the regular
faculty wanted the joh, nor was there one whose duties were light enough to
permit him to take the study hall as a regular thing, ft was rather a delicate
matter, for anyone who took the job would have to he paid extra, and this
was contrary to the school policy up to that time. All in all, it was thought
hest to employ an outside man.
Tbe school authorities took much thought and employed the most unsuitable
person in the world for the post. Not that anyone was to he hlamed for
employing It. Bysshe Bauer, for he could have sold crucifixes to the Eu Klux
Klan, or cork hats to the Eskimo. Himself he could sell in any capacity
whatsoever. He was a man in his middle thirties, a teacher of commercial
subjects in a city high school, and he was conducting a business which kept
him poor. He agreed to take charge of the evening study hall, and gave one
the impression that he knew' all the tricks. In spite of what happened later,
one had to concede that he prohahly did.
Bauer was a rather large man hut soft. His size was not impressive be
cause of his disgusting obesity. He dressed poorly. He may have chosen his
clotbes well and paid a good price for them, hut he used them so hard and
gave them so little attention that he presented a very had appearance. His
face was often dirty, and it is possihle that he did not hathe frequently, for
he exuded a very unpleasant odor when he had heen out in the rain. But he
had a brilliant, rapid-fire mind, and a magnificent pow’er of self-expression.
He talked in a rapid monotone. His words seemed to come out under pres
sure and to tumble over each other in their haste to get themselves said. Eor
all that, he chose his words well, and his rapid sentences often summed up
amazingly keen observations of men and affairs and human nature in general.
Pregnant remarks worthy of a Bacon or a Voltaire were mingled in his
speech with tbe coarse ribaldry of the gutter snipe. Apparently he had a
high homosexual component, for the female sex seemed utterly meaningless
to him on any but the grossest and lowest level, and he frequently joked con
cerning homosexuality. Bauer was perpetually in financial difficulties, hut he
was always going to he rich soon. He was involved in a hundred speculations,
and none of them turned out well. He borrowed from everyone he met. Ho
netted a great deal more through his borrowings from the people in our
school than through his earnings, and one suspected him at limes of cultivating
the school connection for that purpose. When trying to negotiate a loan,
he had a most affable manner, and he seemed perfectly sincere in his deter
mination to pay hack all at the agreed time. But when he was unable or
unwilling to repay he seemed very callous and cynical ahout it. The person
had taken his chance on tbe repayment of the loan; it was a husincss transac
tion, and after all husincss was business. If tbe other person lost his money
that was no affair of Bauer’s. He had other things to worry ahout. This is far
from a pleasant picture of tbe man, hut it is far from complete. No mere
objective description could convey an adequate impression of his spirit. He
264 t h e s o c io l o g y o p t e a c h in g
was an indomitable optimist, always raging with enthusiasm for some new
project, imbued with a mental and moral vitality that would have served as
motivation for a thousand adventurers. And when he got off some bit of
trenchant wit, and followed it with his odd little chuckle, he was the most
amiable and humorous ereaturc in the world.
Another man and X occupied a first-floor room at that time, and tlauer
formed a bahit of dropping into our room every evening before and after
study hall. He would come in puffing, his honest Teutonic face aglow from
exercise—he had walked two hlocks. He sat down and removed bis glasses,
the pince-nez variety, 'and massaged the sides of his nose. Sometimes he
seemed quite tired, as well he might, for he had taught a full day and had
worked in his office in the afternoon. And occasionally, quite shamefaced, be
asked permission to lie down on the hed for a few minutes of rest; hut
usually he asked nothing hetter than to sit with us and talk, ■
Then for fifteen minutes lie would pour out upon us a flood of talk that
would have shamed any of the famous conversationalists of history, acute
analyses, pointed jokes, epigrams, rodomontade, bluster, lies, self-revelation
of the frankest and most obscene sort. He was an interesting man, and he
had none of the inhibitions of the gentleman. It was good for me to know
Bauer, for I felt that he was a worse teacher than I was, and a much more
intelligent man.
Though I was at the time far from shrewd in such matters, I began to
suspect that the evening study hall was not going off well under Bauer’s
guidance. It was evident that in his conx'ersations with boys on his way to
study hall, and even when he met them in the office over some matter of
discipline, he was adopting a tone of great familiarity. Frequently one would
find him in the center of a group of boys engaged in rowdy conversation with
them, his voice louder than any o f the others. His conversation with boys
was scarcely less Rabelaisian than with the teachers. One noticed also that
the hoys came hack to their rooms much elevated after evening study ball,
with every appearance of having had a good time. It was something which I
noticed particularly on those evenings when I was in charge of the harracks.
Bauer had no dignity, no official dignity as a teacher and no personal dig
nity. Apparently he revolted at the thought that one had to maintain dignity
with students or anyone else; be was a person, and His personal expression
was far more important to him than his ability to discipline students. Be even
rebelled against any attempt of others- to confer dignity npon him. The in
structors in the school, as is usual in military schools, were known as “ Cap
tain,” a paper dignity, hut one which was fitting in the military organiza
tion. Some of the more conformed boys, anxious to he right and to avoid
giving any possible offence, began to address Bauer as “ Captain Bauer,"
although he was not in uniform. He put a stop to that decisively. “I’m not
a captain,” 1be confided in his genial, cynical way. “ So-and-So’s a captain,
and so is Sucli-and-Such over there. But I’m not a captain. I wouldn't try
to palm rnyself off on you as a Captain. I ’m just a top sergeant. I’m just
r VARIETIES OE PRESTIGE AND OE DISREPUTE 265
plain old Sergeant Bauer, and you needn't salute me or anything." Later
he, told me that he had thought the whole matter out carefully, realizing
that his position as an outsider was a difficult one, and that he thought that
he could fit into the system as a top sergeant hut not as a captain. I was sure
that he had just thought of the answer on the spur of the moment.
Bauer could not he serious, not wholly serious, even in his attempts to
discipline students. He always seemed to be attempting to make a joke of
the .offence and the penalty as well. It was his idea, as he explained it to me,
that hy being jocular about the procedure he could make the machinery of
formal punishment less unpleasant to his students. Sometimes his humor
took the form of sarcastic, written reports. He reported one hoy for “ Gen
eral disorderly behavior and throwing various and sundry missiles and pro
jectiles across the room." The other men of the faculty felt that it was desir
able to exchange as few words as possible with students concerning these
formal reports of mishehavior, and it was in fact a rule of the school that a
student could not begin a conversation concerning such a report without the
permission of the instructor. But not so Bauer. He felt that he ought to
argue the hoys down on every point, and he used all his verbal resources
for tripping up his opponent and talking him out of his opinion. He always
won a verbal victory, hut one wondered how sound it was. I later came to
the conclusion that Bauer was a coward, and that on that account he did
not attempt to control hy commanding students, hut rather tried to argue
and joke them into good behavior. He could not directly assert his authority,
for he was afraid to do that, hut he could outargue any man in the world.
Perhaps he hoped that his students would not resent his authority if he
placed it upon this hasis of sweet reasonableness.
One evening I paid a visit to Bauer in his study hall. I arrived at ahout
the middle of the two-hour period, just hefore the evening intermission. The
whole huilding was filled with the noise of a study hall in uproar, voices,
the noise of desks and chairs, laughter, jeers, catcalls, etc. I stood just hack
of the doorway to ohserve the show. Over on one side of the room two of
the larger hoys were having a friendly little 1ussle. 1 understood at once
how it had occurred that those seats had been broken recently. Numerous con
versations were going on; they were quite open. Desks were opened and
slammed frequently and insistently. A hoy who wished to return a hook to
another hoy at the side of the room stood up and threw it to him. Bauer
attempted to reprimand him for this disorderly behavior, hut the hoy in
sisted that he was just returning the book, answered in the tones of outraged
innocence, and faced Mr, Bauer down. Meanwhile a hoy threw a penny, then
another hoy threw a penny, and then the penny-pitching began in earnest.
Bauer stood in front of the room, darting eagle-like glances here and there,
hut entirely without effect. He was a little excited, if one could judge from
his (lushed face, but he still contrived to smile. It was time for intermission,
and he hegan to make a little speech:
“ Now we’re going to have a ten-minute intermission and I want all of you
fellows to be back here in exactly ten minutes from now. Look at your
watches and verify that. I've warned you and you are responsible. If you have
no watch, stay here and look at the clock, But just a minute, now, I have one
or two things I want to say to you before you go. Now you’ve had a good
time this first hour and when you come hack I want you to dig in and study.
You know I enjoy a good joke. I enjoy it even when I seem to he the hutt
of it, and I ’m telling you, fellows, that’s the test of a real humorist. But you
fellows have fooled around too much aud I ’ll have to take some action if
you don’t stop. None of you will have your lessons for tomorrow. Not that I
care about that, but I’ll get the. hlame, and that’s where I come in. I don’t
want to have to take action, I don’t want to have to turn people into tho
office. I don’t want to make a lot of you walk the hull ring, and I don’t see
why I should if you fellows will just he a little reasonable about this. I was
a youngster once myself, strange as it may seem, and I remember how it
was. I ’m not going to report you if I can help it. I f everybody will just
he reasonable, now, there won’t he any need for anything of the sort. I
don’t think it ought to he necessary to maintain a rigid military discipline
in this study hall. You hoys have it hard enough hcing under strict discipline
during the day and it would hardly he fair to expect the same thing of you
at night, So I’m going to do my very best to treat you right. Now you’ve had
your little jokes, and once in a while I’ll have mine with you. But let’s do
away with the nonsense for the rest of the evening. All right, now you can
have your ten-minute intermission. You know that it is only supposed to ho
five minutes, but I realize that you need some relaxation. Ha 1 Ha! So I am
just going to make that a ten-minute intermission. All right.”
A terrific diu. Yells, "But you’ve talked three minutes already.” “ Well, all
right, then, ten minutes from now.”
The subject o f tbe above case history obviously had many strong
points, both as a teacher and a personality, but failed because of
his even more obvious defects, and because bis personality was pecul
iarly ill adapted to tbat sort of teaching which requires tbe sub
ordination of one person to another. Tbe factors involved in tbe ease
seem apparent enough. When a command is lost in a flood of words,
its force is lost. When tbe talkativeness of tbe teacher wells out o f
an urge for social expression, so that it is self-revelatory talkativeness,
tbe relationship between teacher and student breaks down by reason
of a lack of social distance. When tbe excessive talk comes out o f a
feeling tbat it is necessary to explain disciplinary action to a student,
it betrays an underlying fear of the loss of the student’s good will
(a lack of institutional courage), a fear strong enougb to blot out
utterly the common-sense realization that when a student is punished
for a manifest and red-handed dereliction be knows well enougb wby
he is being punished. A nd when the teacher is worried about the

imposition of penalties, his students know that they have really the
upper hand. The technique of arguing down objections, and of cajol
ing refractory boys into good behavior, does not work. Nor does it belp
to joke about a penalty, for such, humor is rarely relished by the
person punished; the punishment is a very serious thing to him. I t
is difficult to reconcile the two aims of bumor and of discipline.
Another type of teacher who rarely fails to obtain the disrespect
of his classes is the weakling. The weakling may be intelligent, and
he is quite possibly well prepared for his job on the intellectual side.
He is almost certain to be on tbe positive side of the moral ledger,
and be is frequently a pietist. But he lacks sufficient physical stamina
to win the respect of students as a physical object. And there is some
suhtle lack in his moral make-up wbicb prevents him from standing
out against tbe opinion o f tbe student group and makes it difficult
for him to face unpleasant situations with the unpleasantness which
can solve them, He lacks the hostility reactions wbicb one needs for
success in tbe ordinary school. He cannot fight. It is worthy of re
mark that a sadistic strain in the teacher's make-up is a useful aid
in securing subordination from students, especially if it is balanced
by a certain amount of friendliness and a strong sense of justice and
organized into a personality deserving of respect on other grounds.
Sometimes this is what tbe weakling lacks, but it does not seem too
cynical to suggest that tbis element is not so often entirely lacking
as inhibited by fear.
When I was in high school we used to have great fun with an odd char
acter who taught us commercial Spanish. He was a man of ahout medium
height, very slender and wispy. His eyes were a washed-out hlue, watery
and without fire or sparkle. His mouth was a heautiful Cupid’s how, deli
cately modeled in an expression of exquisite, sweet weakness. His face was
thin without being in the least sharp, and his body was almost cadaverous.
He had a voice of which he was somewhat proud, hut it was a womanish
voice and somewhat nasal. Altogether he was a pitiable rather than an
attractive picture, friendly, polite, obliging, good-natured, conscientious—
hut hardly anybody really liked him. He was a would-he preacher, and the
religious activities carried on as a sideline ahout the high school gave him
just the opportunity he wanted. He had charge of the Hi-Y, and he seemed
very enthusiastic ahout all that it offered. He used it as a channel for his
long, silly speeches. He was a hear on purity, and he used to enjoy talking
about it. He had one speech in particular which it delighted him to give',
it was his prepared address, something about Sir Galahad. In it was much
pathos, more bathos, and the stuff of human tears. When we overcame our
contempt for the fellow, wo felt sorry for him because of the dull, hard
life he had. But that was rare.
The other memhers of the faculty used hia classes as a dumping ground
for their more stupid and intractable students. He welcomed all and sundry,
for he was huilding up a department. And he made sure that everybody
got a good grade who attended class. His judgment was also slightly influ
enced by one’s hehavior in class. His classes were in continual confusion.
Everybody talked as he pleased, and recited, or read another book, or wrote
letters, as the mood struck him. Mr. B. rarely said anything about the dis
order, and he seldom upbraided anyone about not preparing a lesson. Some
times he ventured a mild remonstrance; once or twice he became quite hard
with some of the less dangerous fellows. One picture I will never forget—
his way of calling a class to order. He had a little bell on his desk; no other
teacher had one or felt the need. Trying to look unconcerned, 'hut succeed
ing only in looking foolish, he would stand in front of his class with a severe
expression on his face and hammer on the hell with a book. This seemed to
us the essence of the ludicrous. (Life history document.)
The flirtatious teacher also gets into disrepute, Sex, as we have

shown elsewhere, is much in evidence throughout the whole of school
life, and it is unavoidably present in the attitudes which students and
teachers have toward each other. A highly sublimated sort of sex
appeal is sometimes made the hasis of favorable rapport, but it is a
rapport which may, with its emphasis slightly askew, degenerate
rapidly. This is the case with the flirtatious teacher. The flirt is
the man or woman teacher who is frankly open to the charms of stu
dents of opposite sex. Where teachers usually attempt to exclude
such matters from their relations with students, these teachers at
tempt to bring them into play. Sometimes they wish to exploit their
students sexually hy means of their authority, hut more often they
merely open themselves to exploitation hy students whose charms they
appreciate. Sometimes the sexual motivation toward students is con
scious and ruthless. In other cases it is never recognized for what it is,
or, as in the case of young women teachers, it is merely a hy-product
of their whole social training up to that point. In any case, an atti
tude of the teacher which lays him open to frankly sexual interchange
with students is one which has damaging effects upon his control of
his classes. It makes nepotism unavoidable, and on those grounds it
is hotly resented hy those in the class who receive no favors. Where
there is a marked age difference hetween students and teacher, any
pronounced sex interest on the part of the teaeher will seem depraved
or ridiculous, although an older person may on occasion disguise a
strong sexual interest in a particular student as a fatherly or motherly
VARIETIES OE PRESTIGE AND OP DISREPUTE 269
interest. Where there is only a slight age difference between student

and teacher, the worst effect, for the teacher, of establishing a love
relation with one of his students is that it involves him in the stu
dent world. It is, further, likely, to involve him in an unfavorable
manner.
Our most important point concerning the love relation in the schools
may he stated in quite general terms. The rapport of the love relation
is quite incompatible with dominance and subordination as it is
established in the schools. Further, the love relation, even in its in
cipient stages, is incompatible with the maintenance of such social
distance as is expected of the teacher. The sexual motivation of the
student (or the teacher) prompts him continually to attempt to break
down harriers; if the student succeeds in his attempt, the teacher
loses standing, and if he does not succeed he becomes trouhlesome
and hitter. It is a failure to reckon with this mechanism which ac
counts for much o f the trouhle which women teachers have with
girls in the age of crushes. It might be pointed out also that the
flirtatious teacher loses standing in the school and the community
because of his violation of that principle of morality which holds
that those who stand in an authority relation should not exploit that
relation for personal reasons. This is a very strong tahoo indeed,
and has led in some cases to violence or indignity on the part of
townsmen toward the teacher who failed to respect it. It is perhaps
vaguely realized that the flirtatious teacher violates the special
ethics of the Image relations, that morality which requires that those
who stand in relations which have special force because of their
emotional re enforcement from other sources, as teachers, preachers,
lawyers, doctors (especially psychiatrists), and priests, should not
exploit that rapport for any purpose of their own.
Another type of disrepute into which the teacher falls is that of
the caricature. Apparently it is of the nature of the teacher as an
occupational type to get out of touch with the community of men
in general, and to develop his own special way of life wdthout much
thought of the world that is not the school. When this process of spe
cialization has gone on for a long time, the teacher may develop into
a caricature o f the occupational type. Now the occupational type of
the teacher is, as we shall see, usually developed by way o f an adapta
tion to the conditions of teaching, but when the teacher has passed a
certain point in the development of occupational traits he hecomes
so completely out of touch with human heings In general that even
his teaching is handicapped. Then he has hecome a caricature, and
tho caricature is ridiculous. It is not only ridiculous in itself, hut it

tends to make all other teachers ridiculous hecause of their similarity
to it in some essential qualities.
A teacher who comes to be much hated is the bully. The hidly
attempts to keep his students under control by keeping them in a
constant state of fear. lie hadgers students, threatens them, lords
it over them, keeps them in fear hy sudden displays of anger, and
uses the social technique of one who is determined to have his way
hy unpleasant means if possible. His is the institutional variety of
quarrelsomeness. The hully speaks in a badgering or hlustery tone of
voice, one that suggests that be is already angry and that he is likely
if at all irritated to hecome much more angry, which may convey
the idea that this teacher never did care very much about students
anyway, and is now at the end o f his patience with them. This voice
may he shrill and sharp, though it is not so in the typical case; it
is more likely to be full and fuzzy, as if a number of ragged edges of
emotion adhered to it. The classroom manner of many teachers is
built upon this hullying technique as a basis. The following story
will perhaps illustrate some of the typical hehavior which we think of
as going to make up the hullying personality.
Inadvertently we sat a little straightcr in our chairs when we heard our
teacher’s step in the hall. lie was a rough man, and had-tempered, and we
never knew where his temper was going to hreak out next. This morning
he paused in the doorway and looked us all over before entering. There was
on his face not the shadow of a smile, and that expression which left no
douht in any of our minds that he was not happy over tho thought of hav
ing to spend the hour with us. We had the impression that he did not like
us and would not regret an opportunity to punish us. The suspense was
heightened as he looked over the class. He walked into the room; slowly,
deliberately, and with a slight swagger he made his way toward his desk.
He looked at a little hoy in the haek row. “ Johnson,” he said in that deadly
way he had, “I told you to write our yesterday’s lesson four times. Where
is it?”
“It’s on your desk, sir,” said the small hoy in a very small voice.
“ Well, it had better he. Where did we stop yesterday? You tell us, Jones,
that's all you can do. We’ve got to make some use of you.”
“ Page 96, line 7,” said Jones, apparently not offended.
“ Sir," said the teacher.
“ Yes, sir,” answered Jones, mechanically.
We turned to the lesson. “All right, Jones, try to translate the first
sentence.”
Jones hegan, “When the lights were turned on . . .”
"VARIETIES O P PRESTIGE AND OP DISREPUTE 271
&
"Oh, Lord, no, no, nonono! Sit down. Shut up. That will do from you.
Prima bice does not mean when the lights were on. Why did I ever call on
such a dumhhell as you. I’ll never he able to teach you anything. You’re
too smug and too conceited. Why don’t you ever get next to yourself? Palmer 1
AJ1 right, Palmer l"
“I’m afraid I can’t today, sir.”
“Why not?”
“I don’t understand that sentence,” said Palmer, in desperation,
“ Ha, ha. I know that trick. Translate the next sentence.”
“ I can’t, sir.”
“ Well, then, translate any sentence in the assignment. You can't?” His
voice raised, and we knew that the storm was going to break. His voice filled
the room. “Now, listen here, Palmer. I’m damned good and tired of the
way you act anyhow. All you do in this class is take up a chair.” He walked
up to Palmer’s chair and hegan to shake his fist in his face. “I want you to
know that I’m tired of your damned nonsense.” Exhausted, he sank hack
into his chair. (Fictionized case study.)
This is a method of teaching which tends to wear itself out. The
loud voice and dire threats with which the school year hegins tend to
lose their force unless they are followed hy a yet louder voice and
more hlood-curdling threats in the near future, and there is an easily
attained limit to this process. It has the further disadvantage that
it puts a nervous strain upon both students and teacher which, though
it may he a spur to the dull and a challenge to the idle, is an ob
stacle to achievement for many students. Further, it is a method which
will make a teacher hated, unless it is in the folkways, and even then
if the teacher is not, ahle to halanee it hy some pleasant traits of
character.
But it, should he stated emphatically that the hully often gets hy,
and that his students often develop a real affection for him. He gets
results from students whom other teachers have given up, And he
has at least the psychological advantage of the initiative, he “ has
the jump on his students.” Sometimes it even gets ahroad that he
is a rough old codger but he has a heart of gold and “ would give you
the shirt off his hack if he thought you needed it.” This, it may be
said, is often true of teachers whose classroom personality is most
definitely given over to bullying, and it helps them to obtain for
giveness. It is said that hoys will take any ahuse from a man whom
they consider just and from a man who, “ away down under,” likes
them. But perhaps the most important point in the bully’s favor is
that he has color and that he gives his small but discriminating public
a good show.
272 THE s o c io l o g y oe t e a c h in g
There arc some teachers who have ego-gratifying devices which

interfere with their teaching efficiency. They find in the classroom an
opportunity to cultivate expansive moments, and they manipulate
their teaching procedure with a view to squeezing from it as many
such moments as possible. The list of ego-swelling poses, of tricks
which give the teacher that pleasant feeling of being somehow a very
remarkable fellow, of sayings which are thought to malm others
wonder and admire— this list is literally endless. Pride everywhere
betrays men into a fall, and it betrays other men, perhaps, as con
sistently as teachers, hut the teacher is in a position of unusual
temptation. He has the attention of a large group, and it is his job
to keep that attention constellated upon himself. To expand his per
sonality to include the entire group, and yet to refrain from using
the expanded contact as a means of gratifying his private wishes,
to include other personalities within the control of one’s own and
yet to exclude the interior self, in a word, to dominate impersonally,
is a truly great achievement, and it is not so amazing that the teacher
usually lacks this extraordinary grace as that he ever has it.
The pride-fulfilling devices of teachers do not always affect their
student relationships unfavorably, and these devices arc, in fact,
useful if they do not pass certain hounds or bring the teacher into
direct conflict with his students. Self-dramatization is effective if
it includes relatively little of self and drives home important ele
ments of subject matter; it is difficult to tell when it becomes a vice.
A habit of trying to say things well is a good habit, and students
are usually grateful for a teacher who has it. But a teacher who
says things well may go out of his way to find things to say well,
and once he has started he may range further and further afield
in his search for epigrams. In the extreme case, he becomes “ one who
says smart things smartly,” a “ wise-cracker.” Somewhere he has
crossed the invisible line that separates good practice from had. This
is but one example. There are other ego-gratifying mechanisms which
injure only the teacher him self; an example of this is a certain bril
liant, ultra-sophisticated teacher of English who, in the apt phrase
of a colleague, “ has so many poses to keep before the public that he
never has time for anything else.” Many teachers whose rapport
with students is excellent are accustomed to nourish their self-feel
ings at the expense of their colleagues, particularly of underlings,
and the devices they employ are uncountable.
We are here concerned with a particular variety of disrepute into
which teachers fall if they allow their ego-feelings to obtrude them-
selves too obviously into their transactions -with students. Two d if
ferent mechanisms are involved in these eases: first, that the in
dividuals involved hecome ridiculous hecause they make ridiculous
claims upon the students' respect, either by priding themselves upon
ridiculous things or by gross exaggeration of their own merits; sec
ondly, that they attempt to gratify their own self-feelings by making
an attack upon students, and receive, as a general thing, repayment
in kind. Animosity aroused hy some direct attack usually supplies
the motive for caricature of the sort first mentioned, and if there is
no such animosity the inherently ridiculous claims of the teacher may
pass unchallenged. The following story illustrates the disrepute of
the teacher who too obviously uses his authority as a teacher as a
means of ego gratification1:
“I am James Weatherford Robinson. I see you are the new man in our
department. Starting out as assistant-instructor, are you? Well, I did the
same twenty years ago. You have a long, weary road ahead of you, hut
what one man has done another can, I always say. Of course, you have
much to learn. But there are magnificent opportunities here. As for me, I
have at present a very satisfactory position, and a fine income. I am a full
professor, insurance statistics, you know, and I draw a nice salary from that.
In addition I get many fat fees from insurance companies for one little joh
and another. I have a very fine thing of it indeed. Now let me see, what did
you say your name was ?"
“ Watkins."
“ All right, Mr. Hawkins, I’ll rememher you”
“I'm sorry, the name is Watkins. W-a-t-k-i-n-s."
“ Oh, yes, to be sure, to he sure, to be shewer! Do you have your doctor’s
degree, Watkins?”
“No, l)r. Rohinson. I'm sorry to say I haven’t.”
“Well, you'll have to get it one of these days. Drop everything else till you
do. Never get anywhere in this line of work till you do. Well, see you again,
Hawkins. My office is just down the hall. Name’s on the door, of course.
James Weatherford Rohinson. See yon again some time.”
“I hope so, Dr. Robinson,” I said politely.
Dr. James Weatherford Rohinson made an exit. I sat down in my chair
to put in order the array of impressions this amazing man had left.
Ho was hig and he had a florid face. His manner was expansive, his
gestures large. He smiled often. He had several gold teeth that showed
when he smiled. His voice was rather poor, high-pitched, hnt hoarse. He
had been smoking a very opulent-looking cigar, lie had a stomach, and he
wore it proudly. His eyes were of that peculiar staling kind which I had
never been able to diagnose; no glint of humor or responsiveness was in
7
them. I thought I had seen a war medal on his vest. I was sure I bad seen
something glistening under his coat.
In the years that followed I was to learn much about James Weatherford
Rohinson. For the present I thought that I liked him. Halfway I under
stood him. Now J. wonder, I asked myself, why he told me ahout his income T
"A fine income,” he had said. And all that stuff ahout my degree. Everybody
had been telling me that. He was the sixth, and I had been here only a
week. Well, they were right.
I wondered where Dr. Rohinson got bis degree. I found a catalogue.
After much hunting, I found his name. I was puzzled to see that no Ph.D.
was listed, only an M.A., taken twenty years before from a second-rate
institution.
I was very tactful with James Weatherford Robinson. I did not allow bim
to learn that I knew that he did not have a doctor’s degree. He did a great
many things for me, and I was profoundly grateful to bim, only a little the
less grateful because I knew that these favors had been won from him by
my own tact, by seeming to sympathize with him in bis struggle against his
many enemies on the faculty, by seeming to he impressed by all his stories.
I had for him, perhaps, that sort of gratitude long ago defined as the lively
expectation of favors to he received.
Rohinson had, indeed, many enemies on the faculty. There were many who
felt that he had at one time or another been too lordly in his dealings with
them. Others resented the fact of his large earnings, and registered official
complaints against him on t.hc grounds that he neglected his school work
for his outside activities. These charges were not proved, What was proved,
however, was that his frequent references to his income were most unwise.
Faculty members told and retold an old story that Robinson bad once tried
to pass himself off as a veritahle doctor of philosophy. Ho was also accused
of having stolen another man’s course.
Rohinson, I learned, had many students. He had also many friends among
the students, and he had been known to go to great lengths to help students
out of trouble. Nevertheless, students hated him.
“ His course,” said one student, “is a course on Why I Am a Great Man.
I registered for it once, and went a couple of times. The first hour he talked
about himself and what a great fellow he was. He leaned over the rostrum
and showed us his four medals. One was a vvar medal, for bravery. Another
was for marksmanship. Another was for a prize essay. The fourth was for
high-school track. He tried to make ns think they were all war medals. I heard
the real story from someone in the class, and then one day, long after, I
got up close to bim and looked at his medals closely and I found out it
was true.
“ Well, I suffered through the first hour. My impulse was to drop the
course at once. But I said to myself, ‘It can’t be as had as that all the time,
and I need that course to round out my schedule. So I’ll stick around just
a little while longer and see how things turn out.’ I did, and the next day be
VARIETIES OF PRESTIGE AND OP DISREPUTE 275
told us all about his outside connections, and how much money be made
from them. He leaned back, stuck his thumbs in his vest, and said, 'I just
teach for the fun of it. The mouey I get for teaching is a very small part
of my income, a very small part, indeed. It really costs me money to teach,
hecause I could make so much more working outside.’ J. dropped the course
after the second hour.”
“I finished Robinson's course,” said another student. “But it was very un
pleasant. He was always bulldozing and personal, He would call over the roll
and come to a foreign name and say, ‘Here’s one. S-c-e-m-a-n-k-ow-i-tz.
Now I don’t want to have to sneeze every day; just have to call you
Simmons, I guess.' There was a fellow named Dolittle. Of course be told
him he would have to do more than that. His delight was to catch somebody
unprepared. I f he did, he was very sarcastic and unpleasant. Pulled out his
grade hook and ostentatiously marked down a zero. Then he would tell tho
fellow how poorly he was doing and how hard be would have to work to
pass the course. He would ask the boy where he was from and when he told
him he would say, sneeringly, ‘I thought so.’ He used to amuse himself hy
getting some dumb-bell up for questioning—he always made us stand up
to recite—and questioning him until be was confused. Then lie would laugh.
He was really unbearable.”
“But didn’t the students ever try to get back at him?"
“ Oh, yes. Especially the class I was in. It was right after the war and we
didn’t stand for it meekly by any means. We guyed him about his medals,
and when he finally got wise to the fact that we Were guying him he was
sore. The class got away from him entirely. It was in an uproar most of the
time. He’d stalk up and down in front of the class and threaten us with
what lie would do to us, and when he turned his back to write something on
the hoard we’d all give him the Bronx cheer, Then he would turn around
and rave some more. We didn’t learn anything, and he flunked a lot of us,
hut the school paper raised a row about it, said it was his inefficiency that
caused it, and he had to let most of the fellows through after all. They say
that- he would have lost his job that time if it hadn’t been for his outside
connections. That part of his line isn’t a bluff, by the way. That was
several years ago, but he’s still the school joke. As he goes down the walk
all the students call out, ‘ Hello, Professor Rohinson,’ just to get him going,
and he always waves and throws up his arm. It’s a riot. And every once in
a while there’s a little piece in the paper about ‘The Almighty,’ or ‘The
Man With the Iron Chest.’ That’s him.”
"But why do students continue to elect his course T”
“Well, it’s hard to say. He’s unpleasant. He’s vindictive. He’s unfair.
He’s a hard marker. But it’s a good course, and usually he makes things
interesting. There are so many professors who are dull. Robinson’s an ass,
hut he’s rarely dull, And he’s so nasly that you enjoy trying to get ahead
of him. And he’s so serious and so naive about it that it’s fun to razz him.
We have lots of good laughs without his knowing why.”
Said Professor Robinson, "Watkins, you must deliver the goods: That is
the seeret of my success, if you’ll pardon a personal reference. You must
make good. I have lots of students because I have a good course. I deliver
the goods. I work hard in the classroom. Many a boy has come up to me,
just as he was handing in his final examination, and said that it was the most
interesting course he ever had. Pm telling you the truth; many of them have
said that. They get me out to their fraternities and have me talk about
myself. They like me. I feel it. They like me in spite of the fact that I work
them hard and mark them low. When I go down the sidewalk, more students
speak to me than to any other teacher on the campus. That’s really so,
Watkins.” (Fictional.)
T h e eg o m ech an ism s o f the above ch a racter are sufficiently clear to

p a ss w ith o u t e x ten d ed com m en t. Such beh avior is to be .seen in th o u
sa n d s o f classroom s. I t is in c red ib ly difficult fo r th e teach er to as
ce rta in w h e n h e crosses th e lin e an d becom es rid icu lou s. The m oral
ohtuseness w ith w h ich su ch teach ers p u rsu e th e ir egotic aim s is re
m ark ab le, the m o re so since it is so o fte n cou p led w ith n eurotic k een
n ess in fe r r e tin g o u t rem ote im p lic a tio n s o f statu s. T h e p sych ology
o f the in fe r io r ity co m p le x seem s to be th e n ecessary ba ck g rou n d fo r
the u n d ersta n d in g o f these cases. T h e u n d e r ly in g sense o f in ad eq u acy
is in th em , a n d co m p en sa to ry b e h a vior an d th e basic lif e lie. S u ch
is th e egotist.
E g o in v o lv e m e n ts o f the sort u n d e r d iscu ssio n are to be fo u n d in
o th er cases w h ich w e h av e m entioned. T h e y are basic in the m artin et,
the b u lly , a n d th e o v er-ta lk ative teacher, b u t it seem ed best to illu s
tra te th e m b y a special selection. I t is h ea rten in g to reflect, th at this
ty p e h a s its o p p osite, th a t th ere are m an y teachers w ho tre a d w a r ily
am o n g th e fe e lin g s o f stu d e n ts a n d colleagues. T h e y w alk s o ftly , as
th e s a y in g is, a n d th e y g o f a r . T h e y have, learn ed h ow to disarm ,
w hich is a sp ec ia l tech n iq u e a n d one re q u irin g m uch p ractice— a v e ry
lo n g art.
T h is co m p letes o u r p resen tation o f the v a rieties o f p restige a n d
d isre p u te w h ich a tta c h to th e teaeher. M o st o f these h ave been illu s
tr a te d b y cases d ra w n fr o m actu al life a n d as f a i t h f u lly p o rtra y e d as
circu m stan ces w o u ld p e r m i t Som e readers w ill ohject, as th ey h ave
ev ery r ig h t to do, th a t th ese cases are n o t ty p ic a l. T each ers w h o rep
resent these b e h a v io r m ech an ism s in such extrem e fo r m are in fa c t
rare, a n d these cases are th erefore s ta tistic a lly a ty p ica l. B u t th e y
illu stra te co m m o n m ech an ism s a n d it seem s to h av e served the, p u r
poses o f e x p ositio n to u se them . T h e a le rt rea d er w ill also recall th a t
w c are h ere d e a lin g w ith social im a ges, w h ic h are b y d efin ition dia-
tortious of impressions of persons,- we are dealing quite, frankly with

illusion, and not with reality. We have therefore filtered most of
these cases through the minds of students, and have been less con
cerned with what these persons really were than with what others
thought they were. This is not the place for a discussion of the various
kinds of selves, and it should be clear enough that this procedure
is justifiable. W e have been concerned with one kind o f social self,
and our studies do not preclude that these same persons, seen from, an
other vantage point than that of students or colleagues, might ap
pear to wear different faces.
Ordinary teachers rarely exemplify any of these types in un-
mixed form. The successful teacher is usually experienced by his
Students with overtones o f two or three of the prestige-carrying
images, and has quite possibly some things in his personality which
suggest the images of negative value. The attitudes of students to
ward the best of teachers are in most instances ambivalent, and the
net, effect of the teacher’s personality depends upon the relative
weight of counterpoised attitudes, or upon arrangements which al
low both sorts of attitudes to be expressed. It would be misleading,
of course, to explain student attitudes toward teachers entirely on
the basis of these social images, for there are many other images, and
there is always, in addition, something of the uniquely personal which
enters into the impression which the teacher makes upon the pupil.
But when this that is uniquely personal creeps in, it is because the
institution cannot keep it out, and the Interaction which then arises
no longer pertains to those illusions of prestige and disrepute upon
which rests the institutional leadership that teachers practice. Teach
ers are shapes seen in a fog, and students have fog-bound attitudes
toward them; the shapes are human and occasionally personal, and
yet the most significant thing Is that they are seen in a fog. The analy
sis of the teacher into personal and institutional elements is a task
which cannot fail to challenge the research worker of the future.
PROJECTS
1. Make case studies of persons exemplifying all the kinds of prestige
and disrepute mentioned in the book.
2. Make ease studies of successful teachers. How far can they be inter
preted in terms of our categories? What further categories do you suggest?
3. Probe into the attitudes of students toward particular teachers as a
means o f seeing whether teacher prestige conforms to these categories or not.
List favorable and unfavorable comments, and classify.
4. Study the teaching personalities of a number of older men who do not

classify as “patriarchs.”
5. Relate instances showing the difficult situation in which the teacher
hecomes involved if she allows herself to become a love ohject to her students.
Analyze and interpret.
6. Make extended observations upon teachers who fear students.
7. Write the life history of a too good-natured teacher, in one particular
school. Was the experience repeated?
8. Analyze student attitudes toward a competent hut over-strict teacher.
9. Study carefully some teacher who has hecome a caricature. Analyze and
interpret.
19. Analyze the student relationships of a teacher whoso ego demands
interfere with his efficiency.
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) B urrow , T rigant , “ Social Images Ys. Reality,” Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, Yol. NIX, pp. 230-235.
(2 ) C arlyle , T., Heroes and Hero-Worship,
(3) F in n e y , R oss L., “ The Unconscious Social Mind,” J ou rn a l o f A p p lie d
Sociology, 1926, Vol. X, pp, 357-367.
(4) L e B on , G., The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind, Part II, Chap
ter III.
(5 ) L eopold, L., Prestige, A Psychological Study of Social Estimates.
(6) M ic he ls , R., Political Parties, pp. 64-G8.
(7) O verstreet , H. A., Influencing Human Behavior, Chapters I, II,
and IV.
(8) P etersen , J., and D avid, Q. J., The Psychology of Handling Men in
the Army.
(9) W ebster , H., Primitive Individual Ascendency, Publications of the
American Sociological Society, 1918, Vol. XII, pp. 46-60.
Chapter XVII
SOCIAL DISTANCE; BUFFER PHRASES
Social distan ce is ch aracteristic o f the p e rso n a l en tan g lem en ts o f

teachers a n d stu d en ts. I t is a n ecessity w h ere the su b o rd in a tio n o f one
person to a n oth er is req u ired , fo r distan ce m akes possible th a t reces
sion o f fe e lin g w ith o u t w h ich the a u th o rity o f anoth er is n o t tolerable.
S tu d e n ts w o u ld hate tea ch ers m ore th a n th e y do i f it w ere n o t fo r
the fa c t th at d istan ce betw een the teacher an d h is stu d e n ts m akes th e
teacher re la tiv e ly m e a n in g less as a person.
A ce rta in social d istan ce is n ecessary even w here stu d e n ts and
teachers h ave m ade the tra n sitio n fr o m secon d ary g r o u p co n tacts to
p rim a ry g ro u p contacts, w h ere lo n g use h as m e ta m o rp h ose d a ca te
gorical into a p erso n a l contact. F o r the o n ly p r im a r y g r o u p a ttitu d es
w h ich are com p atib le w ith dom inance an d su b o rd in a tio n are those
w hich g ro w u p w ith in the relation sh ip itse lf. A l l p r im a r y g ro u p a tti
tudes establish ed on a p u r e ly p erso n a l basis, w ith o u t the one p a rty
in sistin g u p o n or the o th er a c c e p tin g th e a u th o rity o f th e teach er,
are lik e ly to com e in to conflict w ith th e school-room relation sh ip . B u t
i f the p r im a r y g ro u p a ttitu d e s sp r in g u p w ith in the situ a tio n as
defined in term s o f dom inance a n d su h ord in a tio n th e y do n o t cause
the te a c h e r 's a u th o rity to be qu estion ed. P r im a r y g ro u p a ttitu d e s born
o f experien ce on th e p la y g r o u n d m a y in d eed enhance the p restige o f
the te a c h e r ; i f the teach er p e r fo r m s fa v o r a b ly in a n y resp ect, th ey
m a y enhance it m u c h ; in other cases a situ a tio n o f c o n tra d ictio n an d
reen fo rcem en t is established. B u t it sh ou ld be borne in m in d th a t
the in tim a te association o f teach ers a n d stu d e n ts in p la y , w h ereb y
p r im a r y g ro u p a ttitu d es som etim es arise to h u m an ize th e tea ch er-
p u p il relation , is possible o n ly b y v ir tu e o f the acceptan ce o f social
distance.
B etw een a d u lt a n d ch ild is an irred u c ib le social d istan ce th a t seem s
at tim es a n im passable g u lf. Th e distance arises fr o m the fa c t th a t
the a d u lt has absorbed th e h eritage o f the g ro u p , an d represen ts
th erefo re in some sense the m a n p lu s the w isd om o f all his ancestors,
w hereas the child is m u c h m ore the n a tu r a l an d u n c u ltiv a te d m a n ,
an d fr o m the fa c t th at the a d u lt h as fo u n d his place in th e w o rld
and the ch ild has not. T h e d istan ce arisin g fr o m these fa c ts is but
279
little d im in ish ed w h en the ad u lt is in revolt a ga in st the g ro u p heritage

w h ich he has assim ilated or w hen he is n ot satisfied w ith the place
w hich he has a tta in ed in th e w orld. T o the n a tu ra l distan ce between
a d u lt a n d ch ild is a d d ed a g reater distance w hen the a d u lt is a teacher
a n d the ch ild is a stu d en t, a n d th is distan ce arises m a in ly fr o m the
fa c t th at the teach er m u s t g ive ord ers to th e c h i l d ; th ey can n ot know
each other, fo r w e can n ever k n ow a p erson a t w h om w e on ly peer
th ro u g h in stitu tio n a l bars. F o r m a lity arises in th e tea ch er-p u p il
relation sh ip as a m eans o f m a in ta in in g social d istan ce, w hich in its
tu rn is a m ean s to discipline.
A lm o s t ev ery teacher h as certain fa v o r ite m ean s w h ereb y he m a in
ta in s the n ecessary distance betw een h im se lf a n d h is students. These
m e a n s are u su a lly a p a r t o f th e te a c h e r’s p e rso n a lity , and are a fu n c
tion o f his gen eral social a d ju stm en t, so th at th e y are a p p lie d w ith ou t
a n y aw areness o f th eir effect, or w ith o n ly a v a g u e realization th at
“ one m u st keep o n e ’s p la c e .’ ’ T h e y are, fo r a ll th a t, non e the less
effective. M o st im p o rta n t o f the m ean s w h ereb y distan ce is m aintain ed,
a n d m o st closely connected w ith the te a c h e r ’s p e rso n a lity , is that
classroom p roced u re which defines th e situ ation in an im personal
m a n n er an d exclu des possibilities o f sp ontan eou s hu m an interaction .
T h is is th e d r y , m a tte r -o f-fa c t, fo r m a l procedu re o f th e classroom , a
h u m an intercourse w hich gives n o th in g aud asks n o th in g of per
sonalities, b u t is a lw ay s d ire cted at th e h ig h ly intellect, ualiyed m a tter
to be stu d ied . S p o n ta n eou s h u m a n in tercou rse is o ften in con sequ en tial
a n d m e a n d e r in g ; i t goes first here an d th en there as the v ariou s a tti
tu d es o f person s are called out and in tu rn call out relevan t attitu des
o f others, b u t classroom intercou rse m u st alw ays m ore or less fo llo w
tb e cu stom , th e outline, an d the book. I f it is ra rely interesting, it. is
bearable because i t is im personal. I f it is r a r e ly in sp ired , it is not
so o ften silly a n d a b su rd as it w ould be i f it fo llo w e d the w him s of
hu m an b ein gs wTho are a b su rd an d silly . I t is an intercou rse w h ich
g ives n o th in g o f th e se lf an d reveals n oth in g o f it h u t contrariw ise
does n o t d em a n d a n y th in g o f it. Th e teacher qu estion s, th e pu pila
answ er. T h e p u p ils question, the teacher answ ers. Th e teacher assigns
tasks, the p u p ils do them. T h e p u p ils do lessons, th e teacher c r iti
cizes. O ccasio n a lly there comes a tem p ta tio n to w a n d er fr o m the path
beaten d eep b y the g e n e ra tio n s; th e teacher, m in d fu l o f the course
o f stu dy, h rjn g s the class back to th e m a tter in h a n d fo r the d a y. T h is
is th e m o st effective a n d th e m o st p a in less m ean s b y w h ich th e teach er
m a in ta in s social distance betw een h im se lf and his ch arges. A s sh op talk
has it, “ h e lets them k n ow th a t he m e a n s b u sin e ss.”
SOCIAL DISTANCE; BUFFED PHRASES 281
For many teachers a business-like leaching manner is all that is re

quired to fend off possible advances from students whieli might lead
to a diminution of the social distance between teacher and student.
Other teachers have worked out, not wholly consciously, techniques
by which approaches may be discouraged and the teacher protected
from intimate contact with students. A favored technique is to an
swer all statements regarded as improper for a teacher to receive from
students in a cold voice and in words distinctly non-committal.
Teacher and student are talking in a friendly hut still distant w ay;
the student is moved to a burst of confidence and he remarks, “ I sure
was out on a swell date last night.” The teacher answers, ‘ ‘ How inter
esting,” and passes on to another subject. Or a student comes to a
teacher with a complaint about another teacher. The teacher answers,
‘ ‘ I feel quite sure Mr. So-and-So is competent to run his classes.” The
tone is dry, uninterested, and disapproving. There is likewise a look
'which betokens social distance, and reminds the offender of the differ
ence in the formal positions of the persons concerned. In a moment
of friendliness and familiarity, the student, lays his hand upon the
teacher's shoulder. Turning, retracting his head, and gently disengag
ing himself from the contact, the teacher remarks in a frigid manner,
‘ ‘ Oh, yes, Mr. Jackson.” Or a student assumes in class a hit too re
laxed a position, or seems slightly too free with his opinions, and
the teacher looks at him coldly and at once looks away. The favorite
technique of college teachers who wish to discourage expression of
student opinions is to listen to such expressions politely, and then to
say, ‘ ‘ Hum ! Yes! Are there any other contributions?” accompanying
the words with a hored look and a slight hut evident straining to be
polite. It should be noted too that the look of animosity with which
teachers occasionally quell students who are guilty of misconduct is a
look which asserts the existence of an immense social distance, a look
which says, ‘ ‘ You are a very low form of creation. Between yon and
me there is no human bond. The distance is so great that I can look at
you with the most unrestrained animosity,”
There are many other techniques v7hich are used for the purpose of
reestablishing social distance. One is the interposition o f a command
or a fault-finding assertion in a situation which the teacher believes is
becoming too intimate. The teacher has unbent somewhat and the stu
dent is alarmingly at ease. Gently the teacher reminds him of the
formal relationship. ‘ ‘ Now, John, I want you to have that Latin
lesson tomorrow.” Or the teacher says, with friendly roughness, ‘ ‘ Now
don’t let me hear any more bad reports from you ,” or, ‘ ‘ Now see to
it th a t y o u k eep u p y o u r record, or I ’l l be r ig h t a fte r y o u .” Less

a d r o itly , she says, 11 T h ese p a p e rs sh ow th a t y o u h ave n o t heen a p p ly ,
in g y o u r se lf, J o h n . I ’m a fr a id y o u are a v e r y careless h oy . ’ ’ A certain
college p ro fe sso r w h o o fte n u n h en d s in p r iv a te saves h im s e lf p a r
tia lly fr o m a ca rry o v er o f fa m ilia r it y h y r e fe r r in g at th e en d of
th e co n feren ce to school m a tte rs a n d ta k in g the o p p o r tu n ity to de
liv e r ce rta in teach er-orien tated h its o f a d vice a n d criticism . I t is a
tech n iq u e w h ich rep resen ts an excellen t c o m p ro m ise betw een in ti
m a cy an d a u th o rity . I t is frie n d lin e ss w ith o u t a com p lete abdication
o f d istan ce a n d th e a u th o rita tiv e role. I f th e fa m ilia r it y w h ich the
stu d en t is d isp la y in g is o f a sort m o re d a n g ero u s, a n d th ere a re no
desirahle a ttitu d es to he carried over fr o m th e situ a tio n , the teach er
som etim es uses tactics less p o lite. S h e sa ys, ‘ ‘ P lease d o n ’ t le a n over m y
desk w h en y o u are ta lk in g to m e ,” or, ‘ ‘ S ta n d u p str a ig h t. D o n ’t slop
o ver s o ; n o w w h a t is it y o u cam e u p h ere to s a y ? ” I n oth er cases
w h ere th ere is n o th in g o f valu e to he p reserv ed fr o m th e situation,
the teach er m eets some h it o f se lf-re v e la tio n on the p a r t o f the stu den t
w ith th e defin ite sta tem en t th a t h e is n o t in terested a n d a rem in d er
o f th e s tr ic tly h u siness relation sh ip ex istin g hetw een th e tw o.
P e r h a p s ev ery teach er d ev elop s a d ifferen t tech n iq u e f o r m eetin g
th e situ a tio n s called fo r th b y h is p e rso n a lity in the situ a tio n in w h ich
he m u st m eet h is stu d e n ts an d in str u c t th em . T h ere are some in terest
in g in sta n ces o f such devices in fiction . O n e o f the h est o f these is in
Chimes.
The women were not as a rule pretty or even attractive. Clavercin had
determined from the stm t to keep the reactions of the classroom and the office
as sexless as possihle. It was not difficult in the majority of cases, for the
women were plain and not always tidy. Sometimes a woman would linger
after class, and when the others had drifted away would try to hring some
thing into play other than the objective, the impersonal matter hetween
student and instructor. Clavercin had a way of assembling his books and
papers while dryly restating the question that effectively suppressed this
personal appeal and quickly he found that he had gained a reputation for
being “stiff,” even “snohhish.” An incredible story went the round of the
campus to the effect that Professor Clavercin had asked his women students
not to how to him outside his classroom because he did not wish to have social
relations with them. Mrs. Crandall reported this tale to him with much
amusement,1
S tu d e n ts in th eir tu r n h a v e w a y s o f fe n d in g off u n d u e ad van ces

fr o m tea ch ers. T h e y o u n g h ave th eir reserves w h ich th e y ra rely cast
1 H e r r i c k , E o b e r t . Chim es, p. 5 8 . ( E e p r in t e d b y p e r m is s io n o f T h e M a c m illa n
C o m p a n y .) ( O f . p . 4 2 f o r o u r d is c u s s io n o f C h im es.)
SOCIAL DISTANCE; BUFFER PHRASES 283
off in the presence o f th e ir elders, a n d likew ise th e su b o rd in ate h as a n

in n e r, life in to w h ich o n ly h is eq u a ls ca n p en etrate. D e fe n c e s o f th e
young a ga in st the te a c h e r ’ s cu rio sity a n d occasion al y e a r n in g to be
accepted h y stu d e n ts con sist m a in ly in tre a tin g th e teach er as a
teacher a n d re fu s in g to consider h im otherw ise. M a n y a teacher a t
tem p tin g to m a k e h is classes person al has fe lt th e d isg u st o f c e rta in
reserved m em h ers o f h is classes, a n d n o t a fe w h a v e heen ca lled to
order h y som e q u ie t a n d r e sp e c tfu l stu d en t w ho w a n ted to ask a q u es
tion ahout th e lesson . T h e respect o f stu d en ts d iscip lin es th e teach er.
I t is im p o rta n t fo r th e tea ch er to k n ow th at social d istan ce, u n le ss
it is to he qu ite d estru ctiv e o f th e self-resp ec t o f the su b o rd in a te d
person, m u s t a lw a y s h a v e tw o sides. I f the teacher is to m a in ta in h is
own reserves he m u s t resp ect those o f M s stu den ts.
B u t it is n ot en ou gh f o r teach ers to k n ow h ow to keep th e ir s tu
dents at a d istan ce. T h e y m u st k n ow h o w to con trol th e im p a c t o f th eir
personalities u p o n stu d e n ts (a n d th e im p a c t o f stu d e n ts' p erso n a lities
upon th em selv es) in such a w a y a s to a void g iv in g u n n ec essa ry h u r t
to the sen sitive, to ohviate a n ta g on ism , to arouse th e in te re st o f s t u
dents, a n d to d ra w th em into the social p ro cess in w hich le a rn in g
takes place. W e tu r n to a n a n a ly sis o f the m ech an ism s, re v o lv in g
arou n d the use o f set p h rases, a n d con vention alized v erh a l fo r m u la e ,
b y w hich these social m a n ip u la tio n s are accom plish ed.
P erson s e n g ag ed in ce rta in k in d s o f sa le sm a n sH p are coach ed in
the p ro p e r nse o f w h a t are k n ow n as h u ffer phrases. These are p h rases
to be u sed w h en a n o b je ctio n h as heen m a d e to the p r o g r a m one is
tr y in g to p ro m o te , or w h en a q u estion h as heen raised th a t one does
not care to an sw er or is n o t p re p a re d to answ er a t th a t tim e . T h e
buffer ph rases w h ich are th en in terjected into the co n versa tio n are
phrases w h ich seem to h a v e com e in q u ite n a tu r a lly , h u t w M ch en ahle
the salesm an to g a in tim e to tM n k or to d iv e rt th e a tte n tio n o f th e
person fr o m the p o in t h e w as m alting. E v e ry o n e uses p h ra ses i n th is
w a y to g a in tim e, or he uses n oises m ad e w ith h is voice fo r th a t p u r
pose, h u t h u ffer ph rases enahle one to th in k fo r a second w h ile h e
appears to he ta k in g u p th e con versation w here the other p e r so n le ft
off. P h ra se s w M c h can he u sed to g a in tim e are su ch exp ression s as th e
fo llo w in g : “ W e l l , n ow I ’ll tell y o u ahout th a t, M r s . J o n e s ,” “ W e l l ,
M r . S m ith , i t ’s th is w a y ,” “ I t ’s ju s t like this, M r . H o p p e r ,” “ Y o u
see, M r . J o h n so n , i t 's th is w a y ,” etc. P h rases w h ich ca n h e u sed to
gain tim e a n d also to d iv e rt atten tion fr o m th e issue, or to p o stp o n e
its con sid e ra tio n u n til it is fo rg o tte n o r tak en u p in a d ifferen t co n
nection are such as th e fo llo w in g : “ N o w th a t is a g oo d p o in t, M r ,
Jones, and I am very glad indeed that yon hrought that up . .

“ I was coming to that, Mrs, Smith,” or, ' ‘ W e ’ll come to that in just
another minute, Mrs. Smith.”
Teachers are not under the same sort of pressure as the salesman,
hut they often have need of huffer phrases. On occasion, teachers learn
to apply all these devices and many more. Prohahly it is hetter, and
certainly it is more honest, for the teacher who is perplesed to take
time to think, and if he thinks of no adequate answer, to confess his
ignorance frankly and promise to remedy it. But not all teachers are
temperamentally constituted to wait five seconds hetween the time a
question is put and the time when they hegin to answer it, and as they
require rapid-fire answers of others they likewise require them of
themselves; further, the social situation of the classroom does not
always permit of deliberation, and many teachers do not feel that it
ever permits a frank confession of ignorance. Therefore teachers use
huffer phrases to gain time and to conceal ignorance. They use all
the phrases mentioned above, and in addition they have some of their
own which have a great ring of verisimilitude. They say, ‘ ‘ Let us not
anticipate, John. That will come a little later in the course.” “ Now
when I get through talking I think you will understand that all
right.” ‘ ‘ I think we had hetter stick to the lesson, John. Now what
were the issues in the presidential campaign of 1832?”
There are other sorts of phrases which are used in a similar manner
hut which do not merit so cynical a presentation. They are sometimes
used to gain time, too, hut the time which they seemingly waste is
required fo r transition, and heneath their apparent waste is a real
achievement in maintaining a friendly tone and avoiding antagonistic
rapport. They are huffe.r phrases hecause they arc rather artificially
interjected into the conversation, and hecause they postpone the
actual statement of the teacher’s opinion or enahle him to hide his
actual attitude. But the dissemhling in them is the dissemhling of one
who chooses to reveal himself gradually in order to he the more fairly
evaluated, and the time that such words waste is time that is needed
for the other person to change his mind. Artificial they are, certainly,
hut an artificiality of speech that enahles another to retire gracefully
from an erroneous position is justifiable. Getting along with people
is mainly saving their faces.
In the simplest ease, the teacher uses certain quite formalized and
artificial phrases to crystallize the interest o f the student and to gain
a further rapport with him. One says, ‘ ‘ That’s a very good point, and
I am glad you hrought that up. It deserves serious consideration.” In
SOCIAL DISTANCE; BUFFER FHRASES 285
a discipline such as sociology, it is often possihlc to reply with perfect

honesty to a student question in this wise: “ Yes, Mr. Jones, that is a
good question, and I am glad it occurs to you hecause it shows that
you are doing some thinking of your own. It is one of the great
unsolved questions of human nature (or of social organization), I
imagine that many of us in this line of work have hecn puzzled by
it at one time or another. Now my opinion is . . . (directly contrary
to that of the student).’ ’
I f one wishes to go further with such a technique, and to take ad
vantage of the opportunity thus afforded to impart information,
advance an argument, or instill a favorahle attitude, he may use the
question as a means of catching hold of the student. This is done
through the use of the technique of persuasion. One says, as ahove,
“ Yes, Mr. Jones, that is a good question. It covers an important point,
etc. Your question seems to reflect a certain point of view, which 1
helieve could he stated in this way . . . Now that is a very tenahle
point of view, and one for which many arguments may he advanced.
It is vastly superior to the unenlightened attitude which holds that
. . . At one time I was strongly committed to your present point of
view. Many ahle students of society still think that way. Their argu
ments are very convincing, and I helieve that those arguments are
perfectly sound as far as they go. The principal arguments are . . .
Those are excellent, arguments, and I can see how they convince many
persons. To me, they seem to fall down, or to fail to he entirely con
vincing, hecause they leave out of consideration certain other im
portant. matters (or certain facts, or certain emphases indicated hy
modern researches). But a few years ago we all hclieved that (feeble
mindedness was a principal cause of crime). It seemed reasonable, and
it looked as if it were true. But So-and-So came along and proved
conclusively that, according to the army tests, there was the same
percentage of feeblemindedness in the general population as was re
vealed hy the same tests in the prisons. The inference from that, you
see, is pretty unmistakable, if we are to helieve that the tests really
test intelligence, which they may not do. . . . This conclusion was
corroborated hy other investigations which showed the same result.
Now we are almost forced to helieve that we must, look elsewhere for
the fundamental cause of crime.’ ’
This is the technique of persuasion, which strives to convince with
out argument.. In an argument the principle of hipolarity operates,
whereby the persons opposed hecome more convinced of the correct
ness of their own opinion the longer the argument, lasts. That is why
the story about the Democrat and the Republican who argued for six
teen hours about politics and at the end of the time found that their
positions were completely reversed, so that the Democrat was a Re
publican and the Republican was a Democrat, is a funny story. When
we persuade, we do not allow a discussion to become an argument.
One using the technique of persuasion avoids committing the other
person to a point, of view, because he avoids identifying himself with
the opposite point of view. Or, one commits the other person to a
series of successive compromises which end by reversing his position.
It makes the reversal of opinion, however, dependent upon the attain
ment of a higher synthesis of thought and attitude, and makes the
person convinced feel that the volte face came out. of his own attitudes
and enables him to hide from himself the fact that his conversion
was really brought about by another. This is the same idea as is
expressed in the principle of salesmanship which Tceommends that
the salesman should enable a customer who has advanced an objec
tion to back out gracefully. A further parallel between teaching
practice and salesmanship may be found in the use that both can make
of objections. Objections are used hy clever salesmen to draw their
victim into the situation, so that he can be sold, and to open his mind
to a volley of arguments which he has no time to evaluate because of
their number. The teacher, without resorting to the chicane of the
salesman, may utilize the objections of the student to arouse interest
and to obtain a more complete emotional participation in the life of
the classroom. Objections are valuahle to the teacher, as to the sales
man, in another way also, because of the inference of the person who
states a definite objection that if that, objection were but removed
he would find it possible to accept the other person’s point of view.
This line of reflection brings up the suhject of foolish questions.
A realization of the value, for the teacher, of questions fairly met and
intelligently answered has prompted some writers to say that there
are no foolish questions. Probahly it is good for teachers to be told
that there are no foolish questions, for more of them err by consid
ering serious questions foolish than by taking foolish questions seri
ously. Most questions, moreover, are honest in that they reveal a real
perplexity or spring out of a real interest of the student, and in so
far as they are honest they should be given an honest answer. Some
times they are poorly phrased, but a teacher will gain more by trying
to understand them than hy brushing them aside because of technical
defects in wording. The questions may not he as much to the point,
from the teacher’s point of view, as questions would be which the
teacher could ask about the same subject, but the fact that a question
is asked shows that it is important in the student’s mental context.
We apprehend the universe by facing1 and resolving a succession of
dilemmas; our adult dilemmas grow out of our infantile dilemmas
by slow gradations. We must take these dilemmas in their turn, and
this is precisely what the intelligent answering of student questions
enables the teacher to do. It should be remembered, too, that nothing
kills student interest so quickly and so completely as a failure of the
teacher to meet and deal with honest questions, or any evidence Of
disrespect for student contributions. When this occurs, it is the more
regrettable because it usually happens to the more alert and self-active
members of a class.
But there are, to be sure, foolish questions. Every teacher has heard
them, and it is folly to argue otherwise. There are questions which
reveal a failure to prepare the daily lesson, questions intended to
divert the teacher’s attention or to kill time, questions reflecting a
total and irremediable failure to comprehend subject matter, ques
tions intended to impress the teacher, questions intended to amuse the
class, questions intended to trip up the teacher, questions intended to
show up the teacher, questions asked merely because the person asking
them wants to say something. A wag has remarked that college stu
dents ask questions for three reasons, to show how much they know,
to show up the instructor, and to find out something. Two of these
varieties would have to be treated as foolish. It should be noted that
there are many more foolish questions in the established disciplines
than in those not. so well worked out. In mathematics and Latin, for
example, subject matter is well worked out, and the teacher is under
considerable pressure to get a certain amount of work done, but this is
not true in sociology or the various arts and sciences of business
administration.
Every variety of foolish question has to be treated differently.
Every sort of answer to every sort of question starts a process of per
sonal interaction which may be projected into infinity. The problem
of the manner in which such questions may best be answered is com
plicated, and an exposition of possibilities would be extremely long.
A general principle of value is that every such question must be an
swered in a way which does not involve the teacher in an undesirable
social interaction, interferes as little as possible with the teacher-
directed process, sets up no alternative process, and i f possible draws
the student back into the teacher-directed social process of the class
room. To take but one example, students often aok questions in order
that they may score off the teacher as humorists; if they succeed,
they will repeat the action, and a social process will be initiated in
which the student attacks the teacher and the teacher defends, suffers,
or wards off the attacks. The process may last for years. A different
process is initiated if the teacher attempts a retort in kind, as teachers
are so often tempted, to do, Barely does such a retort “ squelch” the
student more than momentarily. More often the student thinks of the
retort as an invitation to join in a contest of repartee, and enters glee
fully into the game. The battle of wit is on, and the remarks become
ever more pointed and more personal, and they constitute more and
more an attack upon the teacher’s dignity. Until one morning when
the teacher has a headache he loses his temper and punishes the stu
dent for being “ fresh.’ ' The next day the teacher feels better and
the process hegins all over again. Many experienced teachers feel
that it is better to ignore these harhod shafts of student humor when
ever possible. Thus they remain aloof from student-initiated social
life and refuse to he drawn into such contests as we have mentioned.
No doubt this is the best general practice, hut in such cases a contest
sometimes arises out of the student’s determination that the teacher
shall recognize him as a wit and the teacher’s determination not to
recognize him. (One such instance is described below. Sec p. 344.)
Wliat tho teacher needa is some gesture of finality which will put
an end to such a process. Sometimes formal punishment serves this
purpose, hut it is always expensive, and it can only he used for more
serious cases. A better means is some remark or gesture which shows
that the teacher understands fully what is afoot, is not gulled by any
pretence, intends to retain control of the situation, and will meet any
definite challenge to his authority.
But we must return to our consideration of concrete devices for
securing and maintaining the proper group alignment and the proper
combination o f social distance and involvement in the social situation.
There are certain classroom tricks which ill-prepared and lazy
teachers sometimes employ, hut they are scarcely worthy of our atten
tion. There is that harrister’s trick, the trick of the person who has a
limited time in which to speak and hut one good point, to make, the
trick of wasting time until the last five minutes and then presenting
that one good point with much gusto, leaving the audience to regret
that one did not have the time to develop one’s arguments further.
And there is that favorite trick o f all personally inadequate and
poorly prepared teachers everywhere; to avoid questions which might
prove embarrassing, lecture. But our major concern is not with these.
SOCIAL DISTANCE; BUFFER PERASES 289
A point of some importance concerning the didactic manner is that

it is one that throws out grappling hooks to draw the other person
near and to hold him without possibility of escape until the teacher
can take possession of his mind and deposit therein a cargo o f useful
information. Would you know what the mechanism is which the
teacher employs? We have illustrated it already. The teacher learns
to throw out little questions and hints which put the other person in a
receptive mood or place him under social compulsion to listen, and
those are his grappling irons. The hutcher and the teacher were dis
cussing mackerel. The butcher was busy, and the teacher was not
quite certain that he would remain to hear all his story. Perhaps it
would he necessary to make sure.
“ Do you know how they fish for m ackerel?" asked the teacher.
“ No,” said the hutcher, showing only a polite interest.
“ W ell,” said the teacher, “ I ’ll tell you. I have fished for mackerel.
You go out . . . ”
That, is how teachers fish for men. That is one of the mechanisms
which they employ to make it easier to cram knowledge down the
throats of others. First a ((liest,ion that elicits interest or commits the
person to a statement that he wants to know. In the latter form it
would be, for the above example, “ Would you like to know how they
fish for mackerel?” The indicated answer is “ Y es.” An impasse is
reached if the other person says, “ No,” or if he says, “ Yes, I know
how they fish for mackerel. You go out in a little boat . . . ” But no
body ever answers “ N o” and few care to take the teacher’s informa
tion out o f his mouth. When the answer has been given, the teacher
goes on to tell his story; he has been invited to tell it. But really it. is a
technique of forcing others to listen.
Another form of this technique utilizes the believe it' or not kind of
interest as a means of drawing students into the social interaction of
the classroom. There is a parade before the circus. An interesting fact
(even if not very directly related to the subject of the lesson) is
displayed in order to excite the curiosity of the class at the beginning
of the hour. “ Do you know,” asks the English teaeher, “ that forlorn
hope really means a desperate band?” Her students, who are used to
her triclrs, listen with mild interest. She continues, “ I quote from A
Dictionary of Modern English Usage, by H. W. Fowler, a book with
which all o f yon who aspire to use English with discrimination should
become familiar. Dr. Fowler says, concerning forlorn hope: ‘ Forlorn
hope is not an abstract phrase transferred hy metaphor to a storming
party, but has that concrete sense in its own right, and only gets the
290 THE SOCIOLOOY OE TEACHING
abstract, sense of desperate cbance, etc., by misunderstanding. Hope

is not the English word, but is a misspelling of the Dutch hoop
(equivalent to) English heap-, the forlorn hope is the devoted or lost
band, those who sacrifice themselves in leading the attack. The spell
ing of hope once fixed, the mistake was inevitable; hut it is well to
keep the original meaning in mind. ’ ’ ’
W ith a slight hreak she continues, "N ow , let’s see, we were dis
cussing changes in the use of words, weren’t we? That makes an excel
lent starting point for today’s lesson.” Such teachers have learned to
cram themselves full of interesting bits of information which serve
to inspire curiosity in the uninitiated.
PROJECTS
1. Make comparative observations upon teachers who form friendships
with students early in the school year and upon teachers who estahlish such
intimacies later. By this means test the generalization that primary group
attitudes which spring up within the institutional situation of dominance
and subordination are less fatal to the teacher’s authority than primary
group attitudes which arise hefore this definition of the situation is established.
2. Record the fluctuations of social distance in a classroom during the
course of a single day. What incidents seem interpretable as attempts of
students to diminish social distance? Observe carefully the hehavior of the
teacher when this distance is threatened. Present your analysis to tho teacher
observed and record his reactions.
3. Compare the classroom procedure of two teachers of the same suhject,
the one a highly formal teacher and the other informal. Evaluate the learn
ing product in these two classes.
4. Record the devices used hy teachers to “squelch” students who obtrude
too much of their personalities into the classroom.
5. Study the use of students’ first names hy teachers. Analyze in terms of
social distance. Does faculty practice affect student usage?
6. Study attacks made hy teachers upon the reserves of students, and means
used hy students to restore distance.
7. Make extended observations upon the technique of a successful life-
insurance salesman. Note his use of huffer phrases and his manner of
turning objections to his own advantage. Analyze and interpret.
8. Make observations similar to those ahove upon a successful school
teacher. Trace differences and parallels.
9. List the reactions of a number of teachers when they are asked to an
swer difficult questions. Are these reactions stereotyped?
10. Analyze the classroom situation revolving about a teacher who believes
that “ there are no foolish questions.” Compare with the situation iD the class
room of a teacher who handles such questions impatiently. Evaluate the
learning product in each case.
11. Employ the technique of persuasion in convincing a fellow student of

some proposition in which he does not helievc. Record the conversation.
12. Observe the course of an ordinary argument on politics or religion.
Contrast, argument and persuasion hy means of sociological analysis.
13. Ohserve the devices by which persons usually considered disarming
avoid arguments.
14. Give examples of grappling-hook devices used by teachers, clergymen,
salesmen, and others.
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) B oqardus, E. S., “ The Personality' Clash and Social Distance,” Journal
of Applied Sociology, Vol. XI, No. 2, pp, 166-174.
(2) D aw son , C. A., and G e i t t s , W. E., An Introduction to Sociology,
pp. 307-311.
(3) MA.CPHERSON, W ., The Psychology of Persuasion.
(4 ) P are , R. E., and B urqess, E. W ., An Introduction to the Science of
Sociology, Chapter V.
(5) P a r e , R. E., “ The Concept of Social Distance,” Journal of Applied
Sociology, Vol. VIII, No. 6, pp, 339-344.
(6) P oole, W. C., “ Distance in Sociology,” The American Journal of
Sociology, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 09-104.
C hapter XVIII
THE DEFINITION OF THE SITUATION
Omi of the sociological concepts most useful for the understanding

of the life of human beings in and about the school is that of the
definition of the situation. This concept we owe to W. I. Thomas.
Although loosely defined, it is a valuable concept because it designates
certain real aspects of psychic and social life, and explains phenomena
otherwise without significance.
Strictly speaking, the definition of the situation is a process. It is
the process in which the individual explores the behavior possibilities
of a situation, marking out particularly the limitations which the
situation imposes upon his behavior, with the final result that the indi
vidual forms an attitude toward the situation, or, more exactly, in the
situation. In another sense, however, we use the phrase, the definition
o f the situation, to denote the actual concrete situation as it has been
defined, or to denote certain psychic products of group life which are
left as residua from the definition of many situations. Many persons
living together in a common group life for many overlapping gen
erations have mapped out clearly the limitations of behavior inherent
in the social situations most common in their culture. From their
experience has arisen a consensus concerning what is and what is not
thinkable in those situations. From these situations as they have been
defined have been generalized certain group products which have in
turn become important conditions of life in that group. We may
refer to these group products as definitions of situations. When we
take an abstracting attitude toward these group products we may
think of them as folkways, mores, taboos, collective representations,
group attitudes, laws, etc. But all these things affect the individual
only as they are incorporated into the situations o f bis life; they
affect him by virtue of the fact that while he is working out Ms atti
tude toward the situations of his own life he is influenced by certain
preexisting definitions of situations; they affect him only in so far as
he becomes aware of and assimilates those preexisting definitions of
situations. Those group products that we knpw as folkways, mores,
etc., are preconditions and necessary elements of the definition of
the situation which the individual works out for himself.
2D2
THE DEFINITION OF THE SITUATION 293
From a slightly different point of view further looseness of expres

sion appears. Actually the definition of the situation, as a process by
which the individual explores and feels out through behavior and
thought the behavior possibilities of a situation, is a process most
intimately subjective, and one that must be worked out anew in the
mind of every human being, But because one person can greatly
affect the definition of the situation which another arrives at, we are
accustomed to say that one person defines a situation for another.
The attitudes of others are in fact the most important limitations upon
the behavior of any one person, and they are also the most impor
tant inducements to any particular action. The attitudes of others are
dynamic elements in the undefined situation which presents itself to
any individual, and as a result of those attitudes the individual may
come to define the situation in one way and not in another. Therefore
we may say that one person defines a situation for another.
Before proceeding further with our elaboration o f this concept we
turn to Thomas for a statement of his views:
Preliminary to any self-determined act of behavior there is always a stage
of examination and deliberation which we may call the definition of the
situation. And actually not only concrete acts are dependent upon the defini
tion of the situation, but gradually a whole life-policy and the personality
of the individual himself follow from a series of such definitions. . . .
The family is the smallest social unit and the primary defining agency.
As soon as the child has free motion and begins to pull, tear, meddle, and
prowl, the parents begin to define the situation through speech and other
signs and pressures: ifBe quiet,” “ Sit up straight,” “Blow your nose,” “Mind
your mother,” “Be kind to sister,” etc. This is the real significance of Words
worth’s phrase, “ Shades of the prison bouse begin to close upon the growing
child.” His wishes and activities begin to be inhibited, and gradually, by
definitions within the family, by playmates, in the school, in the Sunday
School, in the community, through reading, by formal instruction, by in
formal signs of approval and disapproval, the growing member learns the
code of his society.1
This behavioristic account of the process of the definition of the

situation seems essentially correct. One might venture to change its
emphasis in two ways: (1) by substituting for its atomistic conception
a more explicit statement of the fact that every situation affecting the
individual is organized into some kind of totality, usually a wholly
unambiguous totality, and (2) by allowing fo r tbc self-activity, often
1 T h o m a s , W . I . , T h e U n a d ju sted Gvrl, p p . 4 2 f f . ( R e p r in t e d b y p e r m is s io n o f
L i t t l e , B r o w n , & C o m p a n y .)
th e in te llig e n t s e lf-a c t iv it y , o f th e in d iv id u a l w h o is le a r n in g th e defi

n itio n o f a situ a tio n .
T h ere is, indeed, a p lac e fo r s e lf-a c tiv ity in a possible h eh avioristie
acco u n t o f the d efin ition o f th e situ ation . T h e in d iv id u a l fa c in g a
situ a tio n w ith a r e la tiv e ly rig id social fra m ew o rk m ak es a larg e n u m -
h er o f in c ip ie n t a tte m p ts to a d j u s t ; those n o t a d a p te d to h is p u rp ose
f a i l a n d are e lim in a t e d ; those w h ich are a d ap ted p ersist a n d are at
le n g th assem h led in to the in d iv id u a l’s final a d ju stm e n t. B u t i t is
su h m itte d th a t th is is n o t a n a lto g e th e r tr u th fu l acco u n t o f th e m a n
n e r in w h ich a d efin ition o f a situ a tio n is a rriv e d a t ; in tellig en ce
en ters in to the process, a n d there ensu es a d y n a m ic re o rg a n iza tio n o f
th e p a rts o f the situ a tio n in to a p a tte rn . I n sh ort, it is su h m itted
t h a t a G e sta ltist accou n t o f the process o f the d efin ition o f th e situ a tio n
is in som e resp ec ts su p erio r to th e h eh avioristie accou n t.
I t is c le a r th a t the defin ition s o f situ ation s w h ich the ch ild m u st
lea rn are in f a c t a p a rt o f cu ltu re , an d are ca rried h y th e gro u p an d
im posed u p o n the ch ild th ro u gh g ro u p a c tiv ity . W h e n w e tu rn o u r
a tte n tio n m ore n a r r o w ly to the su h je e tiv e a c tiv ity o f th e in d iv id u a l
w h o is w o r k in g ou t a d efin ition o f a situ a tio n , o r, i f one p re fe rs, is
a ssim ila tin g th e d efin ition o f a situ a tio n w h ich h is g ro u p is im p o sin g
u p o n h im , w e fin d th at the process resolves its e lf in to certa in other
elem ents. E le m e n ts im p lic it in the process o f the defin ition o f th e
situ a tio n a r e :
(1 ) T h e co n figu ration in w h ich it is p erceived .

(2 ) T h e a sp ect o f th e situ a tio n to w a r d w h ich action is directed.
(3 ) T h e a ttitu d e or a c tiv ity w h ich com es o u t o f th e in teraction he-
tw ee n in d iv id u a l a n d situ ation a n d th e org a n ization o f h im s e lf
w h ich th e in d iv id u a l effects w ith re g a r d to th e situ ation .
M u c h o f th e im p o rta n c e o f th e defin ition o f th e situ a tio n in h u m a n

a ffa irs arises fr o m the co n fig u ra tio n a l elem ent in v o lv ed in the process.
W h e n a s itu a tio n has once heen seen in a p a r tic u la r con figu ration , it
te n d s to he seen in th at co n figu ra tio n ever a fter, an d it is v e r y difficult
to see it in a n y oth er. T h e c o n figu ra tio n first established m a y he said
to in h ih it th e fo r m a tio n o f o th er con figu rations. T h e changelessness
o f cu stom arises in p a r t fr o m the f a c t th a t we can n ot see th ose a ltern a
tives o f h eh av io r w h ich are c o n tra ry to th e fo lk w a y s o f o u r g r o u p ; w e
h ave org a n ized th e situ a tio n , a n d ourselves w ith referen ce to it, in
a n o th er co n figu ration . A s co n figu ra tio n s d iffe r in th eir sta h ility , w e
fin d som e defin ition s o f situ a tio n s w h ich are ea sily resolved, w hereas
THE DEFINITION OP THE SITUATION 295
others are stu h h orn a n d resistan t to ch an ge. T h e e x tra o r d in a ry r ig id

ity o f ce rta in c u ltu re s m a y thus arise fr o m th e f a c t th a t th e y are
organized in to stah le con figu rations. F u r th e r , as a n im p o rta n t ele
m ent o f in tellig en ce is the a h ility to h last th e u n its o f co n figu ra tio n s
loose fr o m th eir co n tex t and to recom hine th em in d ifferen t p a tte rn s,
we find th e in te llig e n t ev er the (r e la tiv e ly ) em an cip a te d . F r o m th is
con figu rational elem en t, too, arises in p a r t o u r w e ll-k n o w n la c k o f
ability to d isco ver m a n y th in g s w h ich are close to u s ; th e th in g s w e do
not see a p p e a r in o u r vision , h u t w ith th e a rra n g e m e n t o f fo r e g ro u n d
and b a ck g ro u n d or o f w holes a n d su h w h oles su ch th a t th e y d o n o t
take sh ape as definite entities.
T h e aspect o f the situ a tio n to w ard w hich action is d ire cted is also
a fa c to r o f im p o rta n ce. W e d ire ct o u r a tten tion to w ard t h a t w h ich i s
in th e fo re g ro u n d , a n d w e overlook th at w h ich is i n th e b a ck g ro u n d
o f the situ a tio n a s i t is o rgan ized into a p a r tic u la r co n figu ra tio n . T h e
fo reg ro u n d te n d s to lie, in a con figu ration w h ich m akes u p th e defini
tion o f a situ a tio n , th e p o in t o f least resistan ce. W e d irect o u r a tten
tion a n d o u r a ctio n to w a r d th a t w h ich ca n he ch a n ged , an d w e do n o t
attem p t to a lter ch an geless th in g s. O n ly so, o f course, ca n w e realize
ourselves a t a ll, a n d th a t law o f a tten tio n is also a la w o f m e n ta l
h ygiene. T h e a ttitu d e o r a c tiv ity w h ich com es ou t o f th e situ a tio n is
the th ir d elem en t w h ich w e h ave n oted . W e th in k o f th e a ttitu d e as
beh avior or in cip ien t h eh av io r r e su ltin g fr o m th e o rg a n ization of
the situ a tio n in th e in d iv id u a l’s m in d a n d th e co n cu rren t o rg a n iza tio n
o f the in d iv id u a l w ith referen ce to the situ a tio n .
T h e process h y w h ich the in d iv id u a l w orks o u t a d efin ition o f th e
situ ation , or a n a ttitu d e to w ard a situ a tio n , seem s to c o n fo rm closely
to K o h le r ’s con cept o f closure, w h ich is defined as f o l l o w s : “ I n e v e ry
process w h ich issues a t a ll in an en d -situ a tio n , in d e p e n d e n t o f tim e
(a lth o u g h it is possihle to a p p ly th is to even ts o ccu rrin g in t im e ) , the
m ode o f d istrib u tio n [o f en erg y ] sh ifts in th e direction o f a m in im u m
o f con figu ra tiv e e n e r g y .” 1 T h e a ttitu d e inheres in the defin ition o f
the situ a tio n as “ the answ er sticks i n th e q u e stio n .” “ Q u estion s d e
m a n d in g th o u g h t arouse con figu ration al processes w h ich are in c o m
plete a n d ca ll f o r closu re. T h e an sw er th u s ‘ stic k s’ in th e qu estion . A
good qu estion an d a good an sw er are n o t m a tte rs o f c h a n c e : th e y fit
each oth er as the k e y a n d the lock. O n ce th e fo r m su g g e ste d h y the
question is a p p reh en d ed , th ere is a su d d en Einschnappen; th e in n e r
h ond a p p ears, h a rin g th e stru c tu re , and the con figu ration is
1Quoted by Kelson, Harry, The Psychology o f Gestalt, p. 45.

completed.” 1 In a manner exactly analogous the attitude is interlocked

with the definition of the situation.
The social role, like the definition o f the situation, appears in the
mind by a sudden Einschnappen. In a simple society, one always
prays, or one always gets drunk on certain occasions, but it sometimes
happens in our more complicated life that an individual enters a new
group quite uncertain as to which of these be will be called upon to
do. Who has not, when faced with a novel situation, felt an unease
and a sensation of gawky discomfort, and who has not felt these
suddenly dissipated by a flashing awareness of his role? The problem
of social adjustment is the problem of finding a role. The definition
of the situation determines one’s role and sets up the delimitations of
his self-feelings. The role appears in the social situation, as the atti
tude in any situation, in accordance with configurational processes
conforming to the concept o f closure.
Personality develops through the growth of adaptations to a finely
graded series of definitions of situations. (Prom discontinuity and
discordance in the definitions of situations presented to the individual
arise most of our mental conflicts.) The evolution of situations, and of
definitions of situations, goes from simple to complex, with occa
sional breakdowns (in which complex wholes, of which the structure
may or may not have been perceived at one time, break up into sim
pler units) apparently determined by the laws of attention. Within
existing situations, too, there may he a growth o f structure attended
by a corresponding refinement of adaptation. In accordance with
general principles of configurational change, human situations ad
vance from chaotic and confused groups of elements with a minimum
of structuration to more and more complex and clearly organized
structures.
Without embarking upon any more extended discussion of the
concept of the definition of the situation as an important bit of social
theory, we may remark that this concept hecomcs important in our
interpretation of the social life of the school in a number of different
ways. First, the school may he viewed as an agency for imposing pre
formed definitions of situations. Education, as has heen truly said, is
the art of imposing upon the young; it is the art of imposing upon
the young the definitions of situations current and accepted in the
group which maintains the schools. The school is thus a gigantic
agency of social control. It is part, of its function to transmit to the
1 H d a o n , op. t it., p . 51.
young the attitudes of the elders, which it docs by presenting to them

social situations as the elders have defined them.
Again, and this is our m ajor concern at this point, the social life
of the schools may he seen as a mass of situations to he defined hy
or for the persons involved in them. The many and various social
situations of school life may be defined, as it seems, in three w ays:
(1) Spontaneously hy students or teachers, or by students and

teachers.
(2) B y teachers, chiefly with reference to standards current in
society outside the school or current in the teacher group.
(3) By students, chiefly with reference to standards current outside
the school.
From the fact that situations may be defined in different ways and
by different groups arises a conflict o f definitions of situations, and
we may see the whole process o f personal and group conflict which
centers about the school as a conflict of contradictory definitions of
situations. The fundamental problem of school discipline may he
stated as the struggle of students and teachers to establish their own
definitions o f situations in the life of the school.
We see many undefined situations confronting the individual in the
school. The new teacher confronts a situation wholly undefined, and
he has very little idea as to the details of the definition that wonld
be desirable from his own point of view. The experienced teacher who
faces a new class faces an undefined situation, and it is part o f his
job to impose his definition o f the situation upon the class quicltly,
before any alternatives have had an opportunity to be considered.
The child in school for the first time also faces a situation with whose
definition he is not familiar, and it is sometimes long before he can
understand what is expected o f him in school.
It may he well to consider in detail the process hy which some of
these persons work out satisfactory definitions of school situations,
impose those definitions upon others, or adjust to the definitions put
forward by others. Many teachers have learned that it pays to spare
themselves no unpleasantness in order to establish and make secure
their dominance in the first few days and weeks of school. They exert
themselves particularly to define the situation as one in which the
teacher is dominant. Until this definition of the situation is accepted,
there will he some conflict between teacher and student, and some
hostility of students toward the teacher; the problem will he more
severe in a school that has previously been poorly disciplined. Until
his definition of the situation is thoroughly established in the minds

of his students, the teacher cannot relax. After the first few weeks
in which conflict over the definition of the situation has heen severe
the hostility toward the teacher dies down; this is in most cases owing
to the operation of two factors: use and acceptance of the situation
makes teacher domination hearahle to the students, and the teacher
relaxes his grip slightly, just enough to give friendly attitudes a
chance to spring up within the situation. But these friendly attitudes
must always spring up within the situation as defined in terms of
teacher domination; if they spring up outside it, they conflict with it
and operate to overthrow the so painfully established social order.
The following is a description of the technique employed by one
teacher who adhered to the policy we have just outlined.
Each o f tbe four schools I have worked in had a “ hard name.” One bad
"ru n a teacher off.” Another had told their last teacher to mind her own
business. A third had taken the tires from the principal's ear and hidden
them. Tbe fourth had locked the principal in the classroom. I got m y first
school because I was the only man teacher availahle in the county, and the
district wanted some one who they thought could “ handle the kids.” The
others I got on the reputation I made at the first school fo r heing a
“ handler.”
O f course I wanted to make good in each place— partly fo r m y own iuture
good, partly because everyone expected me to make good. Perhaps I sensed
tbe perilous equilibrium situation in the school. Anyw ay, m y desire for suc
cess, the fa ct that I am a small man, and the feeling that i f the teacher isn’t
the boss he’ll he run out or have a hard year ahead o f him, made me attack
the discipline prohlem with especial vigor. I was afraid, yes, desperately
afraid each time I went to a new school. I t wasn’t so much the children that
I feared or the problems ahead o f me, hut the whole new situation frightened
me. So I thought and worried a lot ju st hefore the first day o f school, and
when that first day finally came, I went at things almost savagely, almost
fiercely, as a man in a trap fighting for his life.
Outside o f getting studies started as quickly as possible I did little the
first four days o f the first week. I just stood around getting the lay o f tbe
iand. The students were heginning to think I was a washout as a principal.
B u t hy Friday o f that first week I had gathered enough material to grind
my ax on, and I went on the warpath. For the four or five weeks following
I was meaner than h— . Nothing the students in m y classes did in the way
o f studying and preparing lessons suited me. I scolded them i f I found a t
uncrossed or a paper not folded straight. I made them do much work over,
made them stay after school, gave them poor grades— did anything to he
disagreeable.
“Now listen here,” I used to say, “ there are several people in this class
ffbo don’ t seem to be here fo r business. Now I ’d ju st as soon you folks

-wouldn’ t come hack to class any more. Y o u ’ll eventually get put out o f the
elass anyway. N o, I don’ t care at all to have that kind o f students in my
classes, and they don’ t usually stay Jong either.
“ A nd hy the way, some o f these same people don’t seem to be in school
for business either. I ’d advise you not to come to school i f that’s the way you
feel. There’ll he no monkey work this year. W e ’re all here fo r husiness. Old
H an Bishop and not Mr. Nelson is running things here this year, and we’re
not going to he hothered with such people at all. W e absolutely will not fool
with you. I 'd advise you to get out o f here right now.
“ O f course we’re not trying to drive any one away, but we ju st won’t
put up with you. I f you don’ t change your attitude toward school, it’ll just
he here's your bat and books. Hom e you go. W e don’t want you around. I f
you feel different by tomorrow, come hack; i f you don’t, stay borne.”
Always after such an initial tirade, the pupils, especially the big boys,
would look as i f they would like to say, “ W h ew l So hot, fo r a little man.”
They never did, however; i f they bad, m y story would have heen entirely
different. A s to discipline, I contested almost everything o f any consequence
that happened during those first few weeks. I hawled them out mercilessly,
sarcastically, and impersonally. I usually made a hig boy or two cry with
my sharp tongue and cuffed a fellow or so whom I caught in the act. I was
bold, brazen, and despotic, and I never understood why they bore with me.
I often wondered what I should do i f all, or even one, would not obey me
when I ordered. O f course I would have sent him home, hut suppose he
wouldn’ t have gone. I never answered the question in my own mind nor bad
an occasion where I had to solve the prohlem in practice. I ’m afraid m y
system huilt on hluff would have broken down at that point, fo r I should
not have whipped a girl, and I could not have whipped some o f the
larger hoys.
I never was unreasonable or personal to any great extent, however, and
I never acted without an excuse for action; hut give me an excuse and m y
action followed swiftly and directly on the heels o f the misdemeanor. I
usually kept a hig distance between myself and the students during school
hours. Thus I gave the school plenty to talk ahout and think ahout over
the first week-end o f the academic year and fo r several week-ends following.
They thought me the meanest, the worst-tempered, the most mentally unbal
anced slave driver who bad ever set foot in their school huilding. They
would have liked to do a lot o f things to me i f they had dared, hut m y per
sistence had worn down their resistance. Besides, they were never sure how
I ’d take a thing or what I ’d do next. A fte r I had thus undefined and re
defined the situation for them, I would slacken up gradually until, toward
the beginning o f the second semester, at which time the situation became
quite democratic, democratic with this background o f control. About Christ
mas time it was rumored in the neighborhood that I wasn’t such a bad fellow
after all. At the end of the year almost everyone was asking me hack. (Life
history document of a school teacher.)
T h e above m a y serve as an illu stra tio n o f the tech n iq u e about which

we have been ta lk in g . T h ere is no qu estion , h ow ever, th at th is teacher
in jected too m u c h u n p leasan tn ess into the process a n d th a t he w as far
too ex cited to g e t th e best resu lts. T h e ideal use o f th is technique
d epen ds u p o n a stahle p e r so n a lity w h ich m a k es u n ifo r m dem ands,
assum es th a t other p erson s w ill conform , to th em , seeks no u n p leasan t
ness and avo id s non e, b u t h as sufficient in sigh t in to the social life of
the school room to differen tiate betw een situ a tio n s th at call fo r u n
p lea san t m eth ods and those w hich do n ot.
L ik ew ise the ch ild in school fo r the first tim e, or in a new school,
or a new gra d e, m eets situ a tio n s fo r w h ich h is p rev io u s experience
fu rn ish es him w ith no adequate definition. H e th en either w orks out
a defin ition in co llab oration w ith bis fe llo w s or he accep ts the defini
tio n o f the situ a tio n which the teacber offers, l l o w th is occu rred in
one instance is in te re stin g ly to ld in th e fo llo w in g d o c u m e n t:
Cousin Frances sits with the circle of kindergarten students. It is her

first day of school. Thus far all has gone well, and Miss Lamh, the teacher,
has made the little girl feel quite at ease. From the first moment that Frances
entered Miss Lamh’s room, the whole new situation which she found herself
a part of—the whole of her new surroundings—and the whole of her past
experience carried within her own little personage—have been conditioning
or modifying her hehavior. Of this fact Frances is partly conscious and
partly unconscious. As Frances looks ahout the circle, she spies Dale, the
hoy who lives next door. Dale sitting nearby is the situation or object pre
sented. She defines the situation as she has defined it many times before.
Here is Dale whom she often plays with and talks to. The situation defined,
tlie attitude that she will play with him and talk to him now arises. , . . She
goes toward him and begins a conversation. But her progr ess is hesitating
and her speech suhdued due to her new environment. At this point the teacher
intervenes. Evidently Frances has defined the situation wrongly. A crisis—a
minor one—is at hand.
“ What shall I do?” says Frances to herself. “No one has ever stopped mo
from playing and talking with Dale hefore. How shall I act toward this
intruder, called the teacher, who thus interferes with the way I am used to
doing things? Shall I cry, or shall I smile, or shall I be angry?”
. . . Thinking that perhaps this is the way things usually happen in
school, she decides to return to her little red chair. This she does without
unnecessary ado.
Miss Lamh then proceeds to talk to Frances. She says school is a place
where everyone has work to do, and that each must stay in his place and
keep quiet ho that he and everyone else can get their work done. And Miss
Lamb is glad, too, that Frances decided not to bother anyone and returned
to her own seat. Thus the teacher tried to re-deflne the situation for Frances
and set up a counter-attitude which will change the hahit of action or
behavior.
A few days later the same thing confronts Frances. But now she finds
herself possessed of her own definition and its attitude and Miss Lainh’s
definition and its attitude. She compromises, and instead of going to Dale
and talking, she merely talks to him in a low voice, without leaving her
place. This time the teacher—and the pupils—decide that if Frances is
going to keep them from their work, she will have to sit apart from the
group. Hero is another minor crisis with a similar re-definition of the situa
tion calling up the same connter-attitude.
Frances now passes to the stage where she whispers to Dale, and more
crises interjected hy Miss Lamh are necessary to fix the new definition and
the new attitude. Finally a major crisis comes when as a result of Frances'
whispering the whole class must do its work over. The unsoeialness of her
conduct drives home the school definition and fixes her concurrent attilndc.
Then after a Lime when Franecs has several times refused herself the luxury
of whispering and the attitude of prohibition has heeome integrated with
the habit of prohibition, the process passes from the realm of consciousness to
that of unconsciousness. . . . The school conduct of Frances is good and
she knows it as such and keeps it thus. In her own eyes and the eyes of
others, she is a “good girl” at school. (From The Social Aspect of Classroom
Teachers’ Problems, unpublished manuscript, Kenneth McGill.)
I t is a xiom atic am ong school m e n th a t the first d a y o f school, or
the first m eetin g o f a class, is a ll-im p o r ta n t in d e term in in g the success
or fa ilu re o f th e school y ea r. A rea lization o f th is fa c t h a s le d certain
school men to la y d ow n r ig id ru le s fo r the con du ct o f classes on the
first d a y o f school. B a g le y , whose w ork a lo n g th is lin e is classic, h a s
given us a set o f direction s fo r the first d a y , w h ich , i f closely fo llo w e d ,
w ill p resen t th e ch ild w ith a situ ation whose bo u n d a ries are qu ite
c le a rly in d ica ted an d qu ite fir m ly h eld , so th at acceptance o f the
te a c h e r’s d efin ition o f the situ ation is a lm ost in ev ita b le. B a g le y as
serts th a t “ I t is g en erally agreed am on g school m en th a t, th e sooner
the reg u la r rou tin e is establish ed, the better w ill be tb c r e s u lts .” H e
believes th at it is best “ to m ake the very' first d a y th o r o u g h ly rig o ro u s
in all its d e ta ils .” H e g iv e s m in u te in stru ction s con cern in g p r e p a r a
tions fo r the first d ay, m ost o f th em r e la tin g to m a k in g re a d y p h y s i
cal con d ition s fo r ca rry in g on school and to the teach in g p la n s which
the teacher m u st p rep a re in advan ce. Th e teacher m u st exam in e his
room , fin d out w h a t p u p ils he is lik ely to have, m ake sure th a t b lack -
h oards are clean , th at chalk, a n d erasers are p resen t, a n d th a t books,

I
p a p er, pen cils, p en s, ink, etc., are on h an d in su fficien t quantities.
B a g le y then states ce rta in ru le s con cern in g the co n d u ct o f school on
th e first d a y . S in ce n ea rly all his su ggestion s h av e some im plication s
as to the relation sh ip establish ed betw een th e teacher a n d h is students,
th e y w ill he qu oted in extenso.
1. Be on hand early.
2. See that the classroom is in good condition; floors clean, desks dusted,
wardrobes ready for use. Do not complain to principal or janitor unless
conditions are intolerable. Remedy matters yourself.
3. See tbat the chalk and erasers are distributed at tbe blackboard, or in
readiness for distribution by monitors to be appointed. In any case, be
sure that these necessary materials are on hand and in condition to be used—
chalk boxes open, erasers cleaned, etc.
4. Place upon the blackboard whatever work you have provided for your
earliest classes. Your program will doubtless indicate arithmetic as one of
the earliest forms of seat work. Have examples upon the blackboard in suffi
cient number to provide arithmetic for all classes.
5. Pupils wbo arrive early should be greeted pleasantly and directed to take
seats. Many successful teaehers require pupils arriving before the "first bell"
to observe tbe same decorum that they would observe during the regular
session, so long as they remain in the school room rather than upon the
playground. Whether you adopt this policy or not, it is well on the first
morning to check any tendency to run about the room or to pass from seat
to seat.
6. It is good policy always to enlist the aid of pupils in helping you about
the routine preparatory to the real school work. On the first morning, they
may, at your direction, distribute the chalk and erasers, slips of paper for
the names of tbe pupils, the pencils, etc.
7. Everything should he in readiness when the bell rings and the lines
come in. The teacher should direct the pupils to take seats regularly in the
different rows in the order of their entering the room. After this preliminary
seating, changes may be immediately made if desired. If there are two
classes, and if one has already been in the room—as will be the case wherever
tbe promotions arc semi-annual—let the older pupils take the seats occupied
the preceding term. If all or most of the pupils are new, let them take seats
as suggested as speedily as possible, making temporary changes where neces
sary to accommodate pupils to different sizes of seats and desks. This
should occupy but a brief period.
8. Place into immediate application your prearranged plan for disposing
of the hats and Wraps. I f they are to be collected, appoint tbe first or the
last pupil in each row as a monitor for this purpose. Give clear, distinct
directions, and enforce these directions rigidly from the outset. I f the wraps
1 TUB DEFINITION OF THE SITUATION 303
are to bo left in the wardrobe as the pupils pass in, have the lines file out
and return to the room according to your plan, depositing their wraps as
tbey pass. The manner in which you handle this, the very first bit of routine,
I
will have a large share in determining the first impression that you leave
witb your students.
9. When this has been accomplished, the time is opportune fox your
opening remarks, if you wish to make any. Let these be brief, clear-cut, and
devoid of threats, cant, or platitudes. Especially guard against “ soft-soapi-
ness." A song is also in place if you can select one which is familiar to all the
pupils, and lead it well yourself. Devotional exercises are in place unless
prohibited by law, ruling, or public sentiment.
10. After these preliminaries direct each pupil to write his name upon
the slip of paper handed to him. Have the first pupil in each row collect
the slips, placing his own at the bottom of the bundle, and the others in
order. As the slips of each row are brought to you, place a rubber-band
about them and then arrange the bundles across your desk in the order of
the rows. You will then be able, with a minimum of trouble, to find the name
of any pupil by reference to the slips belonging to his row.
11. All this should occupy but a brief period of time—certainly not more
than twenty minutes—and from this time on, in a two-class or three-class
room, the regular program should be adhered to. Assign work to the more
advanced class, if there are two, or to all but the lowest class, if there are
more than two. The first recitation should begin with this. If the pupils are
to come forward to occupy a recitation heneh, give explicit directions for
the passing of lines, and explain the signals that you propose to use. It will
prohably be necessary to give two or three drills upon this before the move
ment to the bench and back to the seats satisfies you. The first day’s work may
very well be devoted in part to such drills, but always save time for some
serious work. If the class passes to the blackboard, drill it several times in the
prearranged movement of lines.
12. [Relates to classification of ungraded schools.]
13. Stop all work a few minutes before recess time to drill pupils upon
the passing of lines. In a large graded school it will be necessary to know
how all the lines pass to the playground in order that you may assemble
your pupils in the proper place. This should be one of the matters learned
beforehand by consultation witb the principal or with other teachers.
14. Appoint monitors to distribute pens, tablets, copy-books, etc., just
prior to the first periods when these materials are used. Distribute the moni
torial functions among as many pupils as possible, holding each strictly
responsible from the first for the efficiency of his service. Devote some time
during the first day to drilling the monitors in these duties. Let them pass
and collect the materials again and again, until they can do the work with
celerity, dispatch, and good order. If you propose to use this monitorial
service as a reward of good standing, let the pupils know this at the start,
stating .that changes will be made at the beginning o f the second week or
month, as the case may be.1
P erh a p s th e th in g w h ich m o st im presses one w h o is fa m ilia r with

a d ifferen t p h ilo so p h y o f school m a n a g em en t is the ex tre m e r ig id ity
o f the social ord er w hich B a g le y w o u ld see fit to set up in the schools.
B u t one is stru c k , too, w ith th e extrem e p r a c tic a lity o f the discussion,
and th is im p re ssio n is in creased hy the reflection th a t th ou sa n d s o f
teach ers a n d p ro sp ectiv e teachers have p ro fited in the p a st fr o m a
stu d y o f B a g le y . B a g le y h as stated c le a r ly a n d su cc in c tly the rules
o f th u m h w h ich school m en h av e w orked out fo r the sta rtin g procedu re
in schools o f th e m ore r ig id so rt. These rules o f th u m h are correct as
f a r as th ey go, a n d B a g l e y ’ s rem ains the classic statem en t o f them .
T h e y h ave m ore m e a n in g , how ever, w h en we th in k o f th em as going
tog eth er to m ake u p a proced u re fo r the d efin ition o f th e social situ a
t io n in the school, a p roced u re fo r w o rk in g out a n d im p o sin g u p on
stu d en ts a p a r tic u la r defin ition o f the situ a tio n in w h ich the stu d en t
docs alm ost n o th in g on h is ow n in itia tiv e and in w h ich th e teacher
is co m p letely d o m in a n t.
T h e teach er w h o fo llo w s B a g l e y ’s su ggestion s p resen ts the ch ild
w ith a situ a tio n in n o respect eq u ivo ca l, a situ a tio n c o m p le te ly w ork ed
ou t a n d p re a rra n g e d , a s itu a tio n w h ich the stu d e n t h as no option hut
to accep t. T h e teach er has th o u g h t o f e v e ry th in g , an d there is n eith er
n eed n o r o p p o r tu n ity f o r the p u p il to w ork out a n y a rra n g em en ts o f
h is own. One n otes th a t, th ro u g h o u t B a g l e y ’s discu ssio n , the em phasis
is u p o n a p r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f sch o ol life so th o ro u g h th a t no o p p o r
tu n ity is g iv en f o r spon tan eou s o rg a n ization hy the stu d en ts, fr o m
w h ich d isord er m ig h t resu lt. T h e classroom is a lw ay s a n ew social
w o r ld , a n a rh itra r y a n d a rtificial so cial w o rld , h u t the p u p il is given
th e im p ression th at he is en terin g a ch an geless so ciety. lie m u st
co n fo rm .
P a r tic u la r ru le s are p erh ap s d eserv in g o f fu r th e r com m en t. The
m e a n in g o f the su gg estion s con cern in g p re p a ra tio n o f the school room
on th e p h y sica l side, a n d the assem b lin g o f m aterials fo r school w o rk ,
is p la in ly to p r e v e n t im p ro v isa tio n h y stu d en ts, w hich is n o t reg a rd ed
a s desirable. I t is su g g ested th a t m a n y teachers requ ire p u p ils a r r iv
in g h efo re th e first hell to ta k e th e ir seats a t once and to observe
sch ool-room decoru m , a n d th a t those w h o con sider th is excessively
stern should at a n y rate check a n y te n d e n c y to ru n a b ou t the room
o r to pass fr o m seat to seat. T h is p re v e n ts the sp o n ta n eou s defin ition
1Bagley, W. 0., Classroom Management, pp. 25-28. (Reprinted hy permission

o f The Macmillan Company.)
of the situ a tio n w h ich ch ild re n m ig h t w ork out on th e sp u r o f the m o

ment fr o m hecom ing estab lish ed b efore school opens. T h e d r ill u p on
routine m a tte rs serves tw o p u r p o s e s : i t im presses th e school situ a tio n ,
with its ru le s a n d its restrictio n s a n d its m ech an ized rou tin e , firm ly
upon th e s t u d e n t's m i n d ; a n d it g iv es the teacher a n o p p o r tu n ity to
establish h is dom in a tio n by g iv in g d ire ctio n s ahout m a tte rs o ver
which con flict is n ot lik e ly to arise. T h e m o n ito ria l sy ste m w h ich
B ag ley recom m en d s has a n oth er fu n c tio n , th a t o f a lig n in g certain
students fa v o r a b ly w ith resp ect to the te a c h e r ; th e d r ill u p o n th e
functions o f th e m on itors is again a m ean s o f im p ressin g the te a c h e r ’s
definition o f th e situ a tio n u p o n the s t u d e n t ’s m i n d ( A s w e h ave else
where n oted , the use o f m o n itors allow s the teacher to rem a in im m o
bile, a n d th erefo re to rem a in in co m m a n d of th e situ a tio n m o re
ea sily .)
In certain places in the discu ssion q u oted ahove, th e a ttitu d es o f
the p ro fessio n a l teacher crop out u n d isg u ised . " . . . th e tim e is o p
portune fo r y o u r open in g rem ark s, i f y o u w ish to m ak e any. L e t these
be h rief, clea r-cu t, a n d d ev o id o f th reats, cant, or p la titu d es. E s p e
cially g u a rd a ga in st soft-soapine.ss.” T h ere speaks th e te a c h e r ! I n t e r
course hetw een teach er a n d stu d e n t m u st he lim ite d to th e m a tter in
h a n d ; the teach er m u s t n o t s a y a n y th in g w h ich w o u ld in v o lv e h im
in a h u m a n in teraction w ith h is p u p ils. B a g le y h ere d em on strates
his th o ro u g h u n d e rsta n d in g o f life w ith in th e in stitu tio n of th e
sch ool; it is h etter i f th e tea ch er tak es th e classroom situ a tio n f o r
gra n ted a n d defines th e situ a tio n fr o m th a t sta n d p o in t h y w o rd s and
deeds re le v a n t to th a t o r ie n ta tio n ; a n d a v erb aliza tio n o f a n y o f th e
prin cip les u p on w h ich the classroom r a p p o r t is hased w o u ld b e v e r y
difficult and d a n g e r o u s ; a co rrect statem en t w ou ld an ta g on ize stu d en ts
u n d u ly , a n d a fa u lt y statem en t w o u ld set u p a co n flictin g defin ition
o f th e situ a tio n . U n d o u b te d ly th is is excellen t advice fo r one w h o
wishes to keep a w e ll-re g im e n te d school room , h u t one fe e ls th a t it is
the sort o f a d vice w h ich o u g h t to be g iv en r e g r e tfu lly . T o the p r o fe s
sional teacher, th ere is n o occasion fo r regret in th e fa c t th a t n eith e r
teacher n or p u p il can express h is w hole s e lf in th e c la ssr o o m ; it is
all to the good th a t teach ers speak little , c r isp ly , and w ith o u t te n d e r
ness. B u t fr o m th e la r g e r p o in t o f view th is m a y h a v e reg retta b le
consequences fo r teach ers a n d stu d en ts alike.
B a g le y w o u ld p ro h a h ly be th e first to a d m it th a t a ll definite ru les
have lim ite d u tility . T each ers d iffer, a n d th e so rt o f r a p p o r t w h ich
one fin d s w orkahle m a y he q u ite im p ossib le fo r another. T h e tea ch er
who reg im en ts his stu d en ts i n th e o ld e r w a y m ig h t n o t m ak e a g o o d
M o rriso n p la n teach er, nor sh ou ld a tea eh er whose effectiveness de.

pen ds u pon good n atu re and sta h ility ever a tte m p t to increase bis
effectiveness h y a d d in g to his a cco m p lish m en ts the fa u lt-fin d in g tech
n iqu e. B e tte r, then, th an to su gg est specific tech n iq u es as always
u se fu l, and b etter th an to a tte m p t to d evelop lik e ch a racter traits
in all teachers, w o u ld it he to a tte m p t to g iv e teach ers a com p lete un.
d ersta n d in g o f th e social processes ce n te rin g ahou t sch ool life , an d to
leave to each one th e task o f w o rk in g ou t th a t tech n iq u e w h ich will
help h im m o st in c a r r y in g on th e p a r tic u la r so rt o f ed u cation which
he con siders desirahle.
B u t it is n ever en ou gh to define th e situ a tio n c le a rly on th e first
d a y o f school. I f th e teach er is to reta in co n trol o f the school-room
social life , he m u st renew h is defin ition o f th e situ a tio n fr o m m o
m en t to m o m e n t a n d a d a p t h is tech n iq ue to th e d ev e lo p in g occasion.
B a g le y , in com m on w ith m a n y oth er w riters, su g g ests th a t as much
o f th is sch ool-room a c tiv ity as possible should be ro u tin ize d and
m ech an ized. A c c o r d in g to th is th eory, the teach er m u st so ord er tbe
first d a y th a t e v e r y th in g goes as he h as p la n n e d a n d no o p p o r tu n ity is
g iv e n fo r even a m o m e n t o f sp on tan eou s li f e in w h ich a definition of
the situ ation c o n tr a r y to th at o f the teacher can be w o rk ed out, an d
th e re a fte r he m u st cry stallize as m u c h o f th is p ro ced u re as possihle
in to routine. T h u s fr o m one y e a r to th e n ex t the teach er m aintain s
h is absolute u n v a r y in g con trol an d ch ild re n n ever slip fr o m his
fingers.
I t n ever h ap p en s, h ow ever, th a t the situ a tio n can he so c lea rly
defined a n d classroom p roced u re so r ig id ly ro u tin ize d th at n o disord er,
th a t is, no definition o f th e situ a tio n sp o n ta n eou sly a rriv e d at b y s tu
d en ts in opposition to the defin ition o f th e situ ation p u t fo r w a r d by
the teacher, can ever arise. L ife h a s a w a y o f fin d in g breaches in the
fe n c es th at w e p u t arou n d it (a n d th is is one o f the a rg u m en ts fo r a
m ore p la stic tech n ique o f m a in ta in in g d is c ip lin e ). W h e n these con
flictin g definitions o f the situ ation c o n fr o n t th e teach er, th e teacher
m u st c o n sisten tly ren ew his own defin ition o f the situ a tio n , u sin g
w h atever tech n iq ue he has fo u n d m ost sa tisfa c to ry fo r h im self. The
conflict o f definitions o f situ a tio n m a y involve the teach er in person al
conflict, or it m a y he resolved in other w ays. B a g le y , d iscu ssin g the
q u a lity o f persistence as an a ttrih u te o f th e teach er, h as inciden tally
descrih ed the tech n iq u e h y w h ich the stern d iscip lin a ria n m a in ta in s
bis in itia l defin ition o f the situ a tio n . I t is a tech n iq u e o f persistence,
con sisten cy, an d p ersistence w ith redouh led effort. ( A l l o f these de
p en d u p on an in itia l sta b ility o f c h a ra c te r.) W e q u o te :
la creating a condition of order in the classroom, it is essential that every

rule laid down he adhered to rigidly, unremittingly. The acme of good dis
cipline is reached when the conditions of order are preserved automatically,
without thought or judgment on the pupils’ part. In other words, a class
room that is well disciplined has the conditions of good order reduced to
hahit. But the law of hahit-huilding operates here with unrelenting certainty.
To make the conditions of order automatic, every slightest exception must
immediately be noted and corrected. At first, some allowance should he made
for forgetfulness on the part of the pupils; that is, an exception to an estab
lished rule should he corrected by brief admonition. But this must not he
permitted to continue. “I didn’t think” cannot he condoned more than once.
It is the business of education to train pupils to “ think” about the matters
that require thought; and pupils who habitually forget to ohey rules should
have their memory stimulated hy something more effective than an admoni
tion. The teacher who must constantly warn pupils aud correct them for
the same misdeeds over and over again is not an efficient disciplinarian.
The vital import of this principle cannot be too strongly emphasized. It is
a byword that more teachers fail through inability to “discipline” success
fully than through any other one cause. And failure to discipline is most
commonly due to lack of persistence. The teacher lays down a rule. The
pupils break it once or twice to test the teacher, or perhaps they break it
through forgetfulness. The experienced teacher gives the pupil the benefit
of the doubt in such eases once and once only. But the young and inexpe
rienced teacher keeps on with admonitions which become increasingly ineffec
tive the longer they are employed; or, what is far worse, he neglects to note
a lapse from the established rule. That insidious Rip Van Winkleism, “ Tins
time will not count,” is the rock upon which many a teacher’s prospects are
wrecked.
“What shall I do9” the young teacher will surely ask in this connection;
“What shall I do when 1 have tried every device that I can think of and
still fail?” There is no explicit formula that will cover each specific case,
hut one general suggestion may he given: Get order. Drop everything else,
if necessary, until order is secured. Stretch your authority to the breaking
point if you can do nothing else. Pile penalty upon penalty for misde
meanors, and let the “sting” of each penalty he double that of its predecessor.
Tire out the recalcitrants if yon can gain your end in no other way. Remember
that your success in your life work depends upon your success in this one
feature of that work more thoroughly than it depends upon anything else.
You have the law back of you, you have intelligent public sentiment hack
of you. Or, if the law he slow and halting, and public sentiment other than
intelligent, you have on your side right, justice, and the accumulated expe
rience of generations of teachers.1
1Bagiev, W. 0., Classroom Management, pp. 95-97. (Reprinted by permission
of The Macmillan Company.)
T h ere is m u ch sou n d sense in th is passage, as in e v e ry th in g oj

B a g le y . I t m a y serve as th e id eal statem en t o f th ose stern er teachers
w ho p in th eir fa ith to repression b y fo rce. T h ere is m u ch excellent
a dvice, also, fo r teachers w ho lack in stitu tio n a l cou rage or experience,
an d m a n y su ch h ave no d o u b t profited b y B a g l e y ’s exh ortation s. B ut
it is good ad vice o n ly hecause advice is o n ly advice, an d sh ou ld neither
be taken n or given lite r a lly . T h e teacher w ho fo llo w e d it literally
w ou ld soon find h im se lf u p a ga in st an im passe. I t is not literally
possible to increase p en alties fo r every7 m isdem ean or. N o r is it ever
possible, in th e concrete h u m a n situ ation , to tak e official cognizance o f
every breach o f rules. O ne m a y qu estion w h eth er it is worse as a
m atter o f p ractice fo r a teach er to su ffer a ru le to lap se b y seem ing
to fo r g e t it than f o r h im to m eet its b reach es w ith in effectu a l adm oni
tio n s a n d p en alties.
W e hocome aw are h o w fa r w e h av e tra v e lle d a lo n g th e road tow ard
th e h u m an ization o f edu cation when w e co n trast th e a rb itr a ry mode
o f m a in ta in in g th e d efin ition o f th e situ a tio n describ ed b y B a g le y with
th e one w h ich w ou ld be recom m en ded on the hasis o f m o d ern p sy
ch o lo g y an d th e experien ce o f the m ore advan ced m o d ern schools.
T h e stern d iscip lin arian k n ew o n ly one t u n e ; h e p la y e d it s o ftly at
first and th en h e p la y e d it m o re l o u d l y ; w e k n ow som e v ariation s now .
N o r are w c q u ite so su re as Bagley7 was th at the ch a racter tra in in g
w hich is alw ays one o f the aim s o f edu cation is to be effected b y d e
n ia l o f choice an d th e im p o sition o f good hahits fr o m w ith ou t. W e
should p in our fa ith to th a t subtler control w hich comes fro m in sigh t
into the ch aracter o f the p erson to be con trolled, and sh ou ld tr y to in
cu lcate in h im desirahle gen eral attitu d es rather th an specific habits.
N o r do w e th in k , now , th at the “ acm e o f good d iscip lin e is attain ed
w hen the con dition s o f order are p reserved au to m a tically , w ith ou t
th ou gh t or ju d g m e n t on the p u p i l’s p a r t .” W h e n w e d id th in k th at,
persistence w ith redou b led effort w as th e k ey n o te o f school p o lic y ;
n ow th e ca rd in a l p o in t o f p o lic y is persistence w ith a n effort revised
a n d corrected b y g ro w in g u n d ersta n d in g and in sigh t. A n d th ou g h
g oo d ord er m ig h t w e ll be h ab itu al and la r g e ly u nconscious w e should
p o t w a n t good order a tta in ed w ith o u t th o u g h t or ju d g m e n t on the
p u p i l ’s p a rt.
T h e n ew er ord er o f school d iscip lin e, still rare, it sh ou ld h e said,
m akes greater dem an d s u pon th e teacher th a n did the old. I t requires
a g reater im a gin a tio n , a greater u n d e rsta n d in g , a n d a m ore flu id and
a d a p ta b le tech n iq u e. T o h e su re, th e dem an d s o f en lig h ten ed d isc i
p lin e m a y cost th e teach er less th an it w o u ld cost her to m a in tain a
THE DEFINITION OF TEE SITUATION 309
Prussian o r g a n iz a tio n ; th e te a c h e r's p e r so n a lity w as w a rp ed u n d e r

the old system as th o ro u g h ly as the s t u d e n t ’s, th e stro n g te a c h e r ’s
character no less, th ou g h d iffe re n tly , th a n th at o f the w eak teacher
who brolce h er h ea rt tr y in g to m a in ta in an ord er th a t w as, fo r her,
impossible. B u t w h ereas a sim p le tech n iq u e fo r defin in g th e situ ation
was sufficient fo r th e h ig h ly reg im en ted school, a com p licated te ch
nique is required fo r a school th at trie s to m a in ta in a m o r e flexib le
life.
In th e o rth o d ox sch ool, o ld sty le , th e in tera ction o f defin ition s o f
situations w as a b ou t as fo llo w s. T h e teach er d efin ition o f th e situ a tio n ,
a definition in term s o f a rig id social ord er a n d tea ch er d o m in a tio n
o f all social life , w as established at the sta r t. I t w as a d efin ition th a t
sought to h e in clu sive, and to lea v e n o th in g fo r im p ro v isa tio n . T h ere
was little o p p o r tu n ity f o r stu d en t defin ition s to arise. B u t su ch defin i
tions d id arise, fo r h u m a n life can n ever be fo r c e d to c o n fo r m a lto
gether to th e dem an d s o f a r ig id social o rd er. W h e n th ey arose th ey
were dealt w ith in accordance w ith a th o ro u g h g o in g p o lic y o f rep res
sion. T h e p u p il d efin ition o f th e situ a tio n w a s w ip e d out, su p p o se d ly ,
as co m p letely as i f it h a d n e v e r been, a n d th e teach er defin ition o f
the situ ation w a s reestablish ed, or ex ten d ed to fit th e newT situ a tio n .
This reg im en f o r stu d en ts w as su p p o se d to be ch aracter fo r m in g . The
u n yield in g social ord er m a d e i t n ecessary th at stu d en ts sh ou ld fo rm
a set o f “ g o o d ” h ab its, a n d it was su p p osed th a t th ey w ou ld c a rry
these th ro u gh o u t life.
T h a t w as th e older tech n iq u e as it w as su p p osed to w o rk out. I n the
actual h u m a n situ ation o f th e classroom , it r a r e ly resu lte d so fo r t u
n ately. P u p ils in e v ita b ly attem p ted to establish th eir ow n social
order in d e p e n d e n tly of teachers, and a leth al conflict sp ra n g up
between the tea ch er-d irected social process an d th e social process
which stu d en ts p u sh ed fo r w a r d . T h e social ord er w h ich th e teacher
w orked o u t in ad van ce a n d attem p ted to estahlish cou ld n e v e r be
quite c o m p le te ; the ru les could n ot cover e v e ry th in g . I n th e in terstices
o f th e social ord er th ere s p r a n g u p spon tan eou s life o f stu d en ts.
There w as a lw ay s a looph ole, a n d life a lw a y s fo u n d th e looph ole.
W h e n a stu d en t definition w as esta b lish ed in one o f th e n eglected
corners o f th e social ord er, th e teach er h a d to p ass a ru le in order
to cover th at ph ase o f th e sch ool situ a tio n . B u t th e m ore n u m ero u s the
rules, the m ore h a ir -s p littin g th ere is a b o u t w h ere th e y do a n d w here
they do n ot a p p l y ; w h ere th ere are m a n y reg u la tio n s there a re sure
to be “ reg u la tio n la w y e r s .” T h e re is th u s an in ev ita b le con flict be
tw een th ose w ho tea r holes in the dikes and th ose w ho tr y to patch
th em u p . T h e conflict th at a lw a y s arose betw een th e teach er defini-

tion s a n d the p u p il definitions w h ich gre w u p in the in terstices of
th e tea ch er-p lan n ed social ord er w as m a d e m ore severe hy th e fact
th a t th e stu d en ts never qu ite accepted the teach er-ord ain ed social
ord er as one o f the u n alterab le fa c ts o f life . Th e tea ch er order could
n e v e r be establish ed w ith o u t at least a m in im u m o f u n p leasan tn ess.
T h ere w as a lw ay s the chance th at th is irred u c ib le unpleasan tn ess
m ig h t g ro w to e n m ity th ro u g h th e con flict over th e p u p il ord er which
g re w u p in the in terstices o f th e social stru c tu re and th e a ttem p t to
extend the te a c h e r ’s a u th o rity to cover it. T h is conflict e a sily becam e
so severe th a t a conflict g ro u p relation w as establish ed betw een teacher
a n d stu d en ts. W h e r e th ere are con flict g ro u p s, th e m o ra lity o f the
conflict g ro u p g ov ern s. T h e essence o f conflict g r o u p m o r a lity is that
in ju r ie s to p erson s b elo n g in g to the o p p ositio n are con sidered m e ri
toriou s, a n d fr ie n d ly r a p p o r t w ith such p erso n s treasonable.
In the lig h t o f th is a n alysis o f the effect o f th e r ig id social order
u p o n stu d en ts, i t is n ecessary to ev alu ate q u ite d iffe r e n tly the ch ar
a c te r -b u ild in g fe a tu re s o f r ig id d iscip lin e. In the first p lace, it seems
clear fr o m m o d ern p sy c h o lo g y th at h ab its ca n n ot rest u p o n noth ing,
th a t i f th ey are to p ersist an d to assum e a real im p o rta n ce i n the
p erso n a l o rg a n ization o f the in d iv id u a l th e y m u st h ave a basis in his
g e n e ra l a ttitu d iu a l set, i.e., th e y m u s t he hooked u p to som eth in g
d e e p ly in g r a in e d in Lis m a k e-u p . T h e tech n iq u e o f ch a racter fo r m a
tio n th ro u gh th e b u ild in g o f h ab its docs n o t a llo w f o r a n y such co n
n ection s. W h e n such connections are m ad e, as th ey som etim es are,
an d as th e y a lw a y s m u st he i f th e ch a ra c te r-h u ild in g p ro g ra m is to
su cceed, it is en tirely a m a tte r o f accid en t. A ch a racter b u ild er who
su cceeds o n ly b y acciden t is no v e r y efficient ch a racter bu ilder. B u t
the situ a tio n w as, in fa c t, in th e school o f the old sort, even w orse
th an th a t, fo r the con flict betw een teach er a n d stu d en t a c tu a lly gave
to th ose h ab its w h ich w ere con n ected w ith th e tea ck er-co n stru ctcd
so cia l o rd er a n eg ative em otional valu e. T h u s th e v alu e o f those h abits
w h ich the school la id so m u ch stress u p on e sta b lish in g w as m ore than
n eu tra lized b y the n eg a tiv e em otion al w e ig h tin g w h ich those h ab its
a cq u ire d , an d b y th eir co n tra rie ty to th e g en eral, u n d e r ly in g a tti-
tu d in a l set o f the in d iv id u a l. Som etim es, in d eed , and by n o m ean s
in fr e q u e n tly , the process w o rk ed fo r good, and rebelliou s p u p ils a c
qu ired by an tithesis desirable a ttitu d e s fr o m teach ers w h om they
hated. B u t these instan ces m u st h av e been fe w w h en co m p ared w ith
th e cases in w h ich stu d e n ts, b y str u g g lin g a ga in st th e establish ed order
in th e school a n d a tte m p tin g to c irc u m v e n t its rep resen tatives, ac-
T THE DEFINITION OE THE SITUATION 311
j quired la w -b rea k in g a ttitu d e s w hich they w e re to carry tliro u g h -

I out life .
The n ew schools m a y p e rh a p s la y cla im to a m u ch m ore ra tio n a l
u tilization o f th e social process. W e shall do w e ll to be scep tical, fo r
the h isto ry o f m a n 's a ttem p ts to devise in stitu tio n s fo r m a k in g over
human n a tu re a cco rd in g to specification is a h isto ry o f a lm o st u n ifo r m
failu re. Schem es h ave been devised in ign oran ce o f the a ctu a l c a u sa l
m echanism s w h ich th ey set into op eration , a n d th ey h a v e fa ile d to p ro
duce the specified q u alities in m e n because th eir th e o r y w as n ev er
sound. B u t it does seem possihle on the basis o f social e x p e rim e n ts
o f the past q u a rter o f a c e n tu r y to sa y th a t schools in w h ic h tea ch er
dom ination is less r ig o ro u s and flows out o f person al lea d ersh ip ra th er
than fr o m a n in stitu tio n a lized social an d a u to cra tic o rd er h a v e m u ch
more fo r tu n a te effects u p o n h u m an p erso n a lities th an did schools o f
the m ore d espotic ty p e .
Th e social process in th e n ew er so rt o f sch ool is m ore flexib le and
more spontan eou s. Tt calls fo r a w o rk in g out. b y teach er a n d stu d en ts
together o f a definition o f the situ ation in te rm s o f the needs an d
desires o f a ll concerned. A n d th is is no ch an geless d efin ition o f the
situ ation w h ich is w orked out, an d no r ig id social ord er w h ich it
produces, h u t a n e v olv in g situ a tio n w h ich is c o n tin u a lly defined a n d
redefine.d i n term s o f the a ttitu d es a n d in terests o f the g ro u p as s p o n
taneously fu n c tio n in g . T h e teacher dom inates b y lea d ersh ip , a n d is.
able to direct the atten tion and the energies o f the classroom g ro u p
into certain channels. T h is p ro cess is fa c ilita te d h y th e fa c t th a t
pu pils a lre a d y h ave a fa v ora b le a ltitu d in a l set tow ard th e acqu isition
o f such kn ow ledge as is r e a lly n ecessa ry fo r p a r tic ip a tio n in th e social
life o f th eir g ro u p . T h ere m u st still be an ex clu sio n o f fr iv o lo u s or
otherwise a b erran t defin ition s o f situ a tio n s, b u t so fa r as p o ssih le th is
m ust be a process in which th e gro u p rath er th an the teach er, or th e
grou p th ro u g h th e teach er, seem s to d iscip lin e th e in d iv id u a l. The
ad va n tag e fr o m the s ta n d p o in t o f ch aracter e v olu tio n is th a t th ere is
norm al d ev elop m en t fro m p a rtic ip a tio n in a g r a d u a lly e x p a n d in g
grou p life ra th er th an a d isto rtio n o f p e rso n a lity fr o m th e a n ta g
onistic social life centered a ro u n d flic p ro b lem o f teach er do m in a tio n .
It m u st be a d m itted th a t th is m a y be an id ealized and u n d u ly o p ti
m istic statem en t o f the situ a tio n , an d th a t th e process o fte n ta k es a
d ifferen t fo r m even in the m o st e n lig h te n e d o f th e n e w e r schools. I t
m u st he a d m itted , too, th a t su ch schools fr e q u e n tly fa il to u p h o ld
academ ic stan d a rd s an d th at th ey som etim es f a i l to develop ch il
d r e n ’s ch aracter fa v o r a b ly h y reason o f n eg le c tin g to im pose sta n d -
arils o f achievem ent. B u t the gen eral p ra ctice in the p a st q u a rter of

a ce n tu ry h as m o v e d m a rk e d ly a w a y fr o m the m ore r ig id ty p e of
school d iscip lin e, a n d m uch has been accom p lish ed w ith o u t low ering
o f stan d a rd s.
W h a te v e r the ty p e o f d iscip lin e w h ich he tries to h u ild u p , and
w h a tever the so rt o f social ord er w hich th e teacher trie s to establish
in the school, th e teacher h as n eed o f a n u m h er o f tech n iques fo r de
fin in g th e situ a tio n . T h e sam e tech n iques, w ith d ifferen t em phases,
are a p p a re n tly used h y all k in d s o f teachers. S om e o f th e m ore im p o r
ta n t devices f o r defin in g the situ a tio n or m a in ta in in g an existent
definition are the fo llo w in g : ro u tin iza tio n , p u n ish m e n t, express state
m ent, ritu a l, person al influence r esu ltin g fr o m the in v o lv em en t o f the
teach er in classroom situ a tio n s, a n d p erso n a l influ en ce d e r iv e d fr o m
u n d e rsta n d in g a n d the use o f p sy ch olo g ica l m ech an ism s. R o u tin iza
tion h as a lre a d y been discussed.
T h e fa v o rite device o f th e teach er a tte m p tin g to m a in ta in stric t
d iscip lin e in th e o ld er sense is p u n ish m en t. P u n ish m e n t separates out
certain k in d s o f b eh avior as reprehensihle, an d im poses certain u n
pleasan tn esses u p on those g u ilty o f such hehavior. W h e n p u n ish m en t
is su cc essfu l, it defines the situ ation hy im p o sin g a tahoo upon cer
tain ah erra n t h eh avior. Th e em p irical p sy ch olo g ists w h o con du ct the
schools th in k o f p u n ish m en t as a d eterren t to u n desirable hehavior
on a h ed on istic hasis. T h e p e n a lty , as in the o ld er crim in o lo g y , m u st he
m ad e ju s t sufficient to o u tw eigh a n y pleasure w hich those to he con
trolled m ig h t tak e in tahooed h eh avior. I t w o u ld he possihle to work
out a th eoretical ju stification o f p u n ish m en t in term s o f b eh avioristic
p sy c h o lo g y as n egative co n d ition in g. Th e d ifficu lty here, as in the
h edonistic th eory o f hehavior an d its con trol, is th at the h eh avior itse lf
o ften sp rin g s fr o m a ttitu d es w hich are n ot affected hy pu n ish m en t.
T h e re is a fu r th e r d ifficu lty, too, in th a t p u n ish m e n t o ften gives rise
to co u n te rv a ilin g a ttitu d e s w h ich m ore than o u tw eigh the p u n ish m en t
its e lf as a d eterm in an t o f hehavior. E x p e r ie n c e d teach ers, how ever,
know th a t p u n ish m en t docs som etim es w ork , th a t it is called fo r in
the d y n a m ic social situ ation o f the school. T h e valu e w hich it. has
seem s to arise fr o m the fa c t th a t it m a rk s out. ccrtaiu hehavior as
tahoo.
A n o th e r tech n iq ue hy w hich th e situ a tio n is o ften defined is th a t
o f exp ress statem en t. T h e teach er sa ys, “ W e do th is in our sc h o o l,”
or “ W e do n ot do th a t in ou r c l a s s ." T h is tech n iq ue o ften s u f
fices fo r the v e rb a l im p osition o f a tahoo o r to m a r k ou t a change
in the situ ation . A lm o s t e v e ry tea ch er w h o has to succeed some weak
or ea sy -g o in g or p o p u la r tea ch er in th e co n trol o f a sch ool o r class

finds th a t h e h as to resort to som e such device as th is to m a k e clear
the tra n sitio n fr o m the co n trol o f th e oth er person to h is ow n d o m in a
tion. S tu d e n ts sa y, “ B u t M r . So-an d -so le t us keep our hooks o p e n in
c l a s s ," an d the teach er rep lies, “ I t ’s n o t old M a n N elso n y o u are d e a l
in g w ith th is year. I t ’s O ld S m ith , and t h a t ’s a n o th er sto ry
altogether. ’ ’
R itu a l is o fte n u sed as a m e a n s o f estab lish in g a defin ition o f th e
situ ation an d k eep in g it esta b lish ed w ith ou t ch an ge. T h u s ce rta in
fo rm a lities in the relation o f stu d en t and teacher are r itu a liz e d in
order th at no v a ria n ts in those fo r m a litie s m a y arise an d in order th a t
the a ttitu d in a l sets in v o lv e d in the fo rm a lities m a y he ca rried over
into o th er asp ects o f th e r ela tio n sh ip . T h is is one o f the henefits o f th a t
m ech an ization o f ro u tin e w h ich B a g lc y advocates. I n a n oth er use o f
ritu a l, fo r m a liz e d a ttitu d e s are tak en or expressed w ith the h ope that,
they m a y heeom e in te r n a l. (S e e th e ch a p ter on c e re m o n y .)
W h e n the teach er hccom es id entified w ith the fo r m a l so cial o r g a n i
zation, o f the school, h is p erso n a l influence is lik e ly to he a lm o st
w h olly directed at the m a in ten a n ce o f th at social order. Th e social
order o f the school has heeom e a p a r t o f the te a c h e r’ s e x p a n d e d social
self, a n d he liv e s and hreathes in a n d th rou gh it. T h u s it m a y h a p
pen th a t all the te a c h e r ’s person al influence, co m p osed o f a ll th e
suhtle a n d u n co n sid ered p erso n a l em an ations and psychic irra d ia tio n s
th at come fr o m h im , h is earnestn ess, h is character, and h is p erso n a l
fo rce, seem s to he con cern ed w ith th e m ainten ance o f the te a c h e r 's
definition o f the situ a tio n . T h e tem p e r o f the teacher, to he specific,
is n ea rly a lw ay s m e ta m o rp h o se d into an in stru m en t fo r m a in ta in in g
teacher d o m in a tio n . A s the n ew teach er hccom es fa m ilia r w ith all
the Intricacies o f th e social situ ation o f the classroom as stu d e n ts
and teach ers com e to define it, he learn s to heeome a n g r y w h en a n y
action o f a stu d e n t g iv es the slig h test in d ica tio n th a t th e s tu d e n t is
tr y in g to defin e th e situ a tio n in a n u n o rth o d o x m a im e r. T h is is th e
in stitu tion a lized tem p er.
I n ou r d iscu ssion o f the tech n iq ues used h y teach ers f o r defin in g
the situ a tio n w e sh ou ld n o t f a i l t.o reckon w ith th e p o ssib ility o f a
technique based upon a d ifferen t k ind of p ersonal in flu en ce. T h is
w ou ld he a tech n iq u e n o t b a sed u p o n the earn estn ess w ith which
the teach er id en tifies h im se lf w ith the m o ra l ord er of th e school
room hut u pon his p erso n a l q u alities p lu s an u n d e r sta n d in g o f the
social process in th e school and o f the ch a racterolo giea l tre n d s o f h is
stu d en ts. I t is a tech n iq ue a lrea d y p ra ctic e d in its sim p le r fo r m s hy
teachers who have a high common-sense knowledge of human nature,

and with more sophistication hut perhaps less judgment by those
teachers whose psychological and psychiatric training has made them
aware of suggestion mechanisms and inferiority complexes.
We have already indicated that students hecome aware of many
of the definitions of situations current in their culture as a diieot
or indirect result of their social experience in the schools. We have
implied, as well, that one of the most important functions of the
school is to transmit to young persons an awareness of these definitions
of situations. That is, indeed, the central task of character education
—to lead the young so to perceive and so to range themselves for
action with reference to the social situations current in our culture
that the result will be in accord with social policy. This is a task for
which the actual social situations of school life should he utilized,
for it is difficult to impose definitions of situations at long range
through either the assigning of lessons or the reading of lectures.
The social life of children has heen utilized all too little, school au
thorities preferring to suppress that social life as frivolous or worse
and to impose character traits hy exhortation or other sleight of hand.
Certain definitions of situations, however, do hecome clear to the
child while he is in school, and it is perhaps worth while to con
sider these briefly.
The definition of the situation which teachers are at most pains
to impose is that concerning the school life of the child, especially
so far as it concerns his relation to his teachers. Since we have dis
cussed this at such length, we shall say no more ahout it here except
to state that this definition of the situation, so laboriously built up
by teachers and so deeply impressed upon the child, is one which
rarely finds a parallel in adult life, and that it is therefore wasted
as a training for life. Subordination to the teacher does not prepare
the child for anything, hecause there will he no teachers where he
is going.
A type definition of the situation which grows more spontaneously
out of the life of children, and which therefore more often has a
parallel in life outside the institution, concerns sportmanship and
fair play. The spirit of fair play or sportsmanship is often quite
strongly inculcated in children who play competitive games. Perhaps
it is the result of those endless arguments and interminable jourings
of young hoys who are learning to play games. It is a very limited
spirit of fair play which hoys develop in the unguided interaction of
the play group. It is a fair play, usually, which does not necessarily
a p p ly to an in d iv id u a l w h o is n o t a m em h er o f th e g r o u p ; it does
not h o ld fo r a m em h er o f a n o th er g a n g or fo r a tea ch er o r a m e m h e r
o f the o p p osite sex. I t is an h o n esty w h ich does n ot con d em n a sh a rp
trick. B u t , w ith in its lim it a t io n s ,'t h is is a defin ition o f the situ a tio n
concerning w h ich the h o y 's a ttitu d e is sh arp a n d clear. W i t h hoys
in a p r iv a te school, o r in som e o th er g ro u p s w h ere m u c h is m a d e o f
com p etitive a th letics, sp o rtsm a n sh ip com es to be so m eth in g of a
r e lig io n ; it is the one m o ra l p r in c ip le w h ic h hoys can u n d ersta n d .
Since th e m o st im p o rta n t v a lu e i n o u r cu ltu re is p r o p e r ty , i t is
on ly n a tu r a l th a t th e sch ool ch ild sh ou ld ahsorh ce rta in tahoos
concerning p r o p e r ty a n d its use w h ile y e t in sch ool. I t is one o f the
situ ation s m o st s h a rp ly d efin ed f o r the child. O n e o f th e fe w situ a
tions (p e rh a p s th e o n ly o n e ) in w h ic h stu d en ts a n d teach ers ca n co
operate w h o le -h e a rte d ly in d efen c e o f th e social o rd er is th a t crea ted
b y the presence o f a th ie f in th eir m id st. M u c h m ore r a r e ly , a n d a l
ways m ore u n c e r ta in ly , stu d e n ts w o rk ou t ce rta in tahoos c o n ce rn in g
personal h on esty. T h ere are in fa c t m a n y fe atu res o f school life w h ich
make rath er fo r th e d ev elo p m en t o f p erso n a l dishon esty. T h e re is the
school situ a tio n w h ic h ca lls f o r a respect to the teach er w h ic h is qu ite
co n trary , o fte n , to th e c h i ld ’s a ctu a l fe e lin g and to th e a ttitu d e s
which he exp resses outside o f school. T h ere is the r ig id m a r k in g s y s
tem , w ith its em p h a sis on g ra d e s a n d its in v ita tio n to ch ea t, a n d th is
featu re o f the situ a tio n is m a d e w o rse h y the en em y m o r a lity w h ic h
holds hetw een teach ers a n d stu d en ts. U n d e r su ch circu m sta n ces, c h e a t
ing can com e to he a fa s c in a tin g g a m e, a n d one w h ich the s tu d e n t
loses no statu s h y p l a y i n g ; i t o fte n h a p p e n s th a t stu d en ts do n o t
outgrow th is con cep tion even w h en th ey en ter college. W h e n th e
m ain th in g is the am a ssin g of a certain n u m h er of m e a n in g le ss
credits, w h a t does it m a tte r, a fte r a ll, b y w h a t m eth o d th ey are a c
q u ired ? T h ere is, too, a d e e p -ly in g d iscrep a n cy b etw een th e p rece p ts
which teachers give o u t to stu d e n ts an d the in g r o w in g p erso n a l d is
honesty o f teach ers w h o say th in g s fo r h ire th a t th e y do n o t helieve.
C erta in d efin ition s o f the situ a tio n w ith reg ard to se x u a l fu n c tio n s
are v e ry m u c h a p a r t o f school life . O ne o f th e defin ition s w h ich it
is m ost im p o rta n t to im p o se u p o n ch ildren is the h eterose xu a l d efin i
tion o f th e situ a tio n . T h is is som etim es done, a n d in a n a tu r a l an d
spontan eou s w a y . T ea ch ers w h o arra n ge fo r a cross se x in terc h a n g e
o f v a len tin es on V a le n tin e D a y are th u s d o in g so m e th in g to m a n ip u
late the social process in the correct direction . I n a m o n o se x u a l g ro u p ,
it is som etim es n ecessa ry to im pose tahoos in a d ra stic m a n n e r. W h e n
certain d efin itely sex u al tie s h egan to a p p e a r in a g r o u p o f h oy s as
a re su lt o f the assum ption o f fe m in in e roles hy som e o f th em in a

m in stre l show) a v irile m a n teacher w as ahle ■hy m e a n s o f a dow n
rig h t speech to define clearly w h a t exp ression s o f affection w ere and
w h a t were n ot p ro p er in a grou p o f hoys, w ith th e r esu lt th a t the
h om osexu a l interchan ge hecame m u ch less o p en a n d in m ost cases
d isa p p ea red en tirely . T eachers are also con cern ed w ith im p o sin g the
tahoos o f con vention al m o r a lity u p on th eir charges. The tahoo o f
ch a stity is im p o sed u p on girls w ith u n re le n tin g sev erity . There is evi
dence th a t th e v ir g in ity o f th eir fe m a le charges is a m a tter over which
w o m en teachers exercise th em selves g r e a tly .1 A s a r esu lt p a r tly o f
th is feelin g, a n d p a r tly o f the fe e lin g th at “ p u p p y -lo v e ” is a silly
a n d bootless em otion, a n d one n ot in accord w ith the id eal o f aca
d em ic a ch ievem en t, m a n y teachers rid icu le or p u n ish all stu d en ts
w ho tak e a n obvious interest in m em hers o f the op p osite sex.
PR O JECTS
1. Minutely observe the behavior of a successful teacher in taking charge

of a new class. Describe and analyze particular acts in terms of the defini
tion of the situation.
2. Study likewise the technique of a less competent teacher. Analyze care
fully and compare with the above.
3. Describe the behavior (over several days) of a critic teacher “breaking
in” ft new practice teacher.
4. Study the techniques employed by skillful teachers in restoring order
when some extraordinary incident has disrupted classroom routine.
5. By inquiry among students and teachers investigate tbe question
whether teachers should permit students to argue about grades. Interpret
your results in terms of the definition of the situation.
6. Investigate pupil-originated definitions of situations and teacher tech
niques for meeting tbcm in a grade-school classroom during a single week.
7. Relate some single incident which seemed to change the tone of an
entire class. Analyze and interpret.
8. Study the course of student attitudes toward a teacher who begins hy
being strict and later relaxes. Compare with a similar study of a teacher who
begins by being lax and later tightens up. Analyze and interpret.
9. Observe classroom incidents which mark a crisis in teacher domination,
situations in which the teacher must “do something” or lose control. Observe
successful and unsuccessful attempts to meet these situations. Interpret.
‘ O f a group o f about seventy-five short papers written by women teachers
upon subjects to be chosen by themselves, about one quarter concerned the ex
periences o f some girl who departed from the conventional morality. This would
seem to be a strong indication that this is, fo r women teachers, one o f the
central problems o f school life.
10. Write tbe bistory of certain “ character-building’' programs in a par

ticular school.
11. Tell the story of a crisis produced by a thief in the school. Interpret.
12. Investigate the process by which students form judgments concerning
teachers. Describe the process of “trying out the teacher.” How far is this
conscious? Does it involve penetration of the teacher's unconscious motives?
13. Describe some case in which the tone of a school was changed by a
single event. (Quoted from Clow.)
14. Describe some case in which the attitude of a class seemed to he deter
mined by a single member. (Quoted from Clow.)
15. Describe some instance in which the standing of a teacher in a com
munity was changed by a single incident. (Quoted from Clow.)
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) A lm a c k , J. C., and L ang , A. R., The Beginning Teacher, Chapters
IV, V, and VI.
(2) E aglet , W. C-, Classroom Management.
(3 ) B agley , W . C., School Discipline.
(4) H elkon, H arry, The Psychology o f Gestalt, pp. 45-54.
(5) M onrof, W alter S., Directing Learning in the High School, Chapter XI.
(6) T homas, W. I., The Unadjusted Girl, pp. 42 ff. (See also Y oung,
K im ball , Source Book for Social Psychology, pp. 47-53; T h o m as ,
W. I., and Z n a n ie c k i , E lokian , The Polish Peasant in Europe and
America.)
(7) T h o m as , W. I., The Behavior Pattern and the Situation, Publications
of the American Sociological Society, Vol. XXII, pp. 1-13.
Chapter X I X
ATTITUDES AND ROLES IN CLASSROOM SITUATIONS
T h e a ttitu d e is a ten d en cy to act p ro d u c ed in the d y n a m ic inter

action betw een the in d iv id u a l a n d his en v iron m en t. "W hen a situation
is defined w e know w h at our a ttitu d e to w ard it is. F u r th e r , w e seek
to define a situ ation b y ta k in g an a ttitu d e to w a rd it. T h e search for
an a ttitu d e is a search fo r a d efin ition o f the situ a tio n . M o st o f tbe
situ ation s in w h ich h u m a n bein gs are in v o lv e d are pred o m in a n tly
social, a n d the a ttitu d e s w orked out in th ose situ a tio n s m a y he called
social a ttitu d es. O u r d iscu ssion w ill th erefo re be concerned in the
m a in w ith social attitu des, or such attitu d es as p erso n s take tow ard
situ a tio n s in which other persons are in v o lv e d as fa c to r s o f p rim ary
im portan ce. I t is especially true o f th e situ a tio n s ce n terin g abou t tbe
school th at th ey are p re d o m in a n tly social, a n d the fa ilu r e to take
cognizance o f th is fa c t m a y accou n t fo r th e fa c t t h a t m a n y w riters
on su b jects ed u ca tio n al h ave m issed the p o in t a n d t h a t p ro g ra m s of
edu cation al r e fo r m h a v e n e v e r tu rn e d o u t as th ey should.
B u t there are certain non-social reactions, certain a ttitu d es into
which social influ en ces en ter o n ly in d ire ctly , and we sh a ll atten d to
these first. V e r y im p o rta n t in the lis t o f n on -social a ttitu d e s of teach
ers a n d stu d e n ts are th eir reflex reactions to the p h ysica l conditions
o f the classroom or th e school. L ig h tin g con dition s, v e n tila tio n , odors,
noises, a n d the co n stru ctio n o f th e classroom are kn ow n to h av e a
d ire ct influence u p o n th e a ttitu d es o f teach ers and s t u d e n ts ; th e in
fluence w h ich th ey h av e is ra re ly tran sla te d d ire ctly into a c tio n ;
ce rta in ly it is n ever exp ressed in action fo r w hich the social situ a
tio n does n ot also fu r n ish a m o tivation , or fo r w hich it does not s u p p ly
a p a t t e r n ; b u t it is an influence w o rth y o f rem ark. Teachers have
o fte n th o u g h t th a t ch ild re n w ere m ore restless ou r a in y , u n co m fo rt
able d a y s th an on o th e r s; D e x te r h as tr ie d to m easu re these w eather
in flu en c es a n d he h as con clu d ed th a t th is com m on-sense gen eraliza
tio n o f teach ers rests u p o n so lid fa c t. Teachers w h o h ave k ep t stu d y
halls a n d w h o h ave a sensitive ea r fo r the shuffling o f fe e t w ill n o t find
it difficult to agree. Sm ells are also im p o rta n t d eterm in an ts of social
attitudes, O th er n on -soeial causes w ith in the p erson operate to in
fluence his a ttitu d e s ; th e w ickedness o f stu d en ts is p a r tly a m a tte r
318
ATTITUDES AND BODES IN CLASSEOOM SITUATIONS 319
o f the te a c h e r ’s d igestion , a n d in schools w here w r itte n re p o rt sheets

are kept it is possible to te ll w h en the teach er su ffers fr o m his
m igraine. W e h a v e no w ish to fa ll in to the error o f u sin g a n y of
these fa cto rs to ex p la in social b eh avior d ire c tly , a n d w e c e rta in ly
do n ot w ish to give aid or co m fort to th a t n u m ero u s p a r ty who
avoid a ll social problem s b y re fe r r in g th e m to p h y sic a l co n d ition s
th ou gh t to u n d erlie th em . I t is m e re ly n ecessa ry to n o te th a t these
reflex reaction s to p h y sic a l con dition s are im p o r ta n t elem en ts in
the total situ a tio n . P e r h a p s th ey are f a r fr o m bein g m o st im p o rta n t
elements. I f it is on a rain y d a y th a t th e in su rrection a g a in st a b a d
teacher fin a lly comes, th a t is an im p o rta n t fa c t, but not n ea rly
so im p o rta n t as th e fa c t th at he is a b a d teach er. R a in fa llin g u p o n
the stu d en ts o f good a n d b a d teach ers alike m a y m a k e th em a ll alike
restless, b u t the restlessness w ill be tra n sla te d in to q u ite d ifferen t
sorts o f social b eh avior.
C ertain g en eral a ttitu d e s o f a s lig h tly d ifferen t class need also
to be d iscu ssed u n d e r th is h eadin g. These are th e a ttitu d e s taken
tow ard su b je c t m a tter. A lth o u g h a ttitu d e s com in g ou t o f th e social
situ ation in w h ich the ch ild is in v o lv ed are p a ra m o u n t in d e te rm in
in g th e a ttitu d e to w ard su b ject m a tte r , the a ttitu d e its e lf m u st be im
personal so f a r a s the su b ject m a tte r is im p erso n a l. T h u s a ch ild a p
plies h im s e lf to h is w o rk because b e lov es h is tea ch er, or hecause he
w ants to su rpass a r iv a l, or as a r e fu g e fr o m the life a b ou t h im , o r,
as a co m p en sa tio n fo r a n in fe r io r ity co m p lex , to g a in esoteric lore
which w ill d istin g u ish h im fro m his fe llo w s, or because he w isb es to
please his p a ren ts. T h ese are a ll social attitu d es. B u t w h e n he tu r n s
to the su b je c t m a tte r o f h is courses i n school, th e c h i ld ’s a ttitu d e
m ust be im p erson al. T h e o rien tation w hich he th e n a ssum es w ith r e f
erence to the th eoretical situ a tio n c o n fr o n tin g h im is u s u a lly th a t
which ca n be ca lled the m e m o rizin g a ttitu d e or th e p ro b le m -so lv in g
attitu de or the reca llin g attitu d e. M o re ra rely th ere is a n a ttitu d e o f
tr y in g to u n d e r s ta n d the in n er m y sterie s o f th in gs. ( I t is, o f course,
quite possible fo r th e stu d en t to h av e a p erso n a l a ttitu d e to w a rd
su b ject m a tte r th a t is personal, as th at o f h isto r y m a y b e .) These
are a ttitu d es o f extrem e im p o rta n ce in d eterm in in g the c h i ld ’s su c
cess in the a ssim ila tio n o f su h je c t m atter. Th e p sy c h o lo g y of th e
school m e n som etim es errs b y con sid e rin g th em changeless fu n c tio n s
rath er th an a ttitu d es d y n a m ic a lly evolved in con n ection w ith co n
crete su b ject m a tter. P e rh a p s ed u ca tio n al m easu rem ents do n o t m e a s
ure the efficiency o f m e n ta l fu n ctio n s b u t the effect o f a tt it u d e s ! W e
m a y g a in som eth in g b y a stu d y o f th e social a ttitu d es 'd e te rm in in g
these n o n -so cia l attitu d es, b u t tb is is a su b je c t la r g e ly untouched.

I t is th o u g h t by m o st school m en th at the social sy ste m m ost con
du cive to a fa v o r a b le a ttitu d e o f stu d e n ts to w a r d s u b je c t m a tte r is
a sy ste m o f r ig id ra n k in g based u p o n n u m eric a l gra d es, w ith tw o
classes, the fa ilu r e s a n d th e successes, clea rly m ark ed off, an d su b
classes w ith in each g ro u p . B eca u se the desired a ttitu d e is not in fa c t
en g en d e re d i n a sa tisfa c to r ily la rg e n u m b er o f stu d en ts, an a tte m p t is
m ade to p a tc h u p th is social stru ctu re b y im p o r tin g oth er a n d e x tra
n eou s in d u c em en ts in to it. H e n c e all the fu tile p a tte r abou t m o tiv a tio n .
S o cial a ttitu d e s are a ttitu d es d irected at situ a tio n s in w hich other
p erso n s are fa c to r s o f p r im a r y im p o rta n ce. S o cial a ttitu d e s are m ore
n u m e ro u s a n d m ore im p o rta n t th an n on-social attitu d es, an d social
a ttitu d e s a lw a y s con d ition , w h ere th e y d o n o t co n tro l, the expression
o f n on -so cial attitu d es. F a r is h as n oted th a t it is possible to d is
tin g u ish conscious an d un consciou s a ttitu d es, g ro u p an d in d ivid u al
a ttitu d e s, and la te n t an d kinetic a ttitu d es. We m ay id e n tify all
these a ttitu d es as a c tu a lly p resen t in sch ool-room situ a tio n s. The
ex p lo ra tio n o f the u n consciou s a ttitu d e s o f stu d en ts a n d teach ers is a
ta sk th a t h as as y e t h a r d ly b een a tte m p te d , b u t it is a w ork th a t
p rom ises rich rew a rd s fo r a ll in vestig a tors. C e r ta in ly th e u n co n
scious a ttitu d e s o f teach ers influ en ce stu d e n ts as d e e p ly as tb eir m ore
con sciou s th ou ghts. I t is p a r tly b y v ir tu e o f th eir p en etration into
th e te a c h e r ’s u n verb a lized a ttitu d e s th a t ch ild ren are such good
p r a c tic a l psych ologists. T h e y ju d g e b y th e te a c h e r’s genera] behavior,
an d u n con sciou s a ttitu d es are lik e ly to show th em selves m ore p la in ly
in th a t g en eral b eh avior th an in the te a c h e r ’s con sciou s th ou g h ts.
E v e n w here th e te a c h e r ’s u n consciou s a ttitu d e is n o t c lea rly grasp ed ,
it fr e q u e n tly influ en ces th e c h ild ’s situ a tio n in such a w a y th a t the
ch ild d evelops a n a ttitu d e th at co rresp o n d s to it either b y w a y o f
reen fo reem e n t or b y w ay of o p p ositio n . G roup attitu d es, as d is
tin g u ish ed fr o m in d iv id u a l a ttitu d e s, are present in th e school room
u n d er the g u ise o f p r e ju d ic e o r in the fo r m o f collective rep resen ta
tion s. L a t e n t a ttitu d es are those w hich are n ot in th em selv es d em an d s
fo r a c t i v i t y ; th ey are lesser h a h it sy ste m s a t the service o f th e gre ater,
and m ore d em an d in g , kinetic a ttitu d e s. The a b ility to w rite is a
la te n t a ttitu d e, w hereas the desire to sm oke is a kin etic a ttitu d e. I t
is p erh ap s en lig h te n in g to reflect th a t the fo r m a l task o f the school
is th e in cu lcation u p on ch ild re n o f certain skills w h ich should be
classed as laten t a ttitu d es, th e a b ility to read, w rite, an d fig u re,
an d th a t the g reatest en em y to th is re g im e n is the c h ild ’s kinetic a tti
tu des, h is spontaneous in terest in p la y , in fig h tin g , an d in love.
ATTITUDES AND ROLES IN CLASSROOM SITUATIONS 321
A fa r t h e r d istin ction is th a t betw een social a ttitu d es w h ich arise

out o f p rim a ry gro u p situ ation s and those w h ich arise fr o m secon d ary
grou p relation s. A s w e have show n elsew here, p r im a r y g ro u p s are
those in tim a te, fa ce to fa ce, personal g ro u p s in w h ich m em b ers p a r
ticipate w ith little r e s e r v e ; secon d a ry g ro u p s p e rm it o r d e m a n d o f
their m e m b ers o n ly a segm en tal p a rticip a tio n . T h e school situ a tio n ,
and esp ecially th a t p a r t o f it w hich arises o u t o f the r e la tio n o f teach
ers to stu d en ts, is one w hich gives rise to a p e c u lia r m e la n ge of
p r im a r y a n d secon d a ry g ro u p relation sh ip s a n d attitu d es. I t is n ot
possible f o r th e relation sh ip to stabilize its e lf on the basis o f either
p rim ary g ro u p a ttitu d es or sec o n d a ry g ro u p a ttitu d e s alon e, so th a t
arran gem en ts arise w h ereb y m ix e d a ttitu d e s com e to expression , or
com p lem en tary, even a n tith e tica l, a ttitu d es com e to ex p ressio n at d i f
fe re n t tim es. W e h ave an a lyzed elsewhere the so fte n in g o f the a u th o ri
tativ e attitu d e, a secon dary g ro u p a ttitu d e in its in c ep tio n , b y the
slow g ro w th o f frie n d lin e ss, a fr ie n d lin e ss n o t o pposed to the ac
ceptance o f a u th o r ity ; w e h a v e also called a tten tio n to the fa ilu r e
o f m a n y teach ers ever to establish secon d a ry g ro u p a ttitu d es w hen
p r im a r y g ro u p a ttitu d es are p r io r to th em in tim e . S ec o n d a ry gro u p
attitu des m a y be soften ed b y the su bsequ en t g ro w th o f p r im a r y g ro u p
a ttitu d es w ith in th at stru c tu re , but th e opposite process is p sy
ch olog ically m ore exp en sive, a n d it is ra re ly p ossible.
M a n y , i f n ot m ost, social a ttitu d es p a rta k e o f th e n atu re o f roles.
A role is a social a ttitu d e reflected back u p on the in d iv id u a l either
a ctu ally or in h is im a g in a tio n . I t is an attitu d e to w hich h as been
added a rea lization o f an a ttitu d e o f anoth er w hich i t evokes in that
other. ( I t m a y in fa c t be ch ain ed to a w hole con figu ration o f m u tu a lly
in terlo ck in g a ttitu d e s .) S in ce this con cep t o f the social role w ill be
v ery im p o rta n t in th e in terp reta tio n w hich we sh all m ake o f life
in the school, it w ill perh ap s be w orth ou r w hile to essay an e x
tended discu ssion o f it.
T h a t m u ch o f h u m a n n atu re is to be u n d erstood as th e p la y in g o f
roles the poets have a lw ay s know n.
All the world's a stage,

And all the men and women merely players,
They have their exits and their entrances,
And one man in his time plays many parts
said Sh akespeare, d o u b tin g rea lity.
F o r th e scientist, h ow ever, the role is not im p o rta n t as a sy m b o l

o f u n re a lity an d th e m ark o f d isp a r ity betw een m e n ’s deeds an d the
estim ates th e y p u t u p o n t h e m ; i t i s not so m u c h im p o rta n t in that

con n ection a s in em p h asizin g the re a lity o f b eh avior orien ted b y a
k n ow led ge o f the a ttitu d es o f others.
O n e g ro u p o f sociologists h ave con sid ered th e co n cep t o f the social
role as o f su ch ce n tra l sign ifican ce f o r th e u n d e r sta n d in g o f h u m a n
n a tu r e th a t th e y h av e hased th e ir con cep tion o f p e r so n a lity u p o n it.
P a r k a n d B u rg e ss define p erso n a lity as “ T h e su m a n d organization
o f th ose tr a its w h ich d eterm in e th e role o f th e in d iv id u a l in the
g r o u p .” T h is d efin ition is som etim es a lte re d to r e a d : “ P erso n a lity
is th e su m a n d o rgan ization o f a ll th e roles one p la y s in a ll the grou ps
to w h ich he b e lo n g s .” T h is defin ition is im p o rta n t because it brin g s
c le a r ly to th e fo r e th e d ra m a tic elem en t in h u m a n hehavior, and
em p h asizes th e fa c t th a t social h eh avior f a lls n a t u r a lly in to certain
u n it s w h ich m a y be c a lle d p a r ts, o r roles.
T h e role a rises fr o m th at h ip o lar o rg a n ization o f the field o f con
sciousn ess in w h ich s e lf an d others, real o r im a g in e d , are given over
a g a in st each oth er in ex p erien ce. T h e action o f the in d iv id u a l th u s
com es to he o rien ted w ith referen ce to a n en tire situ a tio n o f w h ich
the su p p ose d a ttitu d e o f th a t other is a p a r t. T h u s w h en one he-
h a v es in a social situ a tio n o f th is sort, h e beh aves se lf-c o n sc io u sly —
to som e e x te n t h e p la y s a p a r t. T h is h eh av io r is a lw a y s d ifferen t
fr o m w h a t it w o u ld he i f a n o th er w ere n ot presen t, and it w as
th e re fo re w ith a correct in tu itio n t h a t S p en ce r m a d e m odifications
in th e h eh av io r o f one in d iv id u a l as a resu lt o f th e presence o f a n
oth er the hasis o f h is th eory o f social con trol.
T h e role ap p ears a s the org a n ization o f th e in d iv id u a l w ith r e fe r
ence to an entire s itu a tio n ; it is th e response o f th e in d iv id u a l to
the en tire situ a tio n as it h as tak en sh ape in h is m in d . S om e in sig h t
(correct or in c o rre c t) in to th e a ttitu d e s o f oth ers is im p lie d . T h e
in sig h t m a y he en tire ly fa lla c io u s, or it m a y he in com p lete, h u t to
p la y a role is to regu late o n e ’s h eh av io r h y th e im a g in e d ju d g m e n ts
o f oth ers. I n m o re c o m p lic a te d eases th ere m a y a p p e a r in terlo ck in g
ro le s o f tw o or m o re p ersons fo r the co m p letion o f w h ich m a n y in te r
con n ected acts are req u ired . (T h e n a tu re o f the social act is to be
d ire c te d a t a r e sp o n d in g o b je c t.) O r th ere m a y a p p e a r in the life
o f a g ro u p a n etw ork o f roles so ex ten d ed in tim e, so c o m p lica ted in
th e ir in tercon n ection s and so su btle in the influences w h ich th ey
ex ert u p o n each oth er th at the keenest a n a ly st m u st d esp a ir o f m a k in g
o u t m o re th a n the hasic o u tlin e o f th e p ictu re .
T h e ro le inh eres in th e social situ a tio n as the n on -so cial attitu d e
in h eres in th e m ore g en eral so r t o f situ a tio n . B o th are co n tin g e n t
T ATTITUDES AND BOLES IN CLASSROOM SITUATIONS 323
upon tb e w o rk in g o u t o f a definition o f th e situ a tio n . "W hen the

diverse elem ents o f a social situ a tio n are seen in a con figu ra tio n , a n d
the v a rio u s ten sion s w h ich the situ ation arouses in the in d iv id u a l are
( at len gth syn th esized, th ere is a m o m en t w h en th e p ro p e r role ap

pears. W h e n we are co n fro n ted w ith the life o f a n ew g ro u p , the first
im pression s are ch aotic a n d in com p lete. B u t w h en we m ake ou t th e
sense o f th a t g ro u p life , w h en w e heeome cogn izan t o f the definition
o f the situ a tio n , w e are ahle to assum e a role. "W hen the p ro p er
role is fo u n d , u n easin ess d isap p ears.
T h e p a tn e ss o f a role, its p r o p rie ty o r im p r o p rie ty , d ep en d s u p o n its
a ccep tab ility. O ne in d iv id u a l n ever, e x ce p t in th e m o st p r im itiv e
and hiological sense, resp o n d s d ire ctly to a n o th e r ; he resp on d s rath er
to a m ore o r less v eracio u s im a g in e d co n stru ct o f th a t oth er. T h e
ideal fittin g tog eth er o f h u m a n p erson alities d e p e n d s u p on a corre
spondence hetween the roles w hich a person considers h im s e lf to he
p la y in g a n d the roles w hich anoth er fa n c ie s h im to he p la y in g . C o m
plete con tact is a tta in ed w hen the i n d iv id u a l’s con cep tion o f h is
role corresponds ex a c tly to the im a g in e d con stru ct oth ers h av e o f h im .
L e t u s su ppose tw o in d iv id u a ls, A an d B, to be h rou gh t tog eth er in
a social situ ation . W i t h referen ce to A, it i s im p o rta n t to k n ow h is
con cep tion o f B and h is con cep tion o f h is own role w ith referen ce
to i f . B o th o f these persons co n fo rm to (th e im m e d ia te so cia l) rea lity
i f th ey con form to each other. W h e n it is an in d iv id u a l an d grou p
th at are in v o lv ed , a role is a cceptable to the grou p w h en i t co n fo rm s
to grou p stan d a rd s, i.e., th e fo lk w a y s a n d m ores o f the g ro u p a n d th e
basic d efin ition s o f situ a tio n s u p o n w h ich gro u p life r e s t s ; th e role
is acceptable to th e in d iv id u a l i f it co n fo rm s to h is con ception o f his
role.
F r o m d is p a r ity hetw een roles an d g ro u p sta n d a rd s arise th e p h e
nom ena o f conflict hetw een the in d iv id u a l and th e g ro u p . F r o m a
fa ilu re o f the role assigned in g ro u p lif e to c o n fo rm to the i n d iv id u a l’s
conception o f his role arise m e n ta l conflict a n d n eu rotic hehavior.
The in fe r io r ity co m p lex fo rm s ahout an inaec.eptahle role, tog eth er
w ith th e a tte m p t to g et a w ay fr o m it, a n eg a tiv e identification m e ch a
n ism . F o r fe w o f us do the roles we id e a lly p la y a c tu a lly c o n fo rm
to re a lity . B a r e ly does our ow n con ception o f ou r h eh avior coincide
w ith th e con ception o f others, a n d to the extent, th at it does n o t so co
incide, we live h y fictions ra th e r th an roles. A fiction is a role fa ls i
fied or d istorted so th at it no longer even a p p rox im ates th e con cep
tion w hich others h av e o f it. T o som e exten t, w e all live hy fictions.
A n d a so rry w o rld it w o u ld he i f the p o et h a d h a d h is w ish . I f one
* I
m o rn in g we sh ou ld awake to fin d th at we had the p o w er to see our

selves as oth ers see us, perh ap s fe w o f u s w o u ld care to finish out
that d ay alive. E ve ry m a n , says A d le r , has h is ow n hasic life -lie
th at helps to m ake existence tolerahle. B u t a life o rg a n ization th at de
pen d s upon fictions to too g reat a d egree is u n h e a lth fu l and leads
to a sort o f social suicide. I n extrem e cases the fiction m a y often he
detected b y the fact, th a t the in d iv id u a l is g iv en to fr e q u e n t an d ex
trem e changes in h is conception o f h is role w ith o u t any perceptihle
changes in h is o v ert hehavior,
O nce a role h as been a ccepted, it is in tern a lize d a n d m a d e m e an in g
fu l b y a process o f d y n a m ic elaboration. I n th e d ra m a o f life ev ery
m an w rites h is ow n lin es a n d rev ises them fr o m m o m e n t to m om ent.
The check on th is process is c o n fo r m ity to th e re a lity p rin ciple. A s
a role is m ade m e a n in g fu l, it com es to be itse lf one o f th e aim s o f
existence, one o f th e criteria h y w hich other possihle roles are ju d g e d .
(T h is process m a y he seen as equal a n d opposite to th a t other process
b y w h ich en ds hecom e m ean s, a n d i t cooperates w ith th a t process to
restore the halance o f n a tu r e .) A role w hich has th u s heen in tern alized
m a y hecom e one o f the ch ief d rives o f the p erso n a lity . N o t on ly does
such a role sin k in tow ard the cen tru m o f the p e r s o n a lity ; it also
flowers out. I t is su p p lem en ted h y a ll m a n n er o f arran gem en ts, h ahits,
a n d tested social tech n iques w h ich enahle th e in d iv id u a l to m ake the
m o st o f the role.
B u t an in d iv id u a l m a y eith er a ccep t o r reject, a role w hich a gro u p
offers h im . I n case h e r e je c ts it, i f the role con tin u es to he assigned,
th e fo r m u la o f r ejectio n is su h je c t to a like elaboration . T h e su b
je c tiv e side o f su ch a n elaborated r ejectio n is the in fe r io r ity com p lex.
A p o in t w h ich h as p e rh a p s hcen a n ticip a ted in th is discu ssion is
th a t roles m a y h e eith er con sciou s or unconscious. L on g-esta h lish ed
roles are rem o v ed fr o m th e center o f consciousness h y m ech an ism s
o f hahit fo r m a t io n ; such roles tend to he accepted a s m a tte r o f course,
w hile a tten tio n is tr a n sfe rr e d to the n ew ly elaborated details or to
n ew er roles in accordance w ith th e lon g-estah lish ed one. A difficulty
in the in tro sp ective in terp reta tio n o f h ehavior is th a t h ehavior o ften
arises fr o m the fo llo w in g out o f roles w h ich h ave heen so lon g e sta b
lish ed an d have sunk so d eep ly into th e fo u n d a tio n s o f the p erson ality
th at it is no lon g er possihle fo r consciousness to take accou n t o f them.
O th erw ise u n consciou s roles m a y arise fr o m a n org a n ization o f he
h a v io r in to w h ich the in d iv id u a l has no in sig h t o r o n ly p a rtia l in
sigh t, h u t w h ich n everth eless hecom es a n im p o rta n t p a rt o f the p e r
sonality. (T h u s id en tification , fo r som e o f the p sy ch o a n a ly tic w riters,
ATTITUDES AND e OLES IN CLASSROOM SITUATIONS
is u n con sciou sly ta k in g th e role o f a n o th e r .) O r a role o f som e im

portance m ay becom e u n con sciou s th ro u gh its re p u d ia tio n hy the
forces in con trol o f consciousness, th ro u g h the action o f the p sy c h o
an a lytic m ech an ism o f repression , a n d th is is a p p a r e n tly th e m ore
com m on case.
W r ite r s on social p sy ch o lo g y h av e a tta ch ed con siderable th eoretical
im portan ce to the con cep t o f the social role. T h e p la y in g o f roles a n d
the acqu isition o f h eh avior p a tte rn s is th o u g h t to he a ce n tra l process
in the developm en t o f p erso n a lity . O ne becom es conscious o f h is own
p erson ality h y h ecom in g aw are o f th e a ttitu d e s of others to w a rd
h im ; he a cq u ires a role a n d becom es a p erso n because h e is treated
as a person. O n e th en hecom es con sciou s o f others as e m h o d y in g roles,
and he in corp o rates into h is ow n p erso n a lity th e roles o f those others,
a process w h ich accou n ts fo r m u ch o f im ita tio n . O f th e im p o rta n ce
o f th is m ech an ism o f the accretion a n d in tern a liza tio n o f roles in the
grow th o f p erso n a lity th ere seem s no d o u h t ; h eh av io rists a n d p sy ch o
a n a ly sts alike have a tta ch ed m u ch im p o rta n ce to these id en tifica tio n
m echanism s.
T h e con cep t o f th e social role is p a r tic u la r ly f r u i t f u l fo r th e u n d e r
sta n d in g o f social life in schools. A s a n a rtificial social ord er th e
school is h a r d p u t to i t to su stain , th ro u gh th e teach er, its correlative
artificial roles, a n d to keep th e con ven tion al roles o f teach ers an d
stu d en ts fr o m h eing crow ded ou t of existen ce h y sp ontan eou s roles
which w o u ld be da n g ero u s fo r the established order. I t seem s w o rth
while to an a lyze hoth th e c o n ve n tion a l an d sp o n ta n eou s roles o f s tu
dents a n d teachers.
T h e cen tra l role o f th e teacher in h is p ro fessio n a l c a p a c ity is h is
execu tive role. T h e teach er is th e rep resen tative o f th e estab lish ed
o rd er; as such he m u st be ever r e a d y to force c o n fo r m ity a n d to
enforce disciplin e. The teacher rep resen ts th e establish ed ord er o f
b u sin ess; it is th erefore h is to call the class hack fr o m te m p tin g
d iva ga tio n s to th e m ore or less horesome rou tin e o f a c q u irin g skills
and in fo rm a tio n . The teach er is the rep resen tative o f a u th o rity , a n d
his is par excellence the do gm atic p osition . These are the com p on en ts
o f the te a c h e r ’s role as su ch . I t is a role w h ich d em an d s an in fle xi
bility o f p erso n a lity fa r su rp a ssin g th a t ex acted or even a llo w ed h y
m ost occu pation s. A s m ig h t he ex p ected , i t h as fa r -r e a c h in g effects
upon the p e rso n a lity , a n d it receives hoth in tern a l a n d ex tern a l elabo
ration . T h e details o f the c a r r y in g o f a u th o rity are w o rk e d out. w ith
m in ute p e r fe c tio n ; the te a c h e r ’s voice an d the expression o f h is
face arc fo r m a liz e d a n d fo rced to c o n fo rm to the necessities o f th e
a u th o rity roJc. L ik e w ise , there is an in tern a l a d a p ta tio n to th e con

d itio n s o f tea ch in g such th a t the te a c h e r ’s p erso n a l d ig n ity depends
u p o n the teach er r o le ; one com es to th in k o f h im se lf n o t o n ly as a
teach er h u t as the teacher.
T h o u g h th e teach er role as su ch is in flexib le, it is su p p orta b le either
fo r th e in d iv id u a l teach er or h is stu d en ts o n ly b y v irtu e o f a ra p id
a ltern a tio n w ith it of su p p le m e n ta ry or even co n tra d icto ry roJes,
T h u s one so fte n s th e in cid en ce o f his a u th o rity b y a llo w in g ce rta in
in d ica tio n s o f a d ign ified p erso n a l in terest, o f a k in d lin ess w ith re
serve, to seep th ro u g h h is cou n tenan ce. O ne altern ates the roles o f
th e k in d ly a d u lt, th e m ild ly am u sed a d u lt, a n d the fa th e r ly in d iv id u a l
w ith the tea c h in g role. T h is a ltern a tio n , an d th is role w h ich is ever
th e sa m e f o r all th e a ltern a tio n , m a y p e r h a p s becom e clearer i f w e
tak e a n ex a m p le . T h e fo llo w in g accou n t o f the a c tiv itie s o f one sec
tio n o f one d a y has been fu r n ish e d b y a teach er sk ille d in in tr o
sp e c tio n :
I looked forward with some dread to the hegirming of a school day. Teach
ing meant hours of horedom spent in making smug youngsters Icam things
they didn’t want to learn. Therefore I shaved off the last possible second from
my time for going to school.
This morning I left home at eight-forty-five, neither more nor less reluc
tantly than usual. Once I was out of doors, my school-teacher conscience be
gan to get in its work, and I hurried because I did not want to he late.
Every day at this time I resolved to start a minute or so earlier on the next
day, hut I was never able to remember the resolution on the next day. At
the corner I met Jack B., a student in my first class of the day. I wondered
whether I should wait for him or continue my walk to school alone. It was
necessary to he friendly, hut it was also necessary to keep one’s distance.
He quickened his step and gave me no choice. The greeting was a little
troublesome. I was never sure I got it right, “ Good morning, Jack,” I said,
using a tone of voice that I thought combined excellently the desired somi-
eordiality, dignity, and reserve. I was perhaps a shade friendlier than I
Bhould otherwise have heen hecause of the hoy’s show of friendliness.
“ Good morning, professor. How are yon today V
“Rotten,” I answered. He laughed, for my chronic ill humor was correctly
evaluated as something of a pose, and it was therefore amusing.
We fell in step. I hesitated to start a conversation. I felt cynical and
defeated heside Jack’s young freshness. I was conscious of the discrepancy
between my drooping shoulders and his square ones. I felt very old. I liked
Jack, for lie was a fine, straightforward hoy, hut I was never altogether at
ease with him. No doubt lie felt the same way ahout me, hut I must admit that
ho showed it less.
“ Do you think Dempsey has a chance to come hack!” he asked.
ATTITUDES AND BODES IN CLASSHOOM SITUATIONS
I pondered a while. It was part of my pose to know the inside history of

such matters. “Naw, he hasn’t got a chance. They couldn’t even get suckers
to attend the fight if it weren’t for the old hallyhoo.” Thus I emphatically,
who knew nothing about it whatever. I began to expand. I felt quite friendly
toward this hoy who had asked my judgment. But I guarded myself, and
checked the flow of speech, for I knew that a half hour later I might call
upon this hoy in class and iind him unprepared. I did not want to he
inhibited when that occurred. I remembered that on the week previous I had
condemned .Tack to spend three afternoons in the make-up study hall, and
that he had not taken these penalties with the best grace in the world. I
wondered whether he were thinking of that punishment now. Apparently he
held no grudge. What had he told his parents ahout me? Perhaps there was
no harm in heing friendly, in letting the hoy see that I could he human
outside the classroom. He went blithely on with the conversation,
“ Say, I sure saw a swell movie Saturday night. Doug Fairbanks in 'The
Mark of Zorro.’ Y’oughta see it.’’
I began to he a little angry. Decidedly this was going too far. Suggesting
that I should go to a movie! And Douglas Fairbanks indeed! But it would
not do to show my feelings too plainly. Coldly I said, “ Thanks. I don’t care
much for movies, and less for Douglas Fairhanks.”
The hoy drew hack. My tone had been altogether too chilling. Suddenly
I felt sorry for him. After all, he was only trying to he friendly. Perhaps I
could mitigate this hlow hy joking with him a little. I went on, "Oh, of
course, when I was your age, gallivanting around and breaking hearts, I
suppose I did like those romantic things.” I smiled, and tried to look some
twenty years older than I was. I must give the impression, of course, that
all these things were definitely in the past. It would not do for him to begin
joking me. It soon became evident that he had no intention of doing so. He
was too completely teased himself and enjoyed it altogether too much to try
to turn the tallies on me.
He gave a little laugh that showed that he was emharrassed and quite
pleased with himself. “No, it’s not that. I haven’t any girl,” he said.
“No? Then who is that little girl that’s supposed to he eating her heart
out for you? It seems to me I saw the two of you the other day and that
you seemed to know each other very well. Of course, it may have been your
cousin.”
The hoy was overcome, and there seemed no point in pressing my advan
tage any further.
I felt quite friendly now. The realization came suddenly that this hoy was
winning me over against ruy will. Would lie try to take advantage of this
little friendly interlude? Well, what if he did? I could show him soon enough
that I drew a line between what went on in school and what took place
outside. We chatted pleasantly, exchanged some old and feeble jokes, and
went on to school together. For the first time, I felt quite free from constraint.
We came to school and I decided to enter the front office. I did not want
to seem too intimate with this hoy. Some o f the other teachers might look
askance at me i f they saw the two o f us come in together. I took leave o f hiin
gruffly, “ I'll see you in a few minutes, I guess. H a l H a !” I thought that
would show Jack that I would be ready for anything that might come up.
Jack smiled hut he was not amused.
A few minutes o f relaxation. But I remained on guard just the same. I
greeted some friends absent-mindedly and some persons with whom relations
were temporarily strained with elaborate politeness. There was a note in
my mailbox. One o f my students was convalescing from a recent illness, ard
he thought that he would he able to make up some o f his work i f he knew
what the assignments were. I sat down at the secretary’s desk and wrote. I
made some show o f consulting my classhook, in which was absolutely rothing
that pertained to the matter, and not very much pertaining to any other
matter. B ut I carried it because it seemed to contribute a little something to
my teaching prestige. I felt very important as I wrote, and was reasonably
sure that I made a very convincing picture o f the efficient and conscientious
teacher.
“ W ell, I guess that will fix him fo r a little while,” I said.
I knew that it was useless, that it was the last that I should hear o f the
matter until the boy returned to school, and that it was absolutely unknown
that a “ Seventy student” should prepare back work in the hospital. The
secretary thanked me politely. But there was a quizzical look somewhere in
her face that made me wonder what she really thought. I left the office and
started toward class.
Classes had already passed. One or two belated students were scurrying
fo r their classrooms. Let them hurry; I didn't have to hurry. I was the
teacher. Sedately I climbed the stairs. I paused outside the door o f my
classroom. W h at a babble! I should have to speak to them about that. In a
moment it would he hushed. W h at i f it did uot hush? Perish the thought!
There had been a time when I could not he quite so sure. I put the thought
aside. Striving to appear perfunctory, uninterested, and quite unaware of
my own importance, I stepped through the door. Kubber heels were a dis
advantage in some ways. They did not announce your coming. I did not
want to ha one o f these sneaking teachers, and I'd rather have a hell on me
than always be catching students doing things they shouldn’t. Perhaps the
next pair o f shoes . . . But still the other kind o f heels did disturh a class
dreadfully. Thus m y professional thoughts.
Three or four boys saw me. I stood fram ed in the doorway. I had heard
somewhere that actors did that. It constellated attention upon one to stand
with a frame about him. The rest o f the class saw me.
“ Shhhhlili.”
I knew. They were trying to curry favor by this show o f respect. Slowly
I looked over the class. I stared mildly at each person in turn, a little longer
upon enemies and suspects than upon others. I moved slowly. I had learned
that it was best to he deliberate. I t gave them time to settle down and I
ATTITUDES AND HOLES IN CLASSROOM SITUATIONS 329
could then call their attention to the lesson by slow stages. O f course the
test-books said one should jum p right in and start pounding, but - 1 didn’ t
helieve that got as much activity from students as my methods did. A fte r
all, pupil activity was the thing. I sat, down. I adjusted m yself in the seat.
I was in no hurry. Let no one think that I was nervous. I was bored. I
could outwait them all. I opened m y book. The suspense heightened. I spoke
for the first time.
I barked out a question, “ W here did we leave off yesterday, H enry ?”
I knew. B ut I wanted H enry to tell. I t was part o f our regular daily ritual,
and the members o f my class knew as well as I that it was ju st a little game.
But woe to H enry i f he could not tell 1
Glibly he answered, “ Page 146, line 20.”
“ H um ph.” I turned to the page.
“A ll right, Translate. . . .” I looked around fo r a victim. There was Jack.
I had an idea that he was not prepared. I might as well meet that issue now.
“ Translate, Jack.”
“ I ’m sorry, sir. I ’m not prepared today.”
“ W h a t?” I raised my voice. I was going to give him what for. Going to
see “ The M ark o f Zorro?” instead o f studying his Latin! I looked at him.
Oh, well, after all he was a good kid. W ith a sigh and a gesture o f helpless
ness I indicated to the class m y despair o f ever heing ahle to do anything
with Jack. Relieved, he slumped down in his seat. “ Y o u could at least sit
up,” I said, naggingly. The over-acted despair was not yet out o f m y voice.
I held my head in my hands, still acting out discouragement.
“ W ell, who can translate the first sentence?”
H a lf a dozen bands went up. Ivan was gesticulating wildly. H e was very
anxious to be called upon. That meant that he had only prepared the first
sentence. V ery well, I should call upon him fo r the second sentence and
enjoy his discomfiture. Strange, that little play had happened so many times
before, but Ivan could not catch on. V ery well, I should stage it once more.
Charles, a quiet boy and a clever one, was looking ont the window. I won
dered whether he was doing that with a thought-out plan. I decided to call
on Charles; I called his name. I watched him narrowly, but tried not to let
him see. A very faint smile played over his lips. H e was eager to begin.
“Never mind, Charles.”
H e was very disappointed, I gave him a look that said, “ Caught you,
didn't I ? ” I smiled somewhat sardonically. Charles smiled hack. There was
resignation in his smile, and some admiration. A fter all, it was a game.
“ You show them how to translate the first sentence, Harold.” Harold was
the worst Latin student in the world. H e had never been known to translate
a sentence correctly. B ut he was brave. H e read it first in Latin. H e read
beautifully. Then came the translation.
“ Csesar— Lahienus— mumble jumble— Horsemen— mountain— mumble bat
tle.”
“ Ob. L o r d !” Again the comic despair. “ W here’s the verb?”
330 THE SOCIOLOGY OP1 TEACHING
“I don’t know, sir." Harold might not remember any Latin but he never
forgot the sir.
I had an inspiration. Carefully I explained it to Harold, “Now, Harold,
I listened carefully to your sentence. I helieve that on the whole it was
correct. But wait, I cannot let that splendid performance pass hy without
speaking of it in words of the highest praise. I will go so far as to say that
it sounded to me like one of the hest translations it has ever heen my pleas
ure to listen to. Yes, sir, man and hoy, I have had more years of experience
with the Latin tongue than you have had years of life, hut I never, posi
tively, never, never in my horn days, heard a translation that equalled yours.
But you spoke in such a low tone of voice that I am afraid the rest of the
class missed it. Would you mind, Harold, for the sake of the rest of the
class who will otherwise remain in ignorance of what a good Latin transla
tion is, would you mind repeating your rendition of that sentence, the first
sentence of the lesson, and the only one to which we have today attended V’
Harold complied, hnt resentment was in his eyes.
“ Splendid,’' I said. “Perfeet. Exactly right. Now Maurice, I hope you
have attended carefully, for I am going to ask you to translate that same
sentence, not, you understand, not that Harold didn't do it perfectly, liut
heeause I wish to see whether you followed him or not.”
Maurice was the hest student in the class. He translated. I paid little
attention. Maurice could he trusted. Harold proceeded to think of more im
portant things, prohahly what he would like to do to me some time.
“ Eine.” I was grateful to Maurice for being such a good student. Some
times he presumed upon that unspoken gratitude, hut not often.
“Now Charles, the second sentence.”
Charles looked sheepish. I taunted him. With exaggerated wonder, “ Well,
now, isn’t that strange. You don’t know the second sentence. Well, now,
isn’t that just too had. You seemed to know the first one so well that I de
cided that you must know the entire lesson and thought it would he wiser
to call upon you later. I’m very sorry. Quite unintentional I assure you."
Charles hung his head. I was having fun this morning.
“ Well, Ivan. You translate.”
Ivan did. As he finished, he hegan to smile. I appeared not to notice. “ Go
on, Ivan, go on. I didn’t tell you to stop. You did that sentence so well that
I’m going to give you a chance to recite the whole lesson.” Blandly I urged
him on. But Ivan could do no more.
“ Well, Ivan,” I conceded, “it nearly worked.”
More translating, hut mostly routine now. Midway of the hour. This is
the day for the lesson in composition.
“All right. I’ll take those composition papers.”
Much shifting and folding of papers. I went from student to student
One or two turned in no papers. I glared at each of these and made imagin
ary notations in my hook. One hoy hastily wrote something on a sheet of
paper and folded the paper. I saw him from the comer of my eye. When 1
ATTITUDES AND K&LES IN CLASSROOM SITUATIONS 331
came to him I seized his paper, opened it, and found that he had merely
written the English of the first two sentences. In a rage I glared at him. I
started to speak hut was unahle to find words strong enough to express my
feelings. I tried again. With an obvious effort, I controlled myself and
pronounced judgment.
“ For that your presence at loafers’ study hall will he required for one
week. Harold and Ivan will report for one day only. And the next time
you’re going to he smart, Thurston, don’t try it out on me.”
The students passed to the hoard in an orderly fashion, and soon began
to write. I had a few moments of rest while I gazed out of the window and
thought of other things.
'Then I went the rounds of the class, correcting the first two or three
sentences of each student, and berating them individually and collectively
for their stupidity.
I heard a little noise outside the door. The principal l And another man
with him. A parent, of course. They came in.
“Just go right on with your work, professor, we’re looking the place orer
and we just came in here for a little while.”
The atmosphere changed. Chalk clicked upon the blackboard more
methodically. My manner changed. I became patient, fatherly, efficient.
I went the rounds of the class, stopping hy each student to point out
mistakes. This I did a little more thoroughly and much more calmly than
before. No heratings now. Only explanation and a little benignant exhorta
tion.
Poor Harold had made little progress. He was patiently looking up words
in the voeahulary and writing them down. I wondered whether the visitor
knew any Latin. I gave Harold a little lecture on Latin composition.
“ Well, you have not got very far have you. I’m afraid you will have to
erase all that now and start over. Now listen to me and I will tell you again
some of the important tilings to remember when translating. Find the suhject
of the English sentence. Sometimes it is a good idea to diagram the English
sentence. Anyhow, find the subject. Translate the suhject. Put it in the
nominative case. Find the verb. Find the number, person, tense, mood, voice
of the verh. Translate the verh. Be sure you have the correct principal parts
of the verh. Be sure it agrees with the suhject in person and number. Has
the sentence a direct ohject? I f it has, translate that. Put it in the accusative
case. Has it an indirect ohject? Put it in the dative. Has it any adjectives?
Make them agree with the noun they modify. Has it any prepositional
phrases? Be sure you get the correct preposition and the proper case to
go with it.”
Harold was somewhat mystified at receiving so much attention. Perhaps he
was not mystified. Perhaps he saw through it all. At any rate he was polite.
“Yes, sir. Thank you, sir.”
Harold had not understood a word. But I had to deal with him somehow.
It wasn’t that I wanted to pose. But there he stood and'I could not ignore
him in front of a parent. And it might be equally bad to write his sentence
for him, for then the persons watching would think me easy, something
which I certainly was not. I knew the principal would privately inform the
man (against the possibility that his own hoy might sometime he in one of
my classes) that I had the reputation of being something of a Tartar, and
that he guessed that I sometimes got after them pretty hard. And anyhow
parents didn’t understand; I had never been a parent bnt then most parents
had never been teachers, so that made it even. And it didn’t do to show
parents things they would never understand. Besides, I did not want to
fly into an infantile rage in the presence of a strange adult. That was all
very well for boys, and it was not embarrassing in the presence of fellow
teachers, but one hesitates to make a fool of himself in the presence of a real
grown-up. (Fictionized life history document.)
T h e kaleidoscopic sh iftin g s o f roles a p p a re n t in th is case h istory
cou ld dou b tless be p a ralleled in m any others. The essential role,
how ever, rem ains. I t m a y be sh arp en ed , or so ften ed , or it m a y fo r
th e m o m en t be la id aside, b u t the tea ch er is a lw a y s conscious o f it,
a n d h e w ill n o t a llo w a n y role r e a lly to in terfere w ith it. I t is also sig
n ifican t to note the disappearance o f the ju v e n ile antics w h en other
a d u lts ap p eared on the scene, an d th e resu lta n t lim ita tio n o f the
te a c h in g to th e essential tea ch in g role, w h ich w as its e lf som ew hat
em b roid ered fo r the benefit o f the audience. One sh ou ld distinguish
c a r e fu lly roles p la y e d b y teach ers fo r the benefit o f stu d en ts and
th ose p la y e d fo r th e edification o f p erson s ou tsid e th e situ a tio n , as
o th er teach ers a n d parents.
T h ere is a g reater v a rie ty a m o n g th e roles c u sto m a rily p la y e d b y
stu d e n ts, an d n ot a ll o f th em are ob vio u sly centered arou n d a n y one
po in t. I n th e p r im a r y g ro u p life o f ch ild ren , stu d en ts o ften p la y roles
q u ite at v arian ce w ith th ose w h ich th e y find it necessary to assum e
w h en a teach er is presen t. T h u s school ch ild ren are o fte n like those
m e n w h o, a g g ressiv ely obscene in the so ciety o f m en, becom e reticent
and refined in the presence o f w om en. R oles w h ich re cu r in a l
m o st ev ery p la y grou p are those o f th e lea d er, th e clow n , the b u lly ,
th e g o a t, th e tru sted m e m b er o f th e g a n g (b y co n trast w ith m argin al
m e m b er, or th e ca n d id a te f o r m e m b e r s h ip ), etc. T h ere is a ten den cy
f o r these ro le s to be ca rried in to th e school room , b u t each one is
su b je c te d to som e m e tam orp h osis, a n d sh arp breaks, as w e have re
m a rk ed , a rc a lw ay s possible. T h u s the lea d er m a y rem a in a leader,
b u t he m u st a d a p t his lea d ersh ip to the (u s u a lly ) su p erio r force
o f th e teacher, w h ich he m a y do th ro u g h a llian ce, o p p ositio n , riv alry,
or oth er m eans. T h e clow n is still a clow n, b u t his b u ffo o n e ry m u st be
ATTITUDES AND HOLES IN CLASSROOM SITUATIONS 333
disguised, it m a y becom e covert, or it m a y adopt a m ien o f inn ocen ce

and pose aa b lu n d e rin g stu p id ity . T h e tru sted m e m b er o f the g a n g ,
the loy a l one, m a y p la y no such role w ith referen ce to th e teacher.
I t is h is to avoid a n y en ta n g lin g .alliances betw een h im s e lf a n d the
teacher. T h e g o a t receives the te a c h e r ’ s p ro te ctio n , an d p erh ap s b e
comes all the m ore a g oa t fo r h av in g it. M a n y roles w h ich the stu d en t
fr e q u e n tly p la y s w ith referen ce to the teacher are rare or e n tirely
n on -existen t in the p la y g rou p . S u ch a r e : the good boy, the bad b o y ,
the te a ch e r’ s h elp er, the te a c h e r 's rep resen tative, th e sy eh o p h a n t, th e
stool-p igeon , etc. I t is n o tew orth y th at certain ch ild re n acqu ire r e co g
n ized p rescrip tiv e rig h ts in p a r tic u la r roles.
T h e teach er, fo llo w in g o u t h is cu sto m a ry role, a tte m p ts to d elim it
the social in tera ction o f th e classroom . H e strives to can alize the
attention o f stu d en ts an d to m ake it w ork u p o n su b je c t m a tte r. T h e
perfect, p ictu re o f the n o rm a l in teraction o f p erson alities in the class
room. is th a t o f teach er an d p u p ils p la y in g th eir cu sto m a ry roles, o f
the teacher ex e rtin g p ressu re first at one p o in t a n d then a t an oth er
in ord er th a t a tten tio n m a y be co n cen trated on rou tin e business. “ P a y
atten tion n o w ,” sa y s th e teacher. “ J u st liste n to t h is .” “ W h a t do
you th in k G eorge W a s h in g to n said w h en his fa th e r asked h im w ho
ch opped dow n th e ch erry t r e e ? ” “ W h o can te ll u s th e sto r y o f th e
B oston T ea P a r t y ? ” T h u s th e teach er c o n tin u a lly strives to evoke
in stu d en ts th e a ttitu d in a l set w h ich w e call “ a tte n tio n ,” the a tti
tude tow ard su b ject m a tte r fr o m w’h ich ensues “ the ph en om en al
definition o f the con tou r an d in n e r articu laten ess o f a p erceived con
fig u ra tio n .” T h e atten tion o f stu d en ts ten ds to w a n d er fr o m c u t-a n d -
dried s u b je c t m a tter. A s a tten tio n w a n d ers, th e scope o f social in te r
action broadens. T h e teach er b rin g s it back in a m a n n e r v e r y sim ila r
to th a t o f a d o g d r iv in g a h erd o f sheep. N o r m a lly th e teach er is
able to p re v a il over th e ten d en cy to w a n d er a n d to call b a ck a tten
tion to th e su b je c t o f discussion. Som etim es no effort can p re v a il,
as on the la st d a y o f school b efore a v acation , or the d a y b e fo re a
b ig gam e, w h en the a ttitu d in a l set o f th e ch ildren is firm ly h eld b y
som ething m u ch m ore a llu rin g th an B e o w u lf or th e b in o m ia l th e o r e m ;
and som etim es a tten tion is d iverted to th e stru g g le o f person alities
rath er th an to s u b je c t m a t t e r ; th is w ill c e rta in ly be tru e if the
p rob lem o f discip lin e rem ains u n settled , or i f th e teach er m akes
too m u ch o f discipline. (T h a t is a n o th er reason f o r the fe e lin g o f
school m e n th a t “ the less sa id ab ou t d iscip lin e the b e t t e r .” ) T h is
is the d eg en eracy o f the n o rm a l social process o f th e school.
T h e teach er m a y use th e a ssig n in g o f roles fo r th e co n tro l o f
students. W h e th e r th ey w ill or n o, teachers use id en tification m echa

n ism s, an d a teacher w ho does n o t u n d e rsta n d th e su btle processes
in v o lv ed is v e r y lik e ly to invoke the gods o f su g g estio n to h is own
hurt.. (T h e iden tification m ech an ism , clea rly conscious, self-conscious
in fa c t, where it is im posed b y one p erson u p o n a n o th er m a y be re
g a rd e d as a special case o f su g g e s tio n ; it is th e su gg estion o f a role.)
Id en tifica tio n m ech an ism s w h ich are m ost fr e q u e n tly u sed with
any aw areness of their n a tu r e are positive id en tification m echa
nism s. P o sitiv e id entification m ech an ism s are those assigned roles
w ith w hich the In d ivid u al identifies h im s e lf p o sitiv e ly an d which
he lives out w ith a fe e lin g o f pleasure. T h eir w e ig h t dep en d s u p on
th e p sy ch ic value o f the role a n d the significance o f th e relation sh ip
in w h ich it arises. O n e ’s reaction to a role m a y o f course he either
p ositive or n eg a tiv e, b u t i t is a lw a y s sign ifican t i f the grou p is sig
nificant. O n e grow s in to th e roles to w h ich one reacts p o s itiv e ly ; he
e x p a n d s th ro u g h th em , and elaborates th em . O n e g ro w s aw ay fr o m
the role to w h ich he rea cts n e g a tiv e ly , a n d he elaborates h is de
fe n c e s a ga in st the role. A l l h u m a n life m a y be seen as a sh iftin g
ta n g le o f social roles, a n d fr o m this p o in t o f view it ap p ears as a
co m p lex , in te rw e a v in g p a tte rn lik e a P e r s ia n ru g th a t has come
to life .
T h e tech n iq ue b y w h ich p o sitive id entification m ech an ism s are em
p lo y e d requ ires u su a lly tw o ste p s: first, to establish the relationship
as sign ifican t, so th at an assign ed role m a y be tak en s e r io u s ly ; and
second, to assign th e role. O n e is m ore lik ely to a ccept su ggestion s
fr o m fr ie n d s th an fr o m enem ies, an d one is m u ch in flu en ced b y the
p restig e o f th e su ggestion agen t. I t is desirable th at a role w h ich one
w ish es to assign to anoth er h ave som e basis in fa c t, so th at it m a y
be acceptable to the other an d credible to h im . Th e tech n iq ue of
the v isitin g teach ers, as M a r y B u e ll S a yles an d o th ers have ex
p o u n d ed it, seem s to be based v e r y la r g e ly u p o n th is m echanism .
F i r s t they establish a fr ie n d ly ra p p o rt w ith their s u b je c t ; then th e y
select th a t p e r so n ’s best q u a lity or m o st n ota b le accom plish m en t
a n d praise h im fo r it. Th e resu lt is o ften th a t the en tire p erso n a lity
is th en reorganized abou t the one role in to w h ich the in d iv id u a l
g row s. I t w ou ld be tediou s to g ive m a n y ex am p les, a n d it is u nneces
sa ry , in asm u ch as th e technique h as been so a b ly exp ou n d ed and
w ith such a w ealth o f illu stra tio n in the p u b lic a tio n s o f the C o m
m on w ea lth F u n d . T h is tech n iq ue is also im p o rta n t in the schem e o f
li f e o f p riv a te sc h o o ls; it p la y s a larg e p a r t in th eir cerem onies,
a n d in the social g ra d a tio n s w h ich reflect th eir sy stem s o f rew ards
v
ATTITUDES AND BODES IN CLASSROOM SITUATIONS 335
and p u n ish m en ts. W h e r e ath letics p la y s an im p o rta n t p a r t in school

life, it o ften h appens th a t a b o y first receives fa v o r a b le reco g n itio n
fo r some q u a lity w h ich he d isp la y s on the ath letic field, and that,
he th en reorganizes his p erso n a lity aro u n d th a t n ew role. T h u s a
rebellious Jew ish b o y was m etam orph osed in to a p illa r o f society
when one o f h is m entors p ra ise d h im p u b lic ly as a “ fig h te r .” T eachers
have been u s in g these id en tification m ech an ism s f o r a lo n g t im e ;
it is a v e r y o ld p o lic y to m a k e the w o rk o f the m o n ito r seem ra th er
a p riv ile g e th an a task.
C om m o n ly , h ow ever, teach ers use su g g estio n m e ch an ism s in such
a w a y as to im p e r il th eir o w n con trol o f the stu d en t g ro u p . W h e n - a
relationship o f h ostility exists b etw een stu d en ts an d teach ers, fa v o r
able reco g n itio n fr o m the teach er acts as a n eg a tiv e iden tification
m echanism , an d u n fa v o r a b le reco g n itio n a cts p o sitiv ely . T o some ex
tent th is w as the case w ith “ C razy A n d y . ” 1 I n other cases, th e u n
favorab le n otice fr o m th e teach er is m ore th a n co u n te rb ala n ced b y
the fa v o ra b le reco g n itio n o n e receives fr o m stu d en ts, so th a t a lik e
reversal com es abou t. T y p ic a l o f su ch cases is the f o llo w in g :
My very worst teacher taught me most ahout teaching school. I was a
very well-hehaved child in school, even nnder this weak teacher. But there
was one regulation that none of ns ever even thought of observing, because
it was contrary to tradition and in our opinion unjust. That was the rule
forbidding talking and moving about the room during recess. In common
with the rest of the boys in the grade, I talked and laughed at recess time.
One day the teacher ohserved us all from the baek door. When school re
opened he made a little speech and announced to the school that he had
always thought me a good boy, but that he had seen me at recess time, and
had then decided that I was a bad boy. I got tlio feeling from hia words and
from the admiring glances of the other children that I was a desperate
ruffian, and I can still rememher the little swagger that I put into my walk
as long as that man was my teacher. I did many things thereafter to confirm
him in his opinion of me.
There is a lim it to th e use o f id en tification m e ch a n ism s i n th e
school as it is a ctu a lly co n stitu ted . T h is is set b y the social d ista n ce
between tea ch er a n d stu d en t, w h ich m akes the process difficult, and
by the n ecessity o f a d ju s tin g the ego d em an d s o f stu d en ts an d teacher
to each other, an a d ju stm e n t w h ich is m ad e m ore difficu lt because
o f th e ten d en cy o f e x p a n d in g so cial roles to b rin g h u m a n b ein g s
into conflict w ith each other. F a v o r a b le recogn ition , i f it le a d s to
a fa ilu re o f the stu d e n t to a d ju s t h is p e rso n a lity to th e teacher, m a y
m ake a b o y or g ir l a v e r y difficu lt case. T h e teach er who h as b r e d
1Sue p. 340.
tbis quality in him may perhaps still be able to live witb bim, but
it often happens that the expansion of tbe ego involved in living
out a favorable role may lead a student to disregard utterly the
rights of other students, whereupon it becomes necessary fo r the
teacher to “ take him down a peg.”
Tbis “ taking a boy down a peg” is a deflation o f tbe ego which
comes from forcing upon a person the role which is truly his in a
situation and depriving him of some role, usually more flattering to
himself, which he has been living out. Undoubtedly this technique,
used wisely, has a place, though it should be contrary to teaching
morality for a teacher to use it merely for the gratification of bis
own ego demands. A legitimate and very clever use of this technique
was the following'
A psychiatrist who has had remarkably good success in establish
ing rapport with sub-adolescent delinquent boys ascribed a large
part of his success to a technique he had developed for this purpose.
He invariably hegan his interview with a physical examination; that
established him as a doctor (which marked him off at once from
employees of the court) and put him on an intimate footing with
the boy, since he demanded that the boy strip for the examination,
As a further measure, he sometimes had his secretary, a woman,
assist in tbe process. He reassured the boy from time to time, “ I t ’s
all right. Y o u ’re just a little boy and i t ’s all right. Now Miss So-
and-So is my secretary and sbe has to be here to take notes and
to help me. And y o u ’re just a little boy and i t ’s all right.” This
technique was sufficient to pierce almost any b oy ’s armor. In ex
treme cases he did not return the hoy’s clothes immediately, but
continued the interview while the boy remained naked. He remarked
that it was very difficult for a small boy to remain defiant when he
hadn’t any clothes.
Negative identification mechanisms are habitually used by many
teachers, usually without any realization of their psychological nature.
The epithet is a negative identification mechanism, and it prompts
the student to reverse the epithet and otherwise to prove tbe teacher
wrong. (In A ll Quiet on the Western. Front, tbe school-master
Kantorek’s former pupil has an opportunity to reverse the situation,
and to tell him that he is “ Quite, quite inadequate, Kantorek.” This
may serve to show how the epithet really takes hold.) So likewise tbe
challenge, “ This is too hard for you ,” often elicits a hetter response
from a certain kind of student than “ This is a very interesting
point.” But since tbe negative identification mechanism depends for
r ATTITUDES AND ROLES IN CLASSROOM SITUATIONS
success on th e sLu den t’s p r o v in g the teacher w ro n g , it is o ften costly

to the te a c h e r ’s p restige. It m ay also, b y a g g r a v a tin g
feelin gs, do v a st a n d irre p a ra b le i n ju r y to tb e stu d en t.
337
in fe r io r ity
PROJECTS
1. Mate a case study of a hoy who likes Latin. Carefully analyze the
complex of motives he hind this taste.
2. Similarly investigate the background of a violent distaste for some
.school subject.
3. 'Write the life bistory of a school child in terms of acceptable and un
acceptable roles.
4. Write an introspective account of the alternation of roles during a day
of teaching. I f possihle compare with an objective account prepared hy
another ohserver.
5. Descrihe and analyze the roles habitually played by tbe members of a
small class in the upper grades or high school.
G. Make a case study of a hoy or girl whose personality was markedly
changed as a result of acquiring some new role.
7. Select a teacher who praises students frequently, hut apparently ju
diciously, and attempt to ascertain hy inquiry among his students what his
effect upon their personalities is.
8. Sit in the classroom of a teacher who uses the challenging technique.
Make a list of students challenged. Find out hy inquiry outside of class what
these students thought of when the challenges were issued.
9. Make a list of ten teachers who use positive and ten who use negative
identification mechanisms. Have some other person rate them in teaching
efficiency (either on a scale of points or a ranking hasis). What do your
results show 7
10. Study the hehavior of a teacher and a student when the teacher is
“taking the student down a peg.” Describe the hehavior minutely, and analyze
the social attitudes and roles involved.
11. Study the alternations of attention, distraction, head movements, eye
movements, and apparent outgo of affectional responses in a teacher with a
class of thirty. List all of these you can, and show hy a seating chart how
they are distributed over the class. Compare the results with a similar study
of a teacher with a smaller class.
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) P aris, E l l s w o r t h , “ The Concept of Social Attitudes,” Journal of Ap
plied. Sociology, 1925, Vol. IX, pp. 404-409.
(2) F aris, Ellsworth, T he N a tu re of H u m a n N a tu re , Publications of the
American Sociological Society, Vol. XX, 1926.
(3 ) S a y l e s , M a r y B u ell , T h ree P r o b le m C hildren.
(4) Sayle s, M ary B uell, The Problem Child at Home.
The Problem Child in School.

( 5 ) S a y l e s , M a r t B u ell ,
(6) W h it l e y , L., “Interviewing the Problem Boy,” Journal
R obert
Educational Sociology, Yol. V, No. 2, October, 1931, pp. 89-101; No.
November, 1931, pp. 140-152.
r
Chapter X X
FOCAL POINTS OF STUDENT-TEACHER ANTAGONISM
T he teach er, e x ertin g p ressu re, now here, now there, keeps her
class togeth er a n d keeps all its m em hers m o v in g in the sam e direction.
N o rm ally , h y d a rtin g fr o m one p a r t o f th e class to another, she co n
trols the classroom situ ation easily. B u t som etim es she does n ot p re
vail, a n d she finds th at at e v e ry p o in t w here she a tte m p ts to exert
pressure she m eets d eterm in ed resistance. T h e classroom in tera ction
then becom es a stru g g le o f personalities.
T h a t stru g g le o f p erso n a lities m a y hecom e a fe u d .1 I n the fe u d
all the la te n t e n m ity o f teach ers and stu den ts is u n m asked, an d teacher
and stu d en ts m eet a n d h ate w ith no social bu ffer betw een them . The
stu d e n ts’ attacks u p o n the teach er h av e redu ced h im to desp eration ,
and he is r e a d y to m ake h is la st, agon ized stan d . Th e te a c h e r ’s attacks
upon the class, u s u a lly u n d isc rim in a tin g a n d ill advised, have tr a n s
fo rm ed i t in to a con flict g ro u p . The fe u d in v o lv es the w hole p erso n a li
ties o f stu d en ts an d teachers, and it en gages th eir en tire atten tion .
The fe u d is u s u a lly cyclic, m o v in g fr o m in c id en t to incident. B e h a v io r
in th e d ra m a tic in c id en ts is exp licab le p sy c h o lo g ic a lly as due to su m
mation ; i t is possihle because o f the a ccu m u lation o f ten sion as a
result o f in te rv e n in g in cid en ts. B u t the m a jo r in cid en ts m a y th e m
selves he r a n g e d in a s e r ie s; th e en tire process m oves tow ard a p a r
ticular p o in t. A n excellen t d escrip tion o f a fe u d is the fo llo w in g :
XE . K . 'W 'icicm an h a s s t a t e d th e p s y c h o l o g y o f t h e s c h o o lr o o m f e n d a s f o l l o w s
(C hild ren’ s B eh a vior and T ea c h ers’ A ttitu d e s , p p , 1 6 1 -1 6 2 ; A C o m m o n w e a lth
Fund p u b lic a tio n ):
“ T h e f r u s t r a t e d i n d iv id u a l r e q u ir e s s a t i s f a c t i o n in o r d e r t o s e c u r e r e le a s e
f r o m th e t e n s io n a n d s t a t e o f d is c o n t e n t w h ic h h a s b e e n a r o u s e d . T h is s a t is
f a c t io n i s u s u a lly a c h ie v e d b y a t t a c k u p o n th e o b j e c t t h a t h a s p r o d u c e d
the ir r i t a t i o n . T h e fr u s t r a t i n g o b j e c t in th e c a s e o f b e h a v io r p r o b le m s in t h e
c la s s r o o m is th e c h i l d w h o h a s m is b e h a v e d . O n ly w h en s a t i s f a c t i o n is o b t a in e d
can th e t e a c h e r r e s t o r e h e r e q u ilib r iu m . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , c h ild r e n d o n o t a lw a y s
g r a n t th is s a t i s f a c t i o n t o th e t e a c h e r . T h e y , t o o , a re h u m a n a n d r e a c t t o f r u s
t ra tio n s . I n th is w a y a Beries o f f r u s t r a t i o n s a n d r e t a lia t io n s , a t t a c k s , a n d c o u n t e r
a tta ck s is o f t e n in it i a t e d w h ic h n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y r u n s t h e c o u r s e o f an e n t ir e
sch o o l te rm . ’ ’
E x c e l l e n t a s th is s t a t e m e n t is , i t s t a n d s in n e e d o f s o m e s u p p le m e n t a t io n f r o m
the s o c i o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v ie w . S im m e l c o n s id e r s th e m o t iv a t io n o f th e f e u d t o
he “ th e p e c u l i a r p h e n o m e n o n o f s o c i a l h a tr e d , t h a t is , o f h a tr e d t o w a r d a m e m
b e r o f a g r o u p , n o t f r o m p e r s o n a l m o t iv e s , b u t b e c a u s e b e t h r e a t e n s th e e x is t e n c e
o f th e g r o u p , ’ ’ ( R e p r i n t e d b y p e r m is s io n o f T h e C o m m o n w e a lth E u n d , D iv is io n
o f P u b lic a t io n s .)
339
The bell rang after first home room period and we all filed into Miss
Anderson's room. She was to teach us English and Vocational Readings,
Pete, being the largest of the group, also was the leader, so this very first
morning he began round one, by throwing kernels of corn which he had in
his pockets. Miss Anderson’s red hair didn't belie the old adage, "Red hair,
fiery temper," and it didn’t take her long to run to the hack of the room
and grah him by the collar and send him from the room. She led him out,
and while she was gone the group inside snickered and the snickering didn’t
stop even after the teacher came in again. She looked about, but, seeing that
all of us were laughing, she realized that she could do nothing about it
unless she threatened us in some way. The consequence was that we all
stayed twenty minutes after school, which gave us an additional twenty
minutes to put things over on her.
Raymond and Lee were two pals, and would hatch out schemes to put into
play aa soon as class opeued- Ray advanced from rear to front seat the first
week so Lee was left alone, hut not for long. His idea was to be as mean as
Raymond had been and to get a front scat too. He began by following Miss
Anderson around the room asking for a new pencil, a piece of paper, a
pocket-knife, a pen-point or a drink. She, thinking to hurt him, usually re
fused, whereas if she hadn’t Lee would soon have run out of ideas. But the
very fact that she wouldn’t let him have his way gave him a chance to keep
after her. She would walk around the room at a break-neck speed and he’d
follow, talking continuously and she, holding both hands to her ears, would
screech back like a kuut-ow], not knowing at whom she was screeching, until
the class was in a fit of laughter. “ Go away! Go away! I don't want to listen
to you!’’ Lee never did go away, and knowing that she would soon tire out
she suddenly turned on him and, eyes popping, almost frothing at the mouth,
she would angrily stammer out several broken phrases, and Lee, realizing he
had got the best of her, would take his seat. She had always sat down at
her desk after such a scene, and stared over the top of the heads of the
class, which was now settled and quietly at work. Such scenes went on for
a solid week hefore Lee won his point. Yes, that front seat had been meant
for him in the first place, only Miss Anderson hadn’t been big enough to
give it to him.
Now Lee, Raymond and Pete were seated in a perfect triangle, center back
seat for Pete, and two outside front seats for Lee and Ray. The arrangement
was in the boys' favor, so much so that it was obvious even to the rest of
the students.
I had been sent to the cloakroom one day for "misbehaving,” and it was
cold, so that I had to keep active to keep warm. The electric light was my
first plaything, and after I found that snapping the light off and on created
no disturbance from the inside, I decided to misplace the wraps. After 1 had
changed gloves from one pocket to another and all the boys’ caps were under
the girls’ coats and some of them in the overshoes, I was again out of work.
About that time Pete began a whistling tune of his own and I decided to
FOCAL POINTS OP STUDENT-TEACHER ANTAGONISM 341
join him, but began a little too late. Pete, ready for action, began again, and
as soon as the teacher had run to the baek of the room Lee began in front.
She gave Pete one icicle look, and dashed up to Lee’s desk, not knowing that
he really did it. it was Ray's turn now, so I heard a sharp whistle, hurried
footsteps and “ Stop that now. Do you hear mcl1' I didn’t wait for Ray’s an
swer, but rounding my lips I whistled as loud as I could. There was a moment
of dead silence. What was happening inside I didn’t know, but once again I
heard quick footsteps coming closer, and then Pete’s deep voice, “Miss
Anderson, there’s a robin out in the hall.” This was enough for me, for I
realized that I was in for something. Instead of sneaking down to the other
end of the hall as any normal human being would have done, I stayed where
I was, curious to see the outcome, for in my mind I vividly pictured “ Crazy
Andie” sputtering and spitting at the same time. Roller towels at that time
had not been put in the schools, but she certainly was in need of one. Just
then her shaky, waspy figure appeared in the doorway and with two out
stretched hands she sprang against me, being careful to have a sound foot
ing, as though afraid I had been expecting her quick and powerful bump,
and had stabilized my own footing accordingly. With a sudden jerk, I turned
myself about and went sliding on down to the other end of the hallway. I
was less interested in rvhat she was saying than in keeping my balance, but
I faintly heard her cracked voice above the shouts and laughter inside the
room, as she shouted, “Get out of my hall, get out of my hall 1” It sounded
very much like a cry for help!
I walked down stairs and went outside, walked around the building, and
after composing myself I came hack up again. I was wondering how I ’d
meet her again. I could picture icy stares from her if I walked in on her
class again, but decided it was best. No telling when the principal might
crime along and catch me in the hall!
For several minutes I stood before the door.—I couldn’t enter this door,
for I’d have to walk all the way up the aisle to get to my seat. Thai, would
never do, for I’d create all over again the upheaval I’d just created a few
minutes before. I walked in the front door, passed the teacher’s desk, and,
sitting down at my own desk, I took up my book and began to study. I
didn’t look up at anyone so all went well.
For some time I was quite tbe goody-goody child, and the queer part
about it to me- seemed to be that the teacher, of all persons, was taking a
real liking to mo; I realized one day, to my great surprise, that I had
gradually become the teacher’s pet. The class didn’t seem to mind, because
underneath all this outer coating I was still as mischievous as ever, but I
erased the blackboards, passed out papers, took slips to the office, etc., all
of which I hadn’t asked to do.
So it happened that one day I was studying and was not fully conscious
of the tug of war going on ahout me between teacher and pupils. My head
was close down to my desk and I was reading when someone’s poppy eyes
stared from below me into my face, and before I realized whose face it was
I recognized the jaggy voice as she hoarsely whispered (loud enough sjh for all
to hear), “Betty, go down and call Miss ------------ (the principal).■ Tell her
to come up immediately.” I got up, looted all ahout me, and waited IrAf! 'from
Prnm
the room, heing followed closely hy Miss Anderson. As soon as we got to
the hallway she said to me, “ Don’t call Miss------------. Just go down and
come hack up again.” I went and came, and as I entered the room, she
stopped the recitation, which was now well under way, the class having
quieted to meet the principal when she came. Miss Anderson looked at me
with a very unsteady glance, and forced herself to stammer, “Is she coming!”
“ Yes, she'll come,” was all I said. This was too much for the class to let go
hy without getting even with me. The result was that the class organized it
self against me, and try as I would I could not hreak the bard shell which
coated the group, so I was left alone to stay on the teacher’s side. It wasn't
quite so easy for me to erase the blackboard and pass out papers from
now on, so I looked all about me for a chance to get a break with the gang.
The chance came one day in this form:
I was passing papers when Lee said, “Betty, give me a few extra ones. I
want to play a triek on the teacher. Of course I refused hut when I passed
out papers I passed out a number of extras to his row so he took as many
as be wanted from the pile he fore he passed it hack. I anxiously waited for
the so-called trick, and it happened that a piece of folded papqv came up
from the hack and as it progressed forward each child picked it up, opened
it, snickered, and threw it up to the fellow in front, and then turned and
whispered a few hurried sentences to his neighbor. It came up to my chair
and I opened it, read it, and found this:
STUNG!
I folded it again, and threw it up to the teacher’s desk. One of her peculiari
ties was picking up scraps of paper on her hourly round ahout the room, and
taking them to the waste hasket. Often she even took unused sheets, crumpled
them nervously and on her way past the basket dropped them in.
She got up, walked past her desk and picked up the paper. All eyes were
on her hut none met hers when she looked suspiciously over tbe group.
Everyone was husily preparing his lesson. But many heads hehinl the backs
of the hooks were turned to their neighbors who were trying to he sober hut
couldn’t.
I was the first person to meet her eyes, and, looking at me rather sur-
prisedly, as if she ready hadn’t expected it from me, she grinned ironically
and said aloud, “But it didn’t hurt.” I couldn’t help smiling, and before I
could again put on a soher face she stood at my desk, and with her eyes
piercing me through and through, she boldly asserted, “You did this.”
“ I did not 1”
“ Yes, you did! Let me see your notehook!” She looked at my notehook,
and, finding no evidence, she went on.
“I still think you did it.”
JTOCAL POINTS OP STTJDENT-TEAOHEB ANTAGONISM 343
“If you do, you heller think again.”

It wan too much for me, hut I couldn’t prove I hadn’t so she said, “Do
you know who did it? Tell me! If you Icnow who did it and tell me you know,
I Won't ask you who it is.”
“Yes, I do know who did it.”
She walked to the front of the room and sat on a high stool on which
she always perched herself whenever she, in a hoot-owl fashion, wanted to
get a bird’s eye view of the class.
No one in the room made a noise, and finally she called me up hefore her.
She was still sitting on the stool. I stood hefore her ready for a lecture, hut
I was disappointed, for this is what she began with, “Do you like school,
Bince you came hack?”
“Yes."
“Are you going to high school ?”
“I hope to.”
“ That’s fine. I hope you can, too.”
All the time she was stroking my Idue silk tie down the front of my
dress, and I, almost ready to laugh in her face, turned to go hack to my
seat, hut hadn’t gone two feet hefore she cried, “ Come here! Come here!”
I did.
She was now at a loss for a goading beginning so finally she said, “ What
do you curl your hair with, Betty?”
“Nothing, it’s naturally curly.”
“ Oh, it is? It’s heautiful, and I think you're a very nice girl, hut I don’t
think you spoke very nicely to me just then, do you?”
“I ’m sorry, Miss Anderson.” The “I’m sorry” was just a defence of my
own, for I experienced no regret whatsoever. , . .
My report card came to me with a row of beautiful red D’s. (Auto
biographical document supplied hy a college student.)
Th is rep resen ts b u t a cross-section o f a fe u d , b u t it -will serve to
illu strate its p sy ch olo g ica l a tm osp h ere. I t is also in te re stin g as an
exhibit o f the com p rehen sion o f c o m p le x grou p a lig n m en ts h y a n aiv e
observer. I t is n o tew o rth y th a t som e teachers find th em selv es year
after y e a r en g ag ed in fe u d s w ith th eir stu den ts. T h e y have le a rn e d
to exp erien ce the school situ a tio n as c a llin g fo r h ostile b eh a vior,
and th eir person alities are su ch th at th e y b e g e t h o stility in stu den ts.
Such an one w a s obviou sly the teacher described above.
P oised an d w ell-b a lan ced teachers lea rn to avoid fe u d s. ( B e in g w e ll
balanced is the best insu rance a g a in st th e m .) S o m etim es th e y avoid
them h y cru sh in g them ru th le ssly a t th e start, th at is, b y g o in g at
once fr o m the ea rliest to the la test stage and s o lv in g the situ a tio n
before p erm a n en t h o stility h as h ad a chance to d evelop . A special
technique has b een developed b y some teach ers f o r cru sh in g reb elliou s
in d ivid u als. I t consists in g e ttin g th e in d iv id u a l in a position where

he can n ot ta lk b a ck a n d b rea k in g h im th ro u g h th e pressu re o f the
situ ation , b y e x p osin g h im to a larg e n u m b er o f com m an d s, relevant
a n d irrelev a n t, stro n g su ggestion s, em b arra ssin g questions (to which
an answ er is r e q u ir e d ), etc. O th e r teach ers are able to tra n sfo rm the
situ ation in which a fe u d starts into one in w hich a fr ie n d ly rapport
exists. A p o licy which u su a lly w orks is th a t o f r e fu s in g to recognize
as o f a n y im p ortan ce at all th e beh avior o f a stu d en t fr o m which a
fe u d m ig h t resu lt. T h is p o licy u su a lly w orks, a n d i t enables a teacher
to a void m a n y conflicts, b u t th ere are cases w h ere the te a c h e r ’s very
h o ld in g o ff becom es the m a tte r at issue in, th e fe u d . Such a case was
the f o llo w in g :
I A m W orried A bout D elbert

Six bright red heads in the same class—that does not often happen! What
bright color spots! Half are straight haired and half are wavy, no, that boy’s
head is heantifully curly. The new class is busy making out book and enroll
ment cards. Perched on her laboratory stool the teacher is surveying the new
material before her in the shape of thirty boys and girls fresh from their
long summer holiday. Glancing over the registration cards she encounters
many familiar surnames, prohably hrothers or sisters of former pupils. These
names bring up a host of recollections, most of them reminiscent of happy
and pleasant classroom associations, some of situations fraught with great
perplexities, others of miserahle mistakes, lack of understanding and un
fortunate failures in handling troublesome pupils.
The inventory partially completed, the teacher glances up to detect traces
of family resemblance. The room is quiet, everyone is on his good hehavior—
best behavior. The resolutions to make this year “ the best ever” are still in
working order. How restful and peaceful this unnatural quiet is. Would it
might continue, hut why ask for the impossible! Continue? There’s one over
there doing his best to begin the inevitable disruption likewise of order and
day dreaming. It’s the boy with the curly red haid. He is furtively watching
the teacher for an opportunity “to do his little stunt.” The teacher is both
attentive and amused. Doesn’t the red-haired lad know that the teacher has
experienced this identical scene of the first day over and over again; doesn’t
be realize that diverse and various efforts on the part of new pupils to “try
the teacher” are an old, old story to her?
Here is the opportune moment. Without waiting for the teacher to ac
knowledge his waving hand he asks in a high tenor, “ You haven’t told us
your name, is it Miss, or Mrs. ?” Without a change of expression the teacher
writes her name on the board while the class looks up to locate the voice and
to watch the teacher’s reaction, but failing to see anything amiss they resume
their work.
FOCAIj POINTS OF STUDENT TEACHER ANTAGONISM 345
Having spent his ammunition and being disappointed in the result, the
hoy was well hehaved for a few days. He was, however, gathering material
and watching his chance for another attack—of that the teacher felt certain.
She sensed rather than saw any overt signs of the next attack. The lad under
discussion was a little above the average student in intelligence as his writ
ten work soon showed. He enjoyed monopolizing the recitation, and in dis
cussion insisted upon addressing himself to the teacher rather than to the
class. His chief joy was to introduce extraneous matter, and, when the
teacher finally stepped in to hring the discussion back to its main issues, he
remonstrated with her in quite a dramatic fashion, which she, however, en
tirely ignored.
The effect of this situation on the class was most peculiar. The pupils
seemed to take no sides, hut sat hack as if to say, “ This is your affair, we’re
neutral. What arc you going to do about it?"
Feeling that she could cope with the situation, the teacher decided to do
nothing drastic, hut frequently to disregard the hoy’s waving hand and thus
limit him in his means of conspicuous self-expression. Of course she could
not “squelch” him entirely, but always keenly aware of his constant desire to
“jump over the traces” through some spectacular act or clever remark, the
teacher either forestalled him in his little plans or feigned utter and com
plete density to the point of his oft-times witty remarks. The class continued
to pay little attention to the bout hetween pupil and teacher.
With no outlet in the classroom for his desire to make himself conspicuous,
Delhert, for so the red-haired lad was called, tried to create an impression hv
reaching the laboratory just as the tardy hell rang. He entered very import
antly, left arm loaded with books, brief-case in right hand and a hulging
notebook filled with closely typed sheets protruding “from under” his right
shoulder. Very deliberately he took his seat, glancing ahout the room with a
quite detached air to note any impression he may have created.
Matters ran their usual course, with the teacher always secretly on the,
alert to thwart Delhert’s constant desire to make himself ohvious. .Recently,
however, these objectionahlc symptoms had somewhat abated, so that the
teacher was beginning to take heart—trying to convince herself that her
methods were getting results. But one day the long-sought opportunity
arrived. The class had been discussing diets when Delhert volunteered the
information that he had recently lost fifty pounds through dieting. Here was
valuable information in the shape of first-hand (personal) experience that
hardly could he ignored. The teacher thinking that she had the situation
fairly well in hand gave him the lloor and let, him tell his story, which he
did very well, making a valuable contribution to the discussion. . . . But
that’s only the half of it. What effect, did this free hand have on Delhert?
The delight of heing in the limelight, hrief as it was, proved most intoxi
cating to him, and he was determined not to relinquish one inch of the
ground he had so laboriously gained. He held onto his vantage point like
grim death for the ensuing weeks. In self-defence the teacher had to in-
crease ber vigilance in order to hring to naught all Delbert’s attempts to

distinguish himself through bis wit. But now this seemed to have a marked
influence for the worse on Delhert. H e apparently lost interest in his work
neglected his assignments, and failed miserably in bis six weeks’ test, T’J3
brought things to a pass. The office authorities called tbe boy to account for
his low class standing. The matter was then taken up hy the assistant prin
cipal with tbe boy’s “favorite teacher,” whom he was “ helping” in a com
mercial course and whose aid and cooperation were earnestly solicited, fohe
understood the peculiar make-up o f the hoy and had ohtained some excellent
results in her class work. This “ favorite teacher” sought the first teach el
and gave her some valuable bints and information concerning Delhert’s
character and ahilities as she had diagnosed them. The grades went out on
Thursday, and Friday after school Delbert appeared with the remark that
he had never during bis bigh-school career received a failing' slip, and from
his actions it was patent that he took it for granted that i f he completed
all his hack work and passed his test the teacher would revoke her former
estimate o f his standing and issue him a new grade. Monday morning all
required work was completed and by Monday night the examination had
been successfully passed. The teacher, who did not believe in iron-clad rules
especially when she saw that they stood in the way o f a pu pil’s progress or
improvement, was more than glad to do what sbe could to help the boy on
bis feet. But after the new grade was properly recorded and the self-satis
fied chap had le ft the room, she realized that she had made a mistake in this
particular instance and one which would cause her considerable trouble in
her future dealings with Delbert. H is superior air on leaving seemed to
announce triumphantly, “I knew I would make you realize m y true worth,
m y unsuspected ahility. Y o u have let down the hars once and I ’ll expect
you to do the same on subsequent issues i f the occasion arises.”
That the hoy had the ahility there was no douht. From several different
sources the teacher learned o f his great success at organization. She was fr e
quently reminded o f his good work as husiness manager o f the Junior Play
Ticket Campaign and his efficient management o f several other business
projects.
One day, induced by tbe constant requests o f the class, “ Let Delbert read
his paper,” the teacher asked tbe lad to give bis report, hoping that the
knowledge that the class had a little confidence in him might arouse the hoy’s
pride and help him to get a better hold on himself. N ot so, however, for it
wasn’t the class Delhert was trying to impress, hut the teacher. H is theme
was well worked out and skillfully bandied and was much enjoyed and
appreciated by the class, much to the satisfaction o f Delhert. A fter the
recitation he was more than ever pleased with himself, and his performance.
H e lingered after class and remarked, “ You weren’t going to let me read
that paper. I knew you didn’t want me to read i t ; but now you’ re glad for
you realize that I have talent. Oh, I ’m going to be an actor and write plays
FOCAL POINTS OF STUDENT-TEACHER ANTAGONISM 347
too. That’s my amhition. Some day when you see me a success you’ll be sorry
yon treated me the way you do 1” and with that he pirouetted out o f the door.
Things went on indifferently well with Delhert after that. The teacher in
several after-school conferences tried lo get “ under his skin” hy attempting
to show him the need o f actors’ having a good education, especially i f their
province was also to include that o f playwright. B ut as fo r any positive
signs o f improvement, her efforts failed to hring forth any. She still had to
resort to her tactics o f holding him in. leash, but this was now becoming
harder and harder. The hoy, chaffing under the ever-increasing check, grew
sullen, or sat staring at the teacher with an injured air during the greater
part o f a douhle period. Realizing the uselessness o f trying to get him to
work when in such a mood, the teacher simply ignored him, and since he sat
at the back his peculiar conduct neither attracted attention nor distracted the
attention o f the normal pupils.
Meanwhile Delbert’s attitude toward his work grew more or less indifferent.
R e did his lessons spasmodically, always trying to cajole himself and his
teacher into helieving “ I have the ability— I can do it when I am ready— No
use to hother with such trifles every day.” Naturally his grades and class
standing suffered accordingly, and toward the end o f the year his making
hib credit was very douhtful.
Ahout this time the teacher was asked to serve as one o f the judges o f a
preliminary program fo r stunt night— Joy Night. Here she had the oppor
tunity o f seeing Delhert in his true element and in all his glory. N ot satisfied
wich his mop o f hright red hair he had donned a glorious w ig whose long
red ringlets enveloped his head like an anra. H e was attired in a fluffy,
billowy dress o f orchid chiffon, short in front and set off hy a bnge ostrich
feather fa n o f dainty pink and white. A gauzy scarf o f softly blending
shade draped his bare shoulders and neck. Although his “ get u p ” a la Julian
Eltinge was excellent, his skit fell short o f any real merit because o f his
great reliance upon his w it and native ahility along closely allied lines.
The judges therefore did not pass favorahly upon his stnnt. So here was
another side to the lad. H e had talent, hut his colossal conceit seemed to
block his progress hoth in bis avocation and in his school work.
W hile the teacher was getting ready to have another session with the hoy
regarding his unfortunate and thwarting attitude toward his work and him
self the crisis so long postponed and avoided hy the teacher became imminent,
more threatening day hy day.
Delbert had always shirked and avoided all disagreeable tasks pertaining
to cleaning up the laboratory. This particular day he was asked to take the
dissected material, carefully wrapped, to the engine room where it was to he
hurned. But Delbert demurred. H e wanted to refuse, but everyone began to
voice his opinion hy advising him, “ A w ! Go on and take it. Beat i t !” Sensing
the disapproval in the air, Delbert changed tactics and began to plead, “ H ow
can you insist that I carry this revolting material to the engine bouse? It
hurts my esthetic sensibilities. Don’t you appreciate m y ability, m y artistic
temperament T Don't any o f tbese bave any effect on youT” Tbe teaeber was
adamant and pointed toward tbe door. Delbert, witb tray poised above his
bead, started fo r tbe door, but turned and reenforced his original supplies,
tion witb further pleading. The teacher ignored both him and his persistence.
Again be made for tbe door, but returning a third time, threw himself to his
knees and with bands uplifted hesougbt tbe teacher to reconsider her impossi
ble errand.
This was too much fo r both pupils and teacher. W h ile tbe room was
convulsed witb laughter Delbert witb his tray o f meat scraps disappeared.
Unfortunately, Delhert interpreted this laughter episode as a tribute to M 3
clever acting. H e failed to see tbe tinge o f ridicule in it. Now according to
him all the bars were down, all ground so carefully contested during the
semester was lost. “ A h a,” be thought, “ tbe teacher has at last acknowledged
me as a wit. From now on she’s in m y bands.”
The end soon came, fo r things had reached an impossible stage. Two days
later Delbert's usually sullen and injured air bad been metamorphosed by
bis triumph into insolence. H e flatly refused to prepare bis work during the
study period, whereupon the teacher asked him to go to tbe principal's office,
which be also refused to do. A note was sent to the principal requesting the
boy’s removal from class, and within ten minutes tbe desired transfer was
made. So much fo r Delbert. . , .
O f course tbe teacher disliked acknowledging her inability to help and
bold tbe h oy; she bated to admit that she bad failed utterly. Where la y rhe
mistake in her analysis o f tbe situation or in her treatment o f tbe hoy? Sbe
tried to give him tbe henefit o f tbe doubt; sbe helieved him sincere in bis
protests and protestations, and sbe therefore avoided forcing tbe issue. Per
haps therein lay tbe difficulty.
In subsequent talks witb Delhert’s other teachers it was learned that be
had conducted himself in like fashion in other classes. Delhert’s record for
the semester showed two failures, and two barely passing grades. The extent
o f his utter indifference to school work is indicated by his failure to return
any o f his textbooks, even though be knew he would be charged witb them
upon bis return to school.
Tbe night o f bis ejection from class tbe teacher found tbe following note
in her b o x: “ I bave invoked the wratb o f tbe gods upon your bead! Beware I”
(Autobiographical document supplied by a high-school teacher.)
A complicating factor which the above teacher missed at the time

was the fact that this hoy was homosexual. (This conclusion was veri
fied by independent investigation.) If he had heen a normal boy with
normal standing in the group, tbe teacher’s hold upon her class would
have been imperilled hy hpr failure to deal with him sooner. Short of
such a thorough overhauling as he might receive from a psychiatrist,
it seems that little might have been done for the boy in any case. The
FOCAL POINTS OF STUDENT-TEACHER ANTAGONISM 349
teacher m ig h t h ave “ sq u e lc h e d ” h im , w h ereu p on , as she co rrectly

observed, h e w o u ld h ave lo st interest in h er course a ll th e sooner. U l t i
m ately she h a d to tak e v ig oro u s action , a n d fo r a tim e she h a d to
pursue the p o licy o f w a llin g h im off fr o m th e rest o f the class as a
n on -learner a n d a d istu rb in g e lem en t (a d esperate m ean s b u t one
which teachers are o ften fo r c e d to u s e ) . I t seem s th a t the o n ly possible
solution to h er p ro b lem w o u ld h ave been to tak e v ig oro u s a ction a t
the start. T h e teacher w o u ld th ereb y h ave saved h er ow n fa ce an d no
greater h arm w o u ld h ave been done to the boy th an w as done
ultim ately.
T h is case su gg ests also ce rta in reflections a b o u t the w it and h n m o r
which sp r in g fro m th e te a ch er-p u p il relation sh ip . T h is is a to p ic o f th e
first im p o rta n ce, a n d it is u n fo rtu n a te th a t o u r m a teria ls do n o t p e r
m it u s to give it m ore th an cu rso ry treatm en t. T h is w it is n e a rly a l
ways ten d en cy w it, th at is, it has a person al ob ject, and it expresses a
definite anim u s. I t is ty p ic a l o f the h u m or w h ich sp rin g s u p betw een
an tagon istic g ro u p s. N o velists o ften p ictu re the teacher as d e a lin g in
a h ea vy -h a n d ed , coarse sarcasm , a n d th is sort o f th in g is, w e m u st
confess, a ll too com m on in th e schools. S tu d e n ts express th eir h o stility
b y clever take-offs, b y p la y s u p o n n am es, b y jok es on th e teach er, etc.
The drab b a ck g ro u n d o f th e social in tera ction o f the school, a n d th e
tension u n d er w h ich h oth teacher a n d stu d en t lab or, m ak e th in g s
seem fu n n y th a t w o u ld n ot otherw ise be so, a n d thus i t h a p p e n s th a t
school jok es are n o t u su a lly v e ry good jokes. A n d th a t the la u g h te r
of stu d en ts o ver th e te a c h e r ’s jokes, even th e p o or ones a n d those o f
which th ey are them selves th e b u tt, is servile, p ro v in g ra th er th a t th e y
are su b o rd in ated th an th a t the teach er is a w it, seem s certain . T h e
use o f h u m o r in the school is n ot n ecessa rily th a t o f a w e a p o n ; h u m o r
m ay serve to relieve tension h y g iv in g a n tagon ism h arm less e x p re s
sion, or it m a y serve as a tech n iq ue o f conciliation.
F e u d s do n o t a lw ay s h ave a lo n g life . T h ey m a y le a d in su m m a -
tory fash ion to som e crisis w h ich term in ates th e m ; there is a “ show
d o w n ,” a n d th a t ends the fe u d , or ushers in a n ew p h ase o f it. T h e
interaction o f person alities in the fe u d g ro w s m ore an d m ore extrem e,
and tbe social a rra n gem en ts w h ich p erm it its con tin u an ce g ro w m ore
and m ore u n w o rk a b le ; at le n g th there is a crisis in w h ich each in d i
vidual m obilizes a n d releases a ll h is energies, perh ap s calls oth er p e r
sons to h is a i d ; in the end th e chaos o f u n b r id le d fo rces resolves into
a new defin ition o f th e situ a tio n . E a c h person em erges fr o m th e crisis
w ith n ew attitu d es. F a r is says, “ A crisis is to be fo u n d ju s t in th ose
situations where ex istin g a ttitu d es fa i l to a p p ly and w h ere e x istin g
350 THE SOCIOLOG X OP TEACHING
o b je cts fa il to sa tis fy e x p e c ta tio n s.” S in ce teach ers are -usually supe

rio r to stu d en ts in social resources, it is u su a lly teach ers who attem pt
to fo r c e a “ sh o w d o w n ,” w h ile stu d en ts avo id it. N e a r ly every teacher
can te ll som e story o f a crisis su cc e ssfu lly m et. T h e fo llo w in g account
is t y p i c a l :
George P. was a tough boy. He made trouhle in his grade room. He made
trouhlo on the playground. He made trouhle in town.
Once or twice he was reported to me, and 1 , as superintendent, had to
straighten him out. Since these were minor matters, I administered routine
discipline only. He suhrnilted, but told others that I had hetter not try to
whip him, because he would resist.
Finally a more serious offence arose, and he knew that a real row was
pending. I called him into the office, and told Mm the charge. He bristled
immediately.
"You aren't going to whip me, are you?”
“ Why, yes, George, that is exactly what I am going to do."
Very deliberately I turned to the desk and got out my strap. He waited,
standing. When I walked toward him, he “put up his dukes.” I laughed at
him, and asked him, “ What kind of a pose is this? Do you think you're
Jack Dempsey or Gene Tunncy7 Wait till I get my camera and take your
picture."
“ You’re not going to wMp me.”
“Now don’t make me laugh. Always clowning. Bend over.”
He "assumed the angle,” and I whipped him.
The next day his father stopped me on the street.
“ What do you mean hy whipping my hoy George?”
“ Mr. P., your hoy hroke the school rules, and when he does that he must
take the consequences.”
“ Well, suppose I lick you7”
“You’ll need help, Mr. P. When you are ready to try, just let me know.
I am busy. Good-hye.”
After that, George P. was a very good hoy in school, and we became good
friends. (Interview with a school superintendent.)
O ne cannot re fra in fro m com m en t on the su ccessfu l use o f h u m or in

the above case. O b v io u sly it was ridicu le, p lu s th e ca lm determ in ation
o f th e older m an , th a t decided the issue.
F e u d s o fte n m ove in su m m a to ry fa sh io n tow ard such a crisis, and
are o fte n m etam orph osed in crisis. H o s tility is c u m u la tiv e in the fe u d
situ a tio n , an d piles u p like static e lectricity a t several p o in ts, con
ste lla tin g eq u al and opposite charges at other p o in t s ; crisis is like an
electric storm w hich sw eeps a w a y these charges. G ru d g e s accu m ulate
a n d ch an ge the m e a n in g o f th e s itu a t io n ; in th e crisis these hostile
fO CA L POINTS OP STUDENT- TEAOHEE ANTAGONISM 351
a ttitu d es are exp ressed . A f t e r th e crisis th e situ a tio n seem s d ifferen t

hecause the su h je c tiv e ch arges o f h a tre d h av e d isa p p e a re d , a n d it is
different hecause it h as heen d iffe re n tly defined.
In te r e stin g m ech an ism s o f con cilia tio n m a y he id en tified i n th e
social process o f th e classroom . S im m e l h as ch a racterized co n cilia tio n
as " a p u r e ly su b je c tiv e m e th o d o f a v o id in g s t r u g g le .” H e sa y s f u r
ther, ‘ ‘ T h e sta te o f m in d w h ich m akes co n cilia tio n p ossih lc is a n
elem en tary a ttitu d e w h ich , en tire ly a p a r t fro m o b je c tiv e g ro u n d s,
seeks to end str u g g le , ju s t as, on th e oth er h a n d , a d isp o sitio n to
quarrel, even w ith o u t a n y rea l occasion, p ro m o te s s t r u g g le .” The
ten den cy to co n cilia tio n is “ a fa c to r q u ite d istin ct fr o m w eak n ess, or
good fe llo w s h ip , fr o m social m o r a lity or fe llo w fe e li n g .” W h e r e a s th e
essence o f com p rom ise is a fa c e -sa v in g fo r m u la w h ich does n ot affect
the a ttitu d in a l h asis o f conflict ex cep t in d ir e c tly b y c h a n g in g its situ a
tional roots, co n ciliation strikes d ire c tly a t the a ttitu d e s fr o m w h ich
conflict arises. C o n cilia tio n is m o st o fte n sim p ly a show o f fr ie n d ly
attitu des, a n d i t prod u ces its resu lts b y evok in g sim ila r a ttitu d es in
others. S u h je c tiv e it m a y be, h u t co n ciliation m u st sh ow its e lf som e
how, a n d to th e p resen t w riter it seem s to show its e lf p r in c ip a lly in
irrelevan t concession. T w o hoys are co n ve rsin g in a la r g e class. T h e
teacher notices, o v e rlo o k s; tb e con versation continues, a n d th e teacher
hegins to he visih ly ann oyed. O n e o f the b o y s raises h is b a n d an d
asks a p e r tin e n t question. T h e teach er is m ollified , and stru g g le is
averted. T h e teacher h as given a low g ra d e to a y o u n g w o m a n who
values h er w ork h igh ly. S h e stares at h im h a le fu lly . H e p a u ses, asks
her a qu estion a n d sm iles. She answ ers, b u t she is still a n g r y . Soon
he asks h er a n oth er question, and sm iles. T h e atten tion gratifies her.
Th e y o u n g w o m a n ceases to he a n g r y . A clever d iscip lin a ria n w ho
was called u p on to take ch arge o f a d isord erly stu d y h a ll m ade a
speech w h ich b egan , “ N o w first o f a ll, h oy s, I 'm fo r y o u .” T h e tech
nique o f con cilia tio n seem s to he th a t o f m a k in g h arm le ss and irre le
vant, concessions. T each ers have p a r tic u la r n eed o f a co n cilia tor}" te ch
nique hecause th ey are o fte n n o t in a p o sition to com p rom ise on
fu n d a m en tals.
I t does n o t seem extrem e to sa y th a t th ose b r illia n t social p h ilo so
ph ers w h o h av e d eveloped th e sociology o f con flict m ig h t h a v e fo u n d
adequate m a te r ia l fo r th eir d iscu ssion s w ith o u t le a v in g th eir own
classroom s. N e a r ly a ll th e classic concepts a p p ly to life in the school
room , w a r, fe u d , litig a tio n , con flict o f id eals, v ic to ry , co n cilia tio n , com
prom ise, con version, a ccom m od ation , a n d a ssim ilation . N o t a ll these
con flicts are visihle to th e n ak e d eye, n ot visible, a t lea st, a s conflicts

h u t it is th e p a r t o f th e sociologist to lea rn to see th e in v isih le world
o f social contexts.
I t w ill he difficult f o r m a n y teach ers to a ccept this p o in t o f view
heeause th e n o tio n o f conflict hetw een teacher and p u p il vio lates their
con cep tion o f a relation sh ip w h ich th e y k n ow to he fu n d a m e n ta lly
c o n stru c tiv e . F o r th ese, there is an answ er in the classic p h ilo sop h y 0f
con flict. F o r conflict is a con stru ctive process, a n d creates as m uch
as it destroys. A n d con flict u n ifies as w ell as it d iv id e s ; it is one o f
the gre atest g ro u p -m a k in g fa cto rs. O u r m o st m e a n in g fu l relation s are
o fte n ch aracterized h y a n ta g o n istic cooperation . C on flict preserves
relation s which m ig h t oth erw ise heeome in tolerable. C on flict, fu rth er
is a m ean s to peace. C on flict is an essen tial p a r t o f the dialectic of
p erso n a l g row th . I t c o u ld he a rg u ed th at con flict in th e schools is the
fe a tu re o f school life w hich h est p rep a res stu d e n ts f o r fa c in g life out
side. W h a t w e n eed in th e schools is n o t to do a w a y w ith conflict
h u t to estahlish th e m o st henefieial k in d o f conflict.
A s teach ers a n d stu d en ts heeom e fa m ilia r w ith th e w h ole netw ork
o f social processes in th e sch ool, th e y acqu ire in sigh t in to them , and
the w h ole set o f processes is th ereh y im m e n se ly co m p lica ted . T h a t is
one reason w h y the in ex p erien ced teach er is at a d is a d v a n ta g e ; his
stu d e n ts, fa m ilia r w ith th e te rra in , are a c tu a lly cap ah le o f a m ore
c o m p lica ted a d ju stm e n t to th e situ a tio n th a n he is. B u t teachers soon
le a rn w h a t it is a ll ahout, or th e y f a i l in te a ch in g , a n d fo r th is reason
it is u s u a lly fr o m th e teach er th a t the im p e tu s f o r th e fu r th e r com
p lic a tio n o f th e school situ a tio n com es. I n th e ty p ic a l case th is operates
as fo llo w s : T h e teacher, h ein g fa m ilia r w ith the en tire configuration,
recogn izes a t once the g estu res th a t fo r e te ll an a tta ck , a ten tative r a p
p ro ch e m e n t or a llian ce, an a tte m p t to deceive h im , an attem p t at
h u m o r, a fe u d , a d iso rd erly outhreak, or a n y o f the oth er th ou sand and
one th in g s th a t ca n h a p p e n in school. H e hases h is ow n response to the
situ a tio n u p o n h is a w areness o f its m e a n in g as a n e a r ly stage o f a lon g
a n d co m p lica ted so cial process, n o t o n ly u p o n w h at stu d en ts h ave done,
b u t u p o n w h a t th ey are g o in g to do as w ell. H e acts u su a lly to fr u s
tra te, or d iv e r t, or to red ire ct the process. S tu d e n ts acqu ire a k in d red
so rt o f in sig h t. B o th teach ers a n d stu d en ts thus ten d to foresh orten
th e p e rso n a l in tera ction betw een th em to a m ere co n versa tio n of
g e s t u r e s ; each hases h is a ction n o t o n ly u p o n the co m p leted acts o f
the o th er, h u t also u p o n h is in c ip ie n t acts as seen in th e lig h t o f
experien ce. I t is n o tew orth y th at each u tilizes h is k n o w led g e o f these
FOCAL POINTS OF STUDENT-TEAOHEE ANTAGONISM 353
gestures according to his own hasie conception of the nature of the

social situation in the school. To some extent, also, the amount and
nature of this insight are limited by one’s hasie orientation; thus a
clever high-school principal may acquire a limited insight which will
enahle him to he extremely dexterous in manipulation, hut if he has
no grasp of the ends of education his efforts will have no point beyond
his own personal advancement. To sum up, insight foreshortens the
social process of the school, adds depth to it, complicates it somewhat,
and increases its tempo.
PRO JECTS
1. W rite a detailed history o f a feud hetween a teacher and a student, or

between a teacher and a group o f students.
2. Study the personality o f a teacher who hecomes involved in feuds with
students. Analyze her social technique with students in order to learn why
these feuds start.
3. Enumerate the devices hy which several well-halanced teachers avoid
hecoming involved in feuds.
4. Descrihe a situation in which a teacher adopted a policy o f treating
some student as i f he did not helong to the class, o f "w alling him off” from
the rest o f the class. Analyze the personal interaction in such a situation.
5. Collect examples o f teacher wit. Analyze carefully. Classify teachers
known to you according to their characteristic humor. Correlate with teach
ing efficiency.
6. Note the next ten things that make you laugh in a classroom. Analyze
the reasons fo r your laughter.
7. Rank several teachers in tediousness. Note for each o f these teachers five
things that have made you laugh in his classroom. Interpret your results.
Work out a technique for rating teachers according to the things which
their students consider funny.
8. Study “giggling spells” o f school girls, and formulate a theory as to
their causation and control.
9. Tell the story o f a "showdown” and the consequent redefinition o f the
situation.
10. Tell the story o f an unsuccessful attempt hy a teacher to precipitate
a "showdown.”
11. Give instances o f correct interpretations o f “ anticipatory sets,” and
show how this affects the school-room social process.
S U G G E S T E D R E A D IN G S
(1 ) Dawson, C. A ., and G ettys , W . E ., An Introduction to Sociology

Chapters V I I I , I N , X , and X I .
(2) Low , Barbara, Psychoanalysis and Education.
354: TH E SOCIOLOGY OP TEACHING
(3) PtAniCj R. E., and Burgess, E. W., An Introduction to the Science OJ

Sociology, Chapters IS and S.
(4) StaxiODFj B. F., “ The Sociological Approach to Methods of Teaching
and Learning,” The Journal of Educational Sociology, VoL V, No 1
pp. 26-35.
(5) W ic k m a n , E. K ., Children’s Behavior and Teachers’ Attitudes.
C hapter X X I
THE BATTLE OF THE REQUIREMENTS
I t is o n ly because teach ers -wish to fo rce stu d en ts to lea rn th a t a n y

u n p leasan tn ess ever arises to m a r th eir relation sh ip . W e h av e defined
the school as the p lace w h ere p eo p le m eet fo r the pu rp ose o f g iv in g
and rec e iv in g in stru ction . I f th is process w ere u n fo rc e d , i f stu d en ts
could be allow ed to learn o n ly w h a t interested th em , to lea rn in th e ir
ow n w a y , a n d to le a rn n o m ore a n d no better th an it pleased them to
do, i f good ord er w ere n o t con sidered a n ecessary con d ition o f le a rn
ing, i f teach ers d id n ot h ave to be task m asters, b u t m e re ly helpers and
frien d s, th en life w o u ld be sw eet in th e school room .
These, h ow ever, are a ll co n d ition s co n trary to fa c t. The con dition s
of m a ss in stru c tio n a n d o f book in stru ction m ake it n ecessary th a t
learn in g be fo rc e d . S tu d e n ts m u st learn m a n y th in gs th a t th ey do n o t
wish to lea rn , a n d th e y m u st o v e r -le a m ad nauseam even the th in g s
that o rig in a lly in terested them . T each ers m u st be task m asters. T ea ch ers
m u st keep the classroom qu iet in o rd er th a t stu d en ts m a y stu d y . T h e
requ irem en t sy stem is a sy ste m fo r fo r c in g stu d en ts to le a r n ; ce rta in
tasks are la id out, stu d en ts are g rad ed n u m e ric a lly on the m a n n er in
which th e y p e r fo r m these ta sk s; a d va n cem en t in the social m ach in e,
and u ltim a te ly lib eration fr o m it, dep en d u p o n the accu m u lation o f
sa tisfa cto ry grades fo r tasks p e rfo rm e d . S tu d e n ts an d teachers are at
cross p u rp oses w ith reg a rd to the a m o u n t o f w o rk th at sh a ll be done
fo r each u n it o f ‘ ‘ cred it, ’ ’ and with regard to the g ra d e th a t sh all be
given to each p erfo rm a n ce.
A basic a ssu m p tion is th a t h u m a n k n ow ledge can be d ivid ed in to
subjects, and th at these su b jects can be parcelled out in n ic ely grad ed
courses. Each course consists o f a certain n u m b er o f fa c ts, and o f
these fa c ts the stu d en t m u st acquire a specified m in im u m n u m b e r i f
he is doin g sa tisfa cto ry w ork in the course. O r a course m a y con sist o f
a certain n u m b er o f p ra ctic u m s w hich co n fer, on the average, a given
degree of skill. P roficien cy is tested b y oral or w ritte n exam in a tio n s,
which are “ g r a d e d .” C ourses are geared to the average m a n . W h e n
the n u m b er of fa c ts in clu ded in a cou rse, an d p a r tic u la rly w hen the
m in im u m n u m b er requ ired fo r a “ p a s s in g ” g rad e, is la r g e , academ ic
stan d ard s are h igh . W h e n the m in im u m is low , or the requ irem en ts are
355
o fte n relaxed, stan d a rd s are sa id to be low . In gen eral, stan d a rd s are

h igh in p ro p ortio n to the am ount o f a specified k in d o f achievem ent
which th ey exact fr o m students.
I t is possihle to criticize all this, an d the joh has often been done.
S u ch is n ot our p resen t pu rpose. E d u c a tio n m u st have a content, and
stu d en ts m u st som ehow he in d u ced to assim ilate it. T h e m ethods em
p lo y ed are im p e r fe c t; th e y often f a i l o f th eir end, a n d th e y are w aste
f u l o f tim e a n d h u m a n p erso n a lity . B u t teach ers h ave p u t m uch
th o u g h t u pon them , a n d the m eth o d s have im p rov ed . O u r pu rp ose is
n o t to criticize or to evalu ate, h u t to trace th e in v o lv e m e n t o f p erson
a lity in academ ic sta n d a rd s. W c are constrained to note, how ever, that
th is m in u te su bdivision o f su h jec t m a tte r is n o t possihle fo r all h u m a n
know ledge, a n d perh ap s n o t fo r the m o st im p o rta n t h u m a n kn ow l
edge; it is possihle o n ly fo r the k n ow led ge p ec u liar to schools.1
F u r th e r , the d ivision o f k n ow ledge in to su bjects, a n d the su bdivision
o f su h jects in to courses, m u st seem a r b itr a r y to anyone who is not
in v o lv ed in th e sc h o o ls; an d th e sy stem o f g ra d es upon p erfo rm a n ce
m u st o ften seem even to the m o st ex perien ced teach er to rest u p on
n o th in g a t all.
T h e n ecessity o f o rg a n izin g su h je c t m atter into courses, o f d eter
m in in g in ad van ce the exact n u m b er o f fa c ts w h ich the stu d en t m u st
lea rn in o rd er to “ p a ss” the course, h as affected the con ten t o f ed u
cation . C lo w has p u t it w e ll:
Take the current discussion of the school curriculum, for example. Latin
and algebra hold their place, not so much heeause school authorities revere
the old, as because these old studies satisfy the first requirement of the
classroom teacher, namely, a carefully graded course of work, in which
definite assignments can he made and the attainments of the pupils graded
according to uniform standards. These requirements are especially Insistent
with the teacher who has many and large classes to handle. Take again the
criticism of the normal schools that they tend away from the pedagogical
aspects of the common branches and toward advanced work in language,
mathematics, history and science. Now it is not necessary to ascribe this
tendency to the wish of the normal schools to ape the colleges, or to any other
ignoble aim. It is simply due to the fact that the professional aspects of the
common branches, like most of the courses in education everywhere, have
not yet been standardized so as to conform to the above requirements of the
classroom teacher, and perhaps never can he; the straight academic work
1We are pleased to note certain forward-looking experiments which attempt to
break down the division of subject, matter into courses, and the division o f the
day into recitation periods. We regard these experiments as hopeful because a
great part o f the effective ignorance o f tho world derives, as we all know,
from the eompartmentalization o f knowledge.
THE BATTLE OF THE REQUIREMENTS 357
goes better and tbe students like it better, because it has heen put into
shape to be taught.1
D ea d m a tte r m akes th e hest courses. I t can he ta u g h t b est, a n d learn ed

hest, w ith in the le a rn in g situ a tio n p e c u lia r to school. B u lk , too, is
essential. M o s t teachers w o u ld rath er teach b ig hooks th an sm a ll ones,
fo r the u ltim a te tr a g e d y o f the classroom teach er is to run ou t o f
som ething to teach.
Teachers d is p la y an e x tra v a g a n t devotion to aca d em ic stan d a rd s.
Th e com p lex o f a ttitu d e s centered a ro u n d sta n d a rd s a n d th e a tte m p t
to u p h o ld th em o fte n com es to he the d o m in a n t tre n d in th e te a c h e r ’s
p erson ality. I n the m e n ta l universe o f teacherdom , aca d em ic le a rn in g
is the su p rem e v alu e, an d life revolves a ro u n d it. A l l p erso n s are
ju d g e d u pon the hasis o f past or p resen t classroom ach ievem en t. N o
know ledge is o f a n y accou n t save th a t w h ich can he h u ilt in to a
course and roofed over w ith an exam in a tio n . T h e o n ly effort w orth
the m a k in g is the stru g g le fo r the im p ro v e m e n t o f le a rn in g . I t is
this m an ia fo r classroom p erfe ctio n w h ich m ost d e e p ly characterizes
the teacher.
The explan ation o f th is p ec u liar a ttitu d e o f tea ch ers w ill in v o lv e
a n u m h er o f fa cto rs. T h ere is the p sy ch olo g ica l fa c t o r o f h ah it, an d
o f the v alu es th at go w ith it. T eachers h a b itu a lly in s tr u c t and e x
am ine, an d th ey a ttem p t to hroaden an d deepen stu d en t assim ilation
o f su h ject m a tter. On the hasis o f sim p le h ah it, th erefo re, it is p o s
sible to account fo r som e o f the em otional v alu es th a t attach to in
struction , and fo r a la r g e p a r t o f the h od y o f ra tio n a liza tio n s th at
cluster ahout the process o f teaching.
A fu r th e r p sy ch olo g ica l fa c to r is the d istortion of p ersp ective
which com es fr o m o verlo n g p reo ccu p a tio n w ith the su h jec t m a tte r o f
school courses. One who atten d s m u ch to the w isd o m t h a t is in hooks,
and is little concerned w ith the unverbalized a n d u n verh alizah le rules
o f th u m b h y w hich people liv e, m u st u su a lly overrate h oo k -lea rn in g .
Th is d isto rtio n o f p ersp ective is m o st lik e ly to occur i f a teach er has
specialized in some one su h ject. I t does not seem too m u c h to sa y
that p e rh a p s the acad em ic sp ecia list is a lw ay s a little m a d .
T h e p sy ch olo g ica l effect o f sp ecialism is en h an ced hy certain devel
opm en ts on th e social p lan e. T ea ch ers o f certain su h jec ts fo r m cu lts
ahout th eir specialism s, an d reen force each oth er in th eir devotion
to the su p er-m u n d an e v a lu es o f th eir su h jects. Each c u lt h as its own
trad itio n an d its own shihholeths, “ T h e classics stan d fo r prom pt,-
'Clow , F. C., Principles o f Sociology with? Educational Applications; p. 365.

(Reprinted by permission of Tlie Macmillan Company.)
n e s s . " " T h e a b ility to th in k , g en tlem en , th e a b ility to th in k — " The

effectiveness o f these shih h oleth s d epen ds u p o n em otion al participa
tion in the valu es u p o n w h ich th e y arc based. " T h i s hook is certain
to do g re a t h a rm to so cio lo g y i n th e eyes o f s o m e ,” says the re
view er o f a recen t book. S o he ren ders a ccu ra tely a n d tersely an
a p p ea l w hich n e v e r e n tir e ly fa ils o f its effect a m o n g th e sociologists,
a lth o u g h it w o u ld lik e ly lea ve th e great m a jo r it y o f p sych ologists,
p o litic a l scien tists, a n d econ om ists u n m oved.
F u r th e r , th e tea ch er hecom es devoted to sta n d a rd s because his
e x te n d e d p e r so n a lity h ecom es in v o lv e d in th e sta n d a rd s o f h is courses,
T h e resp ect o f stu d e n ts to w a r d the teacher g re a tly dep en d s upon
th e te a c h e r ’s stric tn e ss o f g ra d in g , fo r stu d en ts, too, h a v e learned
to ju d g e teach ers in stitu tio n a lly . A n d the te a c h e r ’s sta n d in g am ong
h is fe llo w s— co n seq u en tly h is ad van cem en t— dep en d u p o n h is doing
b is part, in th e str u g g le to " r a i s e the level o f sch olastic a c h ie v e m e n t.’ ’
M o s t im p o rta n t in d ete rm in in g the a ttitu d e o f the teach er tow ard
sta n d a r d s is the f a c t th a t stu d e n ts a n d teacher’s are o rg a n ized into
sep a rate g ro u p s a n d th a t these g ro u p s are in conflict over academ ic
sta n d a rd s. A te a c h e r ’s v a lu e in th e te a ch e r g ro u p d ep en d s u p on u n
sw e rv in g lo y a lty to th e id eal o f the g ro u p . S h a m e fu lly en ough , it
m a y d e p e n d u p o n th e w o u n d s inflicted u p o n the en em y, an d m any
a w orth less tea ch er y e t com m an d s a ce rta in resp ect because o f tbe
a m o u n t o f red in k u p o n h is rep o rt cards. Th e tea ch er g ro u p dem an d s
lo y a lty , o f co u rse, n o t o n ly because th e grou p is in con flict w ith an
o th e r g ro u p , h u t because its m em h ers are a lw a y s m o re or less in
c o m p e titio n w ith each oth er f o r th e fa v o r of stu d en ts. A fu r th e r
elem en t i n th e e x p la n a tio n o f the m e a n in g o f stan d a rd s to teachers
is th a t th e ir ex a g g era ted d evotion is a m ean s o f co m p en sa tin g for
a n u n d e r ly in g desire to com pete u n fa ir ly b y re la x in g stan d ard s. T h is
b in d o f m o tiv a tio n is u s u a lly v e r y obvious in u n iv e r sity grou ps. A ll
th ese th in g s co n trib u te to m ake a hero o f the teach er " w h o carries
th e fig h t to t h e m ,” and ev ery teach er w a n ts to he th o u g h t a p erson
w h o a lw a y s fig h ts h is b a ttles on th e e n e m y ’s g rou n d .
The folk talk of teachers shows what the maintenance of academic stand
ards means to them. A group of teachers assemble in an off moment. Their
talk is random—fitful. JVlarlow’s little daughter has the measles. Brownley
has a new car. Someone drags in the topic of standards.
“ These fellows are all whiners. I f you flunk them they won’t take their
medicine. I flunked Harrison; and if anyhody ever deserved to fail he did.
He came around with a hard-luck talc, and I told him I couldn’t think of
changing his grade. He said he would be dropped from school. I promised
to eea the dean and do what I could for him. I persuaded the dean not to
drop him. Now the hoy won’t even speak to me.”
The others havo listened impatiently, for each one has an experience to
tell. The most excited one has eyes that shine with eagerness to communicate.
“Why, I even had a fellow offer me money once. He read his name on
the board and was so surprised that he came out to the house to ask me
whether it was really true. He admitted he deserved it, hut said it would
ruin his life, break his father’s heart, and all that rot. He asked me, out of
mercy, to change his grade. 1 asked him what kind of academic standards
that would be. When he still kept on talking, I went inside and shut the
door in his face."
“ That’s right. Never let them into the house or they’ll stay all day."
“Well, the next morning he came around again, right at the beginning of
my office hour. He hegan the same sort of story and then he looked around
and changed his tune. I forget just how he put it. He asked me ‘how much
it would he worth to me to change his grade.’ As soon as I realized what
he was driving at, I arose in a towering rage and ordered him out of the
office. I guess that’s what I should have done in the first place."
A colleague has heen ready with his story for some time. He hursts out:
“ One fellow came in and asked me to put down in writing all the reasons
for his failing. I put them down, and he took it to the committee and they
let him stay in school, giving him a deferred grade or something like that.
It was one of those marginal cases. He failed because of a final exam in
which he made fifty-nine.”
“ Surely you don’t have any final exam grades of fifty-nine ?”
“My assistant marked the paper.”
Rarely is a contrary opinion voiced, for these men, dissenters themselves
from many of the codes of the greater society, will tolerate no variance in
their own group. Teachers who are suspected of not upholding the academic
tradition strive pitifully to win the approval of their fellows. The giver of a
“pipe course” in history came one day into the office of a more respectable
colleague.
“ Well,” he said, “I’ve just had to take a stand with some of my folks.
I’ve given ’em the iron heel. A couple of girls handed in identical papers,
and when I asked them about it they said it was all right heeause they had
worked them out together. I told them I didn’t douht their word, hut I
couldn’t let that get started. So they’ve each got to take those two books and
work out an eight-page term paper. Some of the others haven’t handed
in their papers yet. I told them, ‘No papers; no grade.' That brought 'em
to time.”
Such conversations are especially frequent at examination time and the
end of the semester. They have two principal functions, the relief of the
inneT tensions of teachers, and the maintenance of the morale of the teaching
group. There have been ahuses enough to excuse, if not to justify, the rigid
stand of the profession. (Record of conversations.)
M o st stu d en ts take academ ic req u irem en ts fo r g ra n ted the greater

p a r t o f the tim e, an d seriou sly a ttem p t to m easure u p to them . The
social m a ch in ery -which forces stu d en ts to p e r fo r m th e tasks which
teach ers assig n is v e ry p o w e r fu l: th e a u th o rity o f the teacher, the
ra n k o f the stu d en t in the class, and the pressu re o f th e hom e and
oth er co n fo rm in g agencies. W h e n th e stu d e n t, h ow ever, does not
w ish to do as he is to ld , or ca n n ot do th e w o rk a ssign ed, he fa lls
in to rehellion. I t is th is u n d erto n e o f reh ellion — directed m o stly at
sta n d a rd s an d grades, or at d iscip lin e n ecessitated h y stan d ard s—
w h ich m o st w riters u p o n the schools h ave m issed , a n d w hich, since
th ey h ave fa ile d to com p reh en d it, h as fr u s tr a te d th e ir p rojected
refo rm s.
R eh ellio n and an im o sity flam e in to u n p leasa n tn ess w h en stu den t
an d teach er disagree over grades. O p e n a rg u m e n t is m ore lik e ly to
occu r in colleges th a n in secon d ary or elem en ta ry schools, h u t it is
fo u n d everyw h ere. T each ers need, fo r th e ir p ro te ctio n i n a situation
w h ich w o u ld otherw ise he v e r y w a ste fu l o f th eir em otion a l resources,
tech n iq u es fo r a v o id in g or s w ift ly te r m in a tin g a rg u m e n ts ahout
grades. It is lik e ly th a t n eith er a rg u m e n t n o r p ersu asion w ill he
v e r y effective, f o r a stu d en t w h o w rites a p o o r p a p e r is proh ah ly
u n ah le to u n d erstan d th a t su ch a p a p e r is n ot a good p ap er, and
hesidcs he is em o tio n a lly hiased. T h ere is also so m eth in g to be lost
hy a rg u m e n t, fo r a rg u m e n t u su a lly proceed s in su m m ato ry fa sh io n
to g re a te r and g reater em otional h eig h ts, and leaves teacher and
stu d en t m ore a t odds th a n hefore. T h ere is so m eth in g to he said
fo r a llo w in g the stu den t to ex p ress his grievan ce, and th at is an
excellen t procedu re i f the tea ch er h as sufficient poise to carry it
th rou gh w ith o u t a llo w in g h im se lf to becom e a rgu m en tative. The
cu stom ary procedure is to interpose a certain fo r m a lity in to such
discussions. A n ad m in istrative device, in ten ded m e re ly to stren gth en
the te a c h e r’s a u th o rity , is to p e rm it no changes o f grades once the
grades have heen filed. I t is regard ed as poor p o lic y a m o n g teachers
to change grad es in a n y case, since to change a single grade m u lt i
plies the n u m ber o f co m p lain ts, an d , p erh ap s, e m b itte rs th em .
S tu d en ts u p on w h om the pressu re hecom es severe m a y resort to
crih hin g, cheating, p lag iarism , an d oth er devices to heat the gam e.
C r ih h m g is regarded as a m a tte r o f v a st im p ortan ce in m ost u n i
versities. T here is a dehate o f lo n g sta n d in g as to w h eth er m ore
stu d en ts cheat in order to p a ss a course or in order to get a h ig h
grade. C e r ta in ly a large percen tage o f a n y stu d en t b o d y crihs occa
sion a lly , an d another grou p crihs h a h itu a lly . A stu d e n t investigation
in an eastern u n iv e r sity estim a te d tlie n u m b e r o f th ose crih h in g in

certain cou rses as c o m p risin g a th ir d o f the class.
T eachers th in k o f ch eatin g in ex am in a tio n s a s a m o r a l issue. S o m e
tim es th e y go to g re a t p a in s to e x p la in th e ir p o in t o f v ie w to th e ir
classes. T h e ir classes are com p osed o f y o u n g p erso n s o f h ig h m o ra l
character, an d y e t crih hin g con tin u es. O ne is fo r c e d to con clu de th a t
there is a con flict o f m oralities. T each er m o r a lity , b a ck ed b y th e less
in terested la r g e r g ro u p , fo r h id s cheating a t e x am in a tio n s. S tu d e n t
m o r a lity does n o t forh id it. T h is stu den t m o r a lity w h ich does n ot
fo rh id c h ea tin g h o ld s even fo r stu d en ts w ho refu se to cheat, fo r
not even those stu d en ts w ho fo r th e ir ow n reasons are " h o n e s t ” w ill
cooperate w ith teach ers in d e te c tin g cheaters. I n one u n iv e r sity there
arose a " c o d e o f d is h o n o r ,” w h ich requ ired any stu d e n t to re n d e r
assistance to a n o th e r i f he sa fe ly cou ld. Th e code o f d ish o n o r th u s
fo rced e v e ry m a n to do violence to h is own interest. R e c o g n iz in g th is
conflict o f m o ra l stan d a rd s, we m u s t d iffe re n tly ev alu ate th e m o ra l
aspects o f the c rih h in g p ro b lem .
Teachers ten d to th in k o f ru les a g a in st ch ea tin g as o f a code o f
penal law . I f th ere is la x ity , w h a t is requ ired is a stern er set o f
rules, an d m ore severe p u n ish m e n t. A fa m o u s eastern u n iv e r sity su p
plies ex a m in a tio n hooklets to stu den ts. On the fr o n t cover is p r in te d
the fo llo w in g set o f r u le s :
The Conduct or W ritten Exams

Rule 1. Students shall sit in alternate seats in direct line from the front
to the rear of the room. Left-handed students shall be moved to the aisle
furthest on the right-hand side of the room facing the rear.
Rule 2. Students shall not write on the examination question sheet. All
extra writing (e.g., calculations, scratch work, etc.) must he in the same quiz
hook in which the examination is heing written.
Rule 3. All note-hooks, hooks, and papers not properly pertaining to the
examination shall he placed on the floor underneath the seat or in such
places as the person in charge of the examination shall determine.
Rule, 4. All examination hooks and questions shall he placed on the arm of
the chair to the right of the student, with nothing whatsoever on the arm
to the left.
Rule 5. No talking hetween students shall lie permitted for any reason.
This includes requests for erasers, pencils, the time of day, etc. This rule
applies until all students have left the examination room.
W h e n e x a m in a tio n s are h eld i n the above school, it is the cu sto m
to assem ble as m a n y p ro cto rs as can co n v e n ien tly he called. C ases o f
crih h in g are p u n ish ed ru th le ssly a n d in v a ria h ly b y a c o u rt o f in -
quisitorial procedure. Yet, tbere is an inordinate amount of cribbing

in this institution. Can it be that tbe system is wrong?
It seems to the writer that such a system is absurd. Not only <j0es
it insult the self-respect of students by its basic assumption that
every one of tbem is dishonest, and can only be kept honest by
constant watching, but it actually increases cribbing. Tbis it does
by making cribbing an interesting game. The more teacher precau
tion is multiplied, the greater the ingenuity that the student must
display in order to crib, and cribbing becomes not only excusable
but heroic. Human ingenuity cannot devise precautions that human
ingenuity cannot circumvent; it becomes a game for both students
and teachers. Students boast of “ getting away with it,” and tell
how. Teachers preen themselves on tbeir ability as detectives; men
who are doctors of philosophy and the authors of learned works
gloat over a couple of sniveling sophomores.
Since the basic theory is wrong, there is no remedy but in proceed
ing on a new theory. Perhaps it would be well to realize that human
beings tend to help one another, and to organize academic work
upon a group ratber than an individual basis. Perhaps examinations
stand in need of humanization anyhow. Doubtless the standards
would suffer by such a change, but human life would not suffer. Nor
would any valuable sort of learning be likely to suffer, for tbe
learning product which is assured by examinations is of the lowest
and basest sort. Examinations favor parrot learning, for tbe most
part; and parrot learning is undesirable not only because it is useless
but also because the psittaceous habit of mind inhibits deeper learning.
For most teachers, however, the suggestion that we do away with
examinations altogether will seem very much like an invitation to
set themselves adrift on an uncharted sea without sail or rudder. A
less extreme remedy, and one which has often functioned well, is
the honor system of examinations the so-called honor system being,
in effect, in most instances, merely student self-government. To put
such a system into operation there is required a technique for re
solving the conflicting moralities of students and teachers and sub
stituting a compromise morality. To make the honor system work
it is essential to build and organize an effective public opinion among
students; this will be speedily destroyed if tests, requirements, and
grades are not sucb as students consider altogether fair. Honor sys
tems bave often been made to work well for a short time, but have
commonly foundered after a few years, perhaps because teachers
and administrators did not realize tbe necessity of continuing effort.
THE BATTLE OP THE KEQUIKEMENTS 363
To make an honor system continue to work in a bigh school or col

lege, it is necessary to effect the conversion of every teacher and
every student who enters tbe system. No better example of tbe
influence of interlocking attitudes in an institution can be imagined.
The freshman class brings with it tbe traditional mental set of
students toward tests and examinations, and, unless tbere is a cam
paign of conversion equivalent in length and intensity to the original
movement for the honor system, the green invasion will triumph
and will establish the older attitudes which made proctoring in
evitable. The teacher wbo intends to use the honor system must bore
deep into the sociology of conversion.
There are other devices which may be used to get a better grade
than the merits of one’s written work would dictate. Students in
one university are much interested in two practices which they call
"chiselling,” and “ handshaking.” Handshaking is tbe milder of
these, and it consists merely of trying to establish a personal rela
tionship with the instructor, with a view, perhaps, to influencing
bis grading. Chiselling is similar, but more extreme, and more defi
nitely unfair. It comprises all kinds of bluffing, flattery, and
sycophancy, and any sort of device which will make the student
stand out in tbe instructor's eyes. Where classes are large and com
petition for grades is keen, students may display astonishing in
genuity in tbe invention of schemes which will bring them to the
instructor s attention as persons and fix them in bis memory. One
student who had always made high grades without really acquiring
a corresponding amount of knowledge was asked how he did it. He
replied, Well, I ’d sit in the class every bour and take in every
thing that was said, and then, just before the hour broke up, I ’d
ask the instructor a thumping good question.” He chose his time
well, and his instructors were undoubtedly grateful for the last-
minute fillip that he gave to the waning discussion.
A student informant has supplied the following examples of
chiselling, the one relatively blunt and inexpert, the other quite
adroit.
The women are accused o f heing handshakers, and although I do not in
the least douht that they are I feel that the men are just as efficient at this
old custom. B ut entirely different techniques are used, and I am inclined to
think that that o f the women will prove much more effective in the long run.
Here are examples o f both systems which I have seen within the last week.
I had a problem due in chemistry and had forgotten to take it up to the
instructor during class. So I took it to his office about fou r o’clock in the
evening. In the office was not only the instructor hut one very good-looking
hlonde coed from the class. She was asking the instructor all kinds o f ques
tions concerning the course and wondering how chemists can possibly remem-
her so much and wishing she was as clever as a chemist (our esteemed
instructor no douht being the chemist in question), and it wasn’ t long until
she hegan wondering i f she was going to pass the course. Ahout that time
I gave up, threw in my papers and left, giving her a clear field although
I am sure she was getting along very well with me there. The next day she
was telling how she chiselled the P rof., and she feels sure she is going to get
an A out o f the course. Perhaps she will. W h o know s!
On Tuesday I took a final in mathematics. It was very long and tedious
and since I really knew something about the course I was spending a lot of
time on that final. The instructor didn’t seem to he in any particular hurry,
and soon there were hut two students and the instructor left in the room.
The other student, a senior graduating in the spring, is hehind in grade
points. H e came directly out and told the instructor ahout it and asked fov
a break. H e may get grade points or he may not. H e didn’ t brag ahout his
chiselling.
It is wortn while to add that in the ahove university the student

tahoo upon handshaking and chiselling is so strong as to interfere
seriously with normal friendly relations between students and
teachers. It is likely that such a tahoo exists in most schools, and
that it induces a certain selection of social types among the students
whom teachers ordinarily come to know, so that many teachers who
think they know the student mind really know only one limited
segment of it.
The best chisellers are those who chisel without knowing it, or
who begin by not knowing it, and only gradually make their tech
nique conscious. Overdependent persons become teacher’s pets with
out intending to do so, and Wielcman has made the reasons for this
sufficiently clear. Alert and responsive students also begin to chisel
without knowing it, but many of them perfect their technique by
making it conscious. The social psychological background of this kind
of chiselling is interesting. To understand how it operates one must
first realize that exposition is a social process, a fact which would
change educational theory considerably if its significance were prop
erly evaluated. One does not explain to empty air; one explains to
people. One explains, one exposes, one narrates, and one watches the
audience narrowly to observe the effect. There is an interplay of
gestures which keeps the process moving; the crowd makes the
orator. Now the teacher engaged in the social process of exposi
tion has need for an occasional gesture of assent. Most students arc
THE BATTLE OB THE REQUIREMENTS 365
unresponsive because o n ly a sm a ll p a r t o f th eir p erso n a lities becom es

involved in the classroom in tera ction . B u t in ev ery class are a fe w
in d ivid u als to w hom the teacher ca n look fo r those sign s w h ich enable
him. to go on. A t a p p ro p ria te places these in d iv id u a ls resp o n d in th e
a p p rop riate w a y . T h ey s ig n ify th a t th e y u n d ersta n d , th a t th ey agree
or do n ot agree, th a t th ey a p p reciate th e jo k e , th a t th ey k n o w w h a t
is com in g. S u ch stu d en ts m u st a lw a y s h av e a h ig h er p erso n a l ralue
to th e teach er th a n th eir u n resp on sive co n tem p oraries. I t som etim es
h appens th a t resp on sive stu d en ts, fr o m lo n g a n d a tten tiv e sc r u tin y
o f th e te a c h e r ’s fa c e , le a rn w h a t p o w er th e y can w ield o v er h im .
Then th e ir ch isellin g becom es conscious.
A c a d e m ic req u irem en ts, grades, a n d e x am in a tio n s set teach ers an d
stu den ts at one a n o th e r ’s th roats. T h is h o stility w o u ld p a r tia lly d is
appear i f either side cou ld realize how m u ch the other is ca u gh t in th e
system . “ T h e s y s te m ” is o f course n o th in g r ig id , b u t a d ia lec tica l
process in w h ich w h a t a p p e a r s th e fr e e b e h a vior o f th e one side con
stitu tes th e d e te rm in in g social set-u p fo r th e beh a vior o f th e o th er
side. A teach er is a d ju d g e d effective, a n d w in s th e e n d u rin g resp ect
o f stu den ts as w e ll as th a t o f h is fe llo w a d u lts— fo r w e m u s t r e
m em ber th a t tea ch in g is real lead ersh ip — a cco rd in g as he fo rces s tu
dents to lea rn . H e m u st th erefo re h ew to th e req u irem en ts. The
stu d en t is a d ju d g e d in te llig e n t, coop erative, a n d d ilig e n t i n p r o p o r
tion to th e n u m b ers on h is r e p o rt c a r d s ; he m u st at a n y c o st g et
grades. N e ith e r p a r t y h as a n y th in g to g ain b y r a ilin g at the o th er,
and both a re e q u a lly u n fre e . Y e t n o th in g w e have said sh o u ld be
taken as in d ica tin g th a t th ere are n o t m a n y teach ers w h o are w ell
aware o f th e defects o f academ ic in stru ctio n . T h ere are m a n y teach ers
who are in te lle c tu a lly em an cip a te d fr o m sta n d a rd s. But n eith er
teacher n or s tu d e n t can ever be m o re th a n p a r tia lly em an cip a te d
while the gen eral fr a m e w o r k o f the ed u ca tio n al sy stem rem ain s w h a t
it n ow is. A b e w ild e rin g con flict arises betw een the p a r tia lly em an ci
pated teach er and his stu d en ts. T h e fo llo w in g sto r y su b m itte d b y a
p rofessor o f p h ilo sop h y illu stra te s som e o f these p o i n t s :
I have heen trying very hard o f late years to meet m y students on a com
mon human hasis, disregarding as fa r as possible the authority o f the teacher
in m y dealings with them, and playing the role o f the fellow human heing
and a living exponent o f philosophy rather than that o f a teacher o f philos
ophy. I find that academic requirements have consistently stood in my way.
The most trouhlesome thing of all was the business o f examinations and
grades.
H ating the silly rigmarole as I do, I have tried to make it automatic
366 THE SOCIOLOGY OB’ TEACHING
and meaningless to myself and my students. As to myself, I have succeeded

quite well, hut not so well with the students. I have found that students are
keenly interested in grades and the game of examinations, and I have fre
quently heen recalled to the (to me) puerile matter hy realistically minded
stndents. Occasionally I have found myself in hitter conflict with individual
students over the question whether I was a human heing with a message as a
human heing, or a teacher whose primary function was to help students to
get through examinations and obtain credits and grades.
I have no sympathy with the teaching point of view which regards a college
course as consisting of so many facts, which insists that these facts he
learned, and regards the business of learning them as the most serious and
important part of the student’s life. I have preferred to helieve that my
students and I alike were trying to understand certain aspects of the world
and man, and that my function was to cooperate with students in working
out an understanding of the problems of philosophy. I have tried to lead my
classes to discuss and to think ahout these prohlerns. T have tried to get them
to wonder. I have wanted to help them to have questions and to find answers
for their questions.
I tried to make examinations automatic, and I referred to them in class no
more often than I had to. Nor in my classes did I ever attempt to point my
students for an examination. The examinations came at stated intervals. 1
gave them, graded the papers, and returned them. That was all. Students
could find the correct answers in the textbook or in their class notes, t did
not want to hear ahout them, Here I know that my attitude was similar to
that o f some others who had a similar conception of the nature of teaching,
My former teacher, Professor J., was driving at the same thing. He, too,
wanted to help people to understand. lie drew no social line hetween students
and himself. He never turned his class into a quiz-section. He gave an exami
nation at the end of his course, and before giving it he used to say, “ The
papers will be graded and turned hack to you. Say anything you want to
say ahout the grades, hecause I should not like you to feel unduly repressed.
But don't say it to me. I am not interested. Strong men have wept in my
office when talking ahout their grades, hut I remained unmoved.” T was not
aware of imitating Professor J., but it seems that I have fallen into his
attitude.
I think hut infrequently of examinations, and I heartily dislike talking
ahout them. I split them off from my part of the course, the reasoning
together of myself and my students, as completely as possible. In class, I try
to avoid parroting the text, or repeating salient points of an assignment as
possihle examination material. What 1 want is to answer students’ questions.
Therefore I make much of a classroom procedure in which students question
the instructor'. It is no use; the questions usually concern in some way the
academic requirements. I have fallen into the habit of making some such
announcement as this to my classes:
“I want to answer your questions in this course. Our progress in our
THE BATTLE OP THE REQUIREMENTS 367
mutual enterprise of working out an understanding of human life will ho

greatly facilitated if we can use these points of perplexity as the starting
points of our discussion. I promise you that I will regard no question as
foolish and that I will not refuse an honest auswer to any honest question.
“But for our hetter understanding of each other, I ought to say that I will
not contract to answer any questions which fall into any of the following
three categories: First, questions to which I do not know the answer. They
will he many, hut I have done my hest, and I cannot help it if I remain
ignorant, Secondly, I will not answer any questions which are already
answered in your text. You can read. Thirdly, I will answer no questions
that pertain to jockeying for position for the examinations. Examinations are
a necessary evil, and I shall have to give examinations to test your mastery of
suhject matter, especially your mastery of the text,hook. But our progress in
this class will he advanced not at all by protracted discussions of examina
tions, or attempts to maneuver each other into unfavorable positions relative
to them.
"That leaves questions of a general intellectual nature, and any questions
relating to your understanding of the suhject matter of the course. There
ought to be many of those.”
But there never were many o f those. When they came, I encouraged them,
and as the term wore on, I found that spontaneous discussions arose more
frequently. Mostly, however, there was a dearth of student questions and
student contributions. But if I ever relaxed my tahoo on questions concern
ing requirements, or concerning examinations, there would he a flood of
questions. At the meeting hefore an examination, some hold student would
sometimes venture to ask a question ahout the coming test. I f I did not
answer it, ho was likely to resent it. If I answered it there would he many
more, calling for information concerning the type of questions, whether I
would ask them to know this, would I summarize that. Plenty of questions
then! Texthook questions, which I did not want to answer hceause my stu
dents could, after all, read. Devil and the deep hlue sea questions, which
I could uot answer hecause no one could answer them. "Do you want us to
know all these details?” Jockeying for position questions: "Do you really
think examinations are fair tests of a student’s ability?” etc. The hour would
he spent in a fruitless discussion of the examination.
There was some demand for various aids to study, outlines, schedules, etc.
These I put oil easily. My main difficulty was with the examinations them
selves. I f a student came into my office a day or so hefore a scheduled
examination, I knew that he was going to ask me to tell him what he should
study in preparation for the examination, or how he should study it.
Sometimes there was an attempt at definite imposition. One young man
requested a special afternoon appointment, lie was planning to cut my
eight o’clock on Tuesday, and he wanted me to take an hour to tell him what
I was going to say that might hear on the examination at eight o’clock
Thursday.
After the examination the same pitiful game continued. Students would
come up with an answer on their lips, and want to know whether that was
tbe right answer. Or they would come in for lengthy and very serious con
ferences concerning their grades.
I was a little bit hostile, and I make no doubt that my students resented
that. I realize that if I could have taken tbe whole business very seriously,
if I could have hrought myself to sit down with them and gravely discuss
their chances of success or failure in the coming ordeal, if I could have made
a game of examinations and pointed my students for them, if I could have
done these things, students might have liked me hetter. But I was con
vinced, and I still feel that this belief is sound, that teaching people to pass
examinations results only in their being able to pass examinations. It was
that that I was trying to get away from. The truth was that I was not
interested in the grade that any student made, though I was tremendously
concerned about whether or not students profited from my course in their
general understanding of the problems o f philosophy.
I realize that the students were more realistic in all this than I. I kept
trying to imagine that the relation hetween ns was that of master and dis
ciple, that our contact was a general human one, that the matter at issue
was the transmission of understanding. My students knew better. I was the
dispenser of grades, end the custodian of the credits. I f in trying to exert a
friendly influence for sweetness and light, I failed to he a benevolent helper
in the struggle for a diploma, or a no more than ordinarily unreasonable
opponent, they were perhaps justified in resenting it. I realize also that the
students were as utterly trapped as I. It was worse for the stupid, for they
had a hitterly difficult time in fulfilling even my very moderate course
requirements. But even the brilliant ones had good reason to be concerned
over their grades, and to conceive of their association with me in terms of
marks and credits rather than in terms of understanding. (Life history
document.)
T h e conflict th at a p p ea rs in th e ahove sto r y is a con flict hetween
in stitu tio n a l an d n o n -in slitu tio n a l lead ersh ip . In the social in ter
a ction o f the school, the teach er u s u a lly rep resen ts the pattern ed,
co n ven tion al lea d ersh ip , and sta n d s fo r ach ievem en t w ith in the in sti
tu tio n a l fra m e w o rk . S tu d e n ts are u su a lly concerned w ith hr caking
d ow n th is fra m e w o rk . B u t in college th e situ a tio n is fr e q u e n tly re
versed, w ith th e teacher a tte m p tin g to tra n sc en d th e academ ic defini
tio n o f th e situ a tio n , w h ile stu d en ts, th o r o u g h ly a ssim ilated to the
p a tte rn , striv e to confine the teach er to the con ven tion al channels of
in terc h a n ge. T h e reason o f th is is su fficien tly c le a r : T h e social situa
tio n o f the school p u ts pressure u p o n stu d en ts to m ake th e m in ter
ested in g e ttin g grades, n ot in g e ttin g w isd o m . T h ere is ahout every
co llege a n d h ig h school a m a ss o f u n w ie ld y a n d h rittle social m a-
THE BATTLE OF THE EEQUIBEMEHTS 369
chinery w hich w ork s to th is en d. Th e d e a n ’ s office sets u p stan d a rd s

and d em an d s rep o rts on g rad es; the fr a te r n ity d em a n d s g rad es;
the h on o ra ry society d em an ds grad es ; the ath letic d ep a rtm en t dem an ds
grades. B u t these in stitu tion a l devices do n ot p ro m o te m uch real
learn ing. T h e teacher, a m in o r cog in the great social m ach in e, can
do little else h u t m ove w h en an d as the m ach in e m oves. I n co n fo rm ity
to th e in stitu tion a l regim en , also, th e teacher w ill find h is greatest
happiness in his relation s w ith h is stu d en ts. H e m u st accept, w ith
w hatever grace h e can, th e social situ ation o f g iv in g and receivin g
grades an d c r e d it s ; he m u st a ltern a tely set u p h arriers fo r stu d en ts
to pass, tak in g them very seriou sly an d ta lk in g ahou t th em , n o t
u n p leasa n tly h u t d eterm in ed ly, a n d th en com e over on the sid e o f
the stu d en ts a n d h elp them to g et past th e h arriers h e h as h im se lf
set u p .
T h ere are teachers w h o tak e th is p a r t o f th eir w o rk v e r y seriou sly,
who th in k o f ap p roa ch in g ex am in a tio n s as a n ord eal h y fire fo r th em
and th e ir stu d en ts. T h e y stru g g le m ig h tily to p rep a re th eir stu d en ts
fo r a n y ty p e o f e x am in a tio n th e y m a y choose to g ive th em . T h e y
stru g g le m ig h tily to p rep a re an ex a m in a tio n w h ich w ill ad eq u ately
test the ach ievem en ts o f all stu d e n ts a n d w ill y e t g iv e a p ro p e r
scatter o f grades. W h e n th e d a y o f th e te st a t len gth arri ves, it fin d s
the teacher s till su fferin g m ore th a n h is stu den ts. T h is is p recisely
what the a lig n m en t o f hu m an fo rc e s w ith in the in stitu tio n a l situ a
tion req u ires i f stu d en ts and teach ers are to live togeth er h a p p ily .
Th e social life o f a w h ole little w o r ld revolves ahout the issue o f
tests a n d req u irem en ts. Th e can n in ess o f teachers is la rg e ly con
cerned w ith this. Th e specific req u irem en t, once it is set u p , h arden s
like concrete into a changeless m oral order. T h e usual r a p id ly he-
comes th e rig h t. T h a t is w h y teach ers are so concerned w h en a
little loophole appears in the social fra m e w o rk th ey h ave h u ilt ; th ey
know th at th is little evasion or ex em p tion , th is seem in g ly h arm less
little p riv ile g e , w ill soon he tra n sla te d into p rescrip tiv e rig h t. E x
perienced teachers have learned to evalu ate precedents. A s req u ire
m ents are social arran gem en ts w hich h u m a n h ein gs d ep en d upon,
they are h ard en ed in to r ig h t ; as th e y are harriers th at stan d in
p eo p le’s w a y , th ey are hroken dow n hy the p la y o f h u m a n fo rces.
There are courses in h igh school and college w hose p u rpose it is
to equip stu d en ts w ith desirahle a ttitu d es tow ard certain oh jects in
their en v iro n m en t. M a n y such cou rses are to he fo u n d in d ep a rtm en ts
o f sociology, an d the a rg u m en ts in th eir fa v o r are at least p a r tly
sound. R ig o ro u s academ ician s o b je c t to th em because, as th ey say,
it is the bu sin ess o f edu cation to in f o r m ; edu cation sh ou ld be con

cerned w ith the in tellectu a l con ten t o f th e m in d an d n o t w ith the
d y n a m ics o f its em otional org a n ization . T h is seem s a h a sty and ill-
con sidered o b jection , and one th a t betokens a n a rro w v ie w o f educa
tio n , fo r it is not possible to tr a n sm it a ttitu d e s w ith o u t also pass
in g o n objects, a n d " a t t i t u d e c o u r se s’ ' m u s t co n trib u te as m uch as
a n y others to en a b lin g stu d en ts to liv e in a w id e r a n d m ore com p lexly
stru c tu re d u n iverse.
A m ore serious critic ism o f a ttitu d e courses is th a t th ey do not
r e a lly a ffect attitu d es. T h is is as it m a y b e, b u t acad em ic stan dards
dou b tless in te rfe re w ith th e tran sm ission of a ttitu d e s. The rig
m a ro le o f ex am in a tio n s, g ra d es, a n d c red its p re v e n ts th e teacher fr o m
ex e rtin g a p erso n a l influence u p o n h is stu d en ts. A c a d e m ic stan dards
are p rep o sterou s in a ttitu d e courses, a n d either a ttitu d e courses m u st
be ab an d o n ed or o u r con cep tion o f academ ic stan d a rd s revised. F o r
h o w is it possible to give a g ra d e u p o n fr e e d o m fr o m race p re ju d ic e ?
O r to secure, in a class in w h ich a g ra d e m u st fin a lly be giv en , th at
fr e e expression o f o n e ’s w h ole opin io n , so d ifferen t fr o m a servile
an d ton g u e-in -ch eek repetition o f w h a t the teach er and th e textbook
h ave said , fr o m w h ich alone can sta r t th e so rt o f social in teraction
w h ich m ight, resu lt in ch an ged a ttitu d es a n d o p in io n s?
A lik e so rt o f reason ing m a y be said to h o ld con cern in g courses
whose aim is to g ive in sigh t. I t is difficult to pass on in sigh t, and
its tra n sm issio n m u st rep resen t a p o sitive achievem ent both for
stu d en t a n d te a c h e r ; th is is an im p o rta n t reason fo r its lack o f p o p u
la r ity , b u t the real reason f o r the aban d on m en t b y teach ers o f the
a tte m p t to pass it o n is th a t it is p ra c tic a lly im p o ssib le to test it. A
teacher who concerned h im se lf m a in ly w ith g iv in g in sig h t w ou ld
.n o t be able to give ob jective tests, h e w o u ld n ot h ave a p ro p e r scatter
in h is grades, and his m arks w o u ld n o t fit th e n orm al cu rve. He
m ig h t h ave a " p i p e c o u r s e " an d be o u tla w ed b y his colleagu es fo r
u n fa ir com p etition , or h e m ig h t h av e a n u n co n sc io n ab ly h ard course,
and fa il to be elected because of a w h isp erin g c a m p a ig n in the
fr a te r n ity houses.
T ests an d stan d ard s are in ten d ed to en fo rce su b stan tial achieve
m en t, an d to w eed o u t th e in e p t an d th e la zy . B u t a lm ost any aca
dem ic te st fa ils to sort out in d iv id u a ls in the w a y it is in ten d ed to
d o . A lw a y s the m ediocre slip th ro u gh , and a lw ay s th e able and
d ilig e n t are lik e ly to be p en a lized w ith th e d u ll a n d la z y . I n grad u ate
schools there has b een o f la te y ears a fr a n tic effort to set u p requ ire
m e n ts w h ich w ill ex clu d e fo o ls fr o m h ig h er degrees. T h ere h as been
a m u ltip lica tio n o f the h u rd les th at have to be ju m p e d b efore one

enters in to the k in g d o m . I t m a y be th a t the ideal o f the p ro p e r sort
o f can didate fo r a P h .D ., as lo n g as it rem ains a n id eal en sh rin ed in
the m in d s o f a d m in istrators, is n o t w h o lly in effectu al. B u t w hen
th at ideal becom es a ru le, it is a fo r m a l requ irem en t, a n d d u ll p e r
sons can fu lfill it fo r m a lly w ith o u t possessing a g lim m er o f th at liv e ly
com prehension w hose possession it is su pposed to in su re. I t is a ll
v ery w e ll to h a v e a b rid ge o f asses, b u t it is w e ll to rem e m b er th at
the tra in ers o f asses are a s p ersiste n t a n d in g en io u s as th e b u ild ers
o f bridges.
A lth o u g h e x am in a tio n s are som etim es p lea san t f o r teach ers, th ey
are n e v e r pleasan t fo r stu d en ts, e x c e p t, p erh a p s, fo r those in te lle c
tual rarities w h o, n ever h a v in g ex perien ced a d efeat, are a n x io u s to
dem onstrate th eir stren gth a g a in . B u t it is a m a tte r o f com m on c o m
m ent a m o n g teach ers th at even th e ablest stu d en ts fr e q u e n tly ask
silly questions on ex a m in a tio n d a y . (S o m e , in d eed , h a v e p e rfe cte d a
technique b y w hich, th ro u gh successive qu estion s as to in terp reta tio n
o f questions, th ey g e t th eir tea ch ers to d o th e m e n ta l w o rk o f th e
exam in ation fo r th e m .) M a n y stu d en ts are th ro w n in to su ch a pan ic
th at th e y can n ot answ er th e m o st elem en tary qu estion s, a n d th eir
papers show a m a rk ed deterioration fr o m th eir usual level. (R u le -
o f-th u m b m eth od s allow fo r a v a r ia tio n o f fifteen p er cent betw een
d aily w o rk a n d exam in ation s as n o t a b n o rm a l.) Nor sh ou ld i t be
th ou gh t th at the effects o f su ch experien ces p ass a w ay q u ick ly. T h ere
develops a fe a r o f exam in a tio n s, a n exam in ation co m p lex , w hich re
m ains to bedevil the in d iv id u a l in all the cru cial situ a tio n s o f his
life . I n one case, difficulty w ith ex am in a tio n s in h ig h school, c ry sta l
lized b y a single experience o f fa ilu r e in college en tran ce ex a m in a
tions, d eterred a y o u n g w om an fr o m en terin g college a n d g av e rise
to a conflict (e xp ressed in a recu rren t d r e a m ) w h ich w as still fresh
eight years later. A p ro p e r ev alu a tio n o f th e lea rn in g p ro d u c t o f the
schools w o u ld show , how ever, th a t one o f the ch ief th in g s w h ich good
students have lea rn ed is the a r t o f w r itin g exam in ation s.
Som e m ore general qu estion s a n d p ro b lem s still a w ait con sidera
tion. In th e ch apter on social m o b ility we discussed the selective fu n c
tion o f the schools. I t is obvious th at academ ic req u irem en ts are th e
m ost im p o rta n t o f the selective devices w h ich the schools h ave at
th eir com m and. W e believe the selective fu n c tio n o f th e schools to
be a leg itim a te fu n ctio n , an d y e t we h ave p ro p osed to r e la x academ ic
stan dards in the interest o f p erso n a lity valu es a n d a b etter k in d o f
lea rn in g . Th e relaxation o f stan d a rd s, or th e h u m an ization o f m eth od s
o f e n fo rcin g them , clea rly p o in ts tow ard the d ev elop m en t o f other

te stin g m ech an ism s in the school. T h is need sh ou ld he filled b y the
d ev elop m en t o f the field o f vocation a l g u id a n c e, a field w h ich as yet
a w aits the touch o f a m a ste r h an d .
B u t it h a s been w ith a tru e in tu itio n th a t ed u cation al theorists
h ave fa sten ed u p o n th is ta sk -p e r fo rm in g asp ect o f education as the
m o st vicious fe a tu r e o f o u r ed u ca tio n al system . W e m u st seek a d if
fe re n t k in d o f ed u cation . W e m u st recognize th a t the edu cation of
the u n d e rsta n d in g , th e o n ly k in d o f ed u cation th a t w ill ever give us
a rea l m a ste ry o f o u r w o rld , does n o t p roceed so m u c h fr o m ac
qu ain tan ce w ith a b ro a d ra n g e o f fa c ts a n d p rin c ip le s as fro m the
assim ilation o f a fe w . T h e greatest scientific research er is n o t alw ays
th e p erso n w h o carries th e g reatest lo a d o f con cep ts in his head.
An e p ig r a m con trasts tw o co n tem p o ra ry statesm en as fo llo w s : “A
h as rea d n o th in g a n d u n d ersta n d s e v e r y t h in g ; B h as read everything
and u n d e rsta n d s n o t h in g .” I t is the u n d o u b ted ten d en cy o f desiccated
a n d fa c tu a l in stru ction to p ro d u ce the secon d ty p e o f le a rn in g . We
m u st a im a t a liv e lie r le a rn in g . W e m u st aim a t assim ilation ratber
th a n m em orization .
A l l th a t w e h av e said abou t academ ic requ irem en ts does n o t argue
a ga in st a definite, even a sta n d a rd ized a n d stereo ty p ed content of
edu cation . T h ere are m a n y elem en ts o f o u r cu ltu re w h ich it is im p era
tiv e th at a n y p erso n w h o is to liv e in i t m u st assim ilate. There is,
fo r in sta n ce, arith m etic. N o r can w e do a w a y w ith task s, fo r the
u tility o f a definite ta sk roots deep in to the co n stru ction o f the m in d .
B u t it is the m a n n er o f re q u irin g it th a t m a k es the difference. The
p resen t m o d e o f e n fo rc in g req u irem en ts, b y recitation s a n d periodic
ex a m in a tio n s w ith a sy stem o f credits an d g ra d es, does n o t w o r k ; at
best it en forces a psittaceou s rep etitio n o f fa c t s co m m itted to m em
ory, a n d does n o t assure, p e r h a p s does n o t even fa v o r , a rea l assim ila
tio n o f su b je c t m a tte r . B y in tro d u c in g an elem ent o f th e artificial
an d the fo rc e d , b y p la c in g the em phasis u p o n the fa lse, objective
sym h ol o f the su b jectiv e re a lity o f le a rn in g , it v itia te s th e relation
sh ip o f teach er and ta u g h t. A c h ie f m e rit o f som e o f the recent uses
o f ach ievem en t tests is th a t th e y rem ove th is elem ent o f artificiality
fr o m the school room .
PRO JECTS
1. Induce teachers to comment on other teachers who are reputed to he

lax in the matter o f requirements. Record and analyze.
2. Compare all the courses you have had in college as to exactness, organ'"-
THE BATTLE OP THE REQUIREMENTS 373
aation, and susceptibility to being tested. Which courses had the highest
standards? Which had the greatest influence upon your attitudes?
3. Make a study o f successful examination papers. W h at were their out
standing characteristics ? Compare with badly written examinations. State
the technique o f writing examinations.
4. Record your introspection while grading a set o f examination papers or
classroom exercises with a view to ascertaining the factor's upon which
judgment is actually based. Note especially the chain o f reflections involved
in the decision as to whether a marginal paper shall be marked pass or fail.
5. Make observations upon persons, their decisions, and incidents o f their
lives in order to arrive at a statement o f the difference between common
sense and book knowledge. State the theoretical distinction as clearly as
possible.
6. Take notes upon speeches at a convention o f specialized teachers. Note
shibboleths, collective representations, the buttressing o f distorted attitudes
by group processes, etc.
7. Make a ease study o f a specialist whose point o f view has apparently
suffered no distortion. To what factors in his personality should this freedom
from specialism be ascribed?
8. Take careful notes upon an argument between a student and a teacher
concerning a grade. Analyze the play o f attitudes in the discussion. Compare
tbe techniques o f different teachers in meeting or avoiding such arguments.
9. Make observations upon “ chiselling” and “handshaking” in your own
school. W h at techniques are employed? Is there a student taboo upon such
behavior ?
10. W rite the history o f a teacher who began teaching without any academic
standards but was forced to develop them. Analyze group processes at
work in the case.
11. Make a case study o f a teacher who obtains status in the teacher group
by marking students very strictly. Analyze his relation to social groups.
12. Analyze the process o f competition for students in a given school.
Note the bases, methods, and limitations o f competition. Study the person
alities o f successful and unsuccessful competitors.
13. Record the folk talk o f a group o f teachers on the topic o f academic
standards. Get attitudes toward standards, grades, examinations, failures,
cribhing, chiselling, etc.
14. W rite the history o f a projected school reform which foundered as a
result o f the rebellious attitudes o f students and the disciplining attitudes o f
teachers.
15. W rite the history o f the honor system in a given school. W h at makes
it work? I f it has failed, what was the reason?
16. Make case studies o f several students who cheat in examinations. W h y
do they do it? H ow do they ju stify the practice?
17. Compare a teacher in whose classes cheating is rife with a teacher in
whose classes students rarely cheat. Analyze and interpret.
18. Describe the social atmosphere o f a school or class in which cribbing

has become a game. Analyze carefully the involvement o f attitudes.
19. Analyze the student relationships o f a teacher who attempts to mini,
mize examinations. Compare with the student relationships o f a teacher who
pays a great deal o f attention to examinations. W hich is the better courslf
20. Make a case study o f a student who has a chronic feaT o f examination^
and is always so disorganized hy them that he makes a poor showing.
S U G G E S T E D R E A D IN G S
(1 ) D a w so n , C. A ., and G e ttys , W . E ., An Introduction to Socioluyyl

pp. 442-447.
(2 ) D e w e t , J o h n , Democracy and Education.
(3 ) H art, J. K ., A Social Interpretation of Education, Chapter X V I I I ,
(4 ) K ilpatrick, W . H ., Foundations of Method, Chapter X V I I .
(5 ) P eters, C. C., Foundations of Educational Sociology, Chapter V III.
(6) R ugg, H. 0., and Schumaker, A nn, The Child-Centered School.
(7 ) Thayer, V . T ., The Passing of the Recitation.
r
P art F ive
WHAT TEACHING HOES TO TEACHERS
C hapter XXII
DETERMINANTS OF THE OCCUPATIONAL TYPE
T eaching mates tbe teacher. Teaching is a boomerang that never

fails to come back to tbe hand that threw it. Of teaching, too, it is
true, perhaps, that it is more blessed to give tban to receive, and it
also bas more effect. Between good teaching and bad there is a great
difference where students are concerned, but none in this, that its
most pronounced effect is upon the teacher. Teaching does something
co those who teach. Introspective teachers know of changes that
have taken place in themselves. Objectively minded persons bave ob
served tbe relentless march of growing teacberishness in others. This
is our problem.
It is necessary to see this inquiry in its true perspective. Tbe ques
tion : Wbat does teaching do to teachers? is only a part of the greater
problem: What does any occupation do to the human being who
follows it? Now that differences of caste and rank have become in
conspicuous, and differences that go with the locale are fading, it
is the occupation that most marks tbe man. The understanding of
the effects upon tbe inner man of the impact of the occupation is
thus an important task of social science. It is a problem almost un
touched. We know that some occupations markedly distort tbe per
sonalities of those wbo practice them, that there are occupational
patterns to which one conforms his personality as to a Procrustean
bed by lopping off superfluous members. Teaching is by no means
tbo only occupation which whittles its followers to convenient size
and seasons them to suit its taste. The lawyer and the chorus girl
soon come to be recognizable social types. One can tell a politician
when one meets him on tbe street. Henry Adams has expanded upon
the unfitness of senators for being anything but senators; occupational
molding, then, affects the statesman as much as lesser men. The
doctor is always the doctor, and never quite can quit his role, The
375
salesman lives in a world of selling configurations. And what preach

ing most accomplishes is upon the preacher himself. Perhaps no
occupation that is followed long fails to leave its stamp upon the
person. Certainly teaching leaves- no plainer mark than some other
vocations, though it is, perhaps, a mark which a larger number of
people can recognize. Tt is our present task to determine, as objectively
as may he and as completely as possihle, the effect of teaching upon
the person.
lie f ore we can understand the occupational type to which the mem-
hers of any profession belong, we must take account of the operation
of four sorts of factors: (1) selective influences affecting the com
position of the profession, (2) the set of roles and attitudes which
the memher-of the profession must play consistently, (3) the effect
upon individuals of the opinion which the community has of the pro
fession, and (4) traumatic learning within the occupation.
(1 ) Following out the operation of the first of these factors, we
find that one reason for the similarity of doctors to each other is that
there is a type of personality which is especially attracted to medi
cine. Likewise a certain type is attracted more than others to law,
another type to engineering, another to the ministry, etc. There is
in no case complete consistency, hut there is a sufficiently heavy aggre
gation of one sort of personality type in a given profession to justify
the assumption of a selectivity affecting the composition of the pro
fessional population.
(2) Those who follow certain occupations are continually thrown
into certain kinds of social situations. These social situations call for,
or are best met by, a certain kind of reaction on the part of the pro
fessional. The individual thus plays certain roles and shows certain
attitudes habitually, and there is a tendency for him to distort other
social situations until they conform to a pattern which can he met.
hy his habitual Toles and attitudes. (This is the transfer joke, the
mainstay of overworked humorists.) Training an individual for the
practice of such a profession often consists in teaching him what he
is expected to do or say upon certain occasions, as when the minister
offers the consolations of religion to a bereaved family, a teacher as
signs a lesson, a doctor enters a sick room, or a lawyer threatens suit.
Long practice in the social techniques enjoined upon one in a pro
fession makes those the deepest grooves, and at length they grow
so deep that there is no getting out of them.
(3) From community experience of persons playing certain kinds
1 DETERMINANTS OF THE OCCUPATIONAL TYPE 377
of roles in the practice of certain callings, "worked over and some

what distorted hy the conscious and unconscious attitudes of the
community toward that profession, arise certain subjective patterns,
or stereotypes, which embody the community idea of the individual
belonging to a certain occupational group. The stereotype helps to
determine the true occupational type, for it affects the selectivity of
the occupation, and it limits and canalizes the social experience of
the member of the occupation. The attempt of the individual to
escape from the stereotype may itself become as in teaching and the
ministry one of the important determinants of the occupational type
proper.
(4) The social situation surrounding the practice of any occu
pation is set to inflict upon the individual whose occupational be
havior is eccentric certain shocks, or trauma. From the viewpoint of
social organization, these shocks or penalties are means of enforcing
conformity to social codes. Upon persons they produce special effects
due to psychological shock. Though not easily differential!le from
situational molding, these effects seem to deserve special discussion.
The selective influences determining the type of person who elects
to follow' a given occupation are always a little obscure, and to deter
mine them even for a single occupation would require extended re
search. W e must at once confess our inability to map out the set of
social influences which lead certain individuals to take up teaching
and discourage others from entering the profession. We may attempt
an answer in the most general terms hy noting briefly some of the
conditions which determine the selectivity of any occupation. The
economic standing of a vocation is one of the most important factors
determining its selective pattern. In this arc included the matter of
financial return, immediate and future, the opportunity fo r advance
ment (more or less graded into steps to constitute a career), and eco
nomic security. Economic considerations do not solely determine the
power of an occupation to attract desirable individuals, but they are
an important part of the general configuration in which the occupa
tion makes its appearance in the minds of individuals, for some call
ings have a “ personality wage,” and others have not. The social
standing of the occupation is also important. Under this, it needs to
be considered what social circles those in the occupation move in, and
I
what stereotyped ideas the community has concerning the profession;
for women, the question of marriage opportunities is not a slight
one. The nature of the work is another condition of its attractiveness
or unattractiveness to particular individuals. Some persons take natu

rally to routine; others are satisfied only with » d occupation which
presents a series o f crises to he met aDd conquered. For some, obscurity
is no hardship, but for others it is necessary always to be in range of
the spotlight. There are yet other persons in whose minds the oppor
tunities -which an occupation yields for self-expression outweigh all
other factors. The amount and kind of special training required for
entry into the ranks of a given occupation are further considera
tions which select out some few of the many called. This will affect
the psychic composition of the profession. It is certain, for instance,
that those who come into the medical profession in these days of
long and expensive training will always bave plenty of patience.
These are the objective considerations which determine the at
tractiveness or unattractiveness of a given occupation. I f choice were
rational, these elements would appear in the mind fully, and he
weighed the one against the other, and the reliability of every sub
sidiary inference and of every shred of evidence would be determined
logically. But choice is rarely rational. When these considerations
appear in the human mind, they are distorted by wishful thinking,
altered to conform to the prevalent stereotype, colored by fancy. It
is the logic of the impulses that finally determines choice. The choice
of a vocation is more likely to bo dictated by the family pattern and
the supposed conformity of an occupation to class tradition than
by a rational consideration of pay, opportunity, and the nature of
the work. The social experience of the individual, too, often gives
him a preference for a certain occupation on a basis that is scarcely
conscious. Not all personal considerations, of course, are irrational in
their nature; the possession of special aptitudes or marked disabilities
often affects choice. But— so contrary are the workings of our logical
machinery— such considerations probably prompt choices that are
deliberately wrong as often as choices that are right.
The selective pattern which teaching presents to prospective
teachers has never been adequately described, and the present writer
does not presume to be able to deal with it any better than have his
predecessors. It is a known fact that the financial rewards of teaching
are not great; the pay low, the opportunity for advancement, for
most teachers, slight; and economic security little. Most writers have
concluded that this is in itself an explanation of the known failure of
the profession to attract as large a number of capables as it should.
Yet one may wonder whether merely raising salaries all around would
cause the mediocre to be crowded out by the influx of the talented.
DETERMINANTS OF THE OCCUPATIONAL, TYPE 379
The social standing of the profession is unfortunately low, and this

excludes more capable than incapable persons. Particularly damag
ing, probably, is the belief that is abroad in the community that only
persons incapable of success in other lines become teachers, that teach
ing is a failure belt, the refuge of “ unsalable men and unmarriage-
able women.” This belief is the more damaging for the truth that
is in it. The nature of the work of teaching, with its overwhelm
ing mass of routine and its few opportunities for free self-expression,
may both deter and attract to the ultimate damage of the profession.
On the one hand, the drudgery of teaching, combined with the many
restrictions which the community places upon the personal conduct
of teachers, may eliminate from teaching many of those virile and
inspiring persons of whom the profession has such need, for it is a
known fact that such pronouncedly individual persons often have
little respect for purely negative morality, and react vehemently
against living within the community stereotype of the teacher. On
the other hand, teaching, along with the ministry, is known as one
of the sheltered occupations, as an occupation where those persons
who shrink from the daily battle of life, often very estimable per
sons, by the way, may find refuge. This quality of not wishing to
do battle in the front rank, which would perhaps show a high correla
tion with introversion, by no means detracts from the teaching ability
of every person who has it, but on the whole it probably operates
to the detriment of the profession.
Perhaps all those who have treated the topic of the selective factors
determining the composition of the teaching population have erred
hy handling the subject too rationalistically. Barely does an occupa
tional choice result from a process of rigorous reasoning. More often
it is the social experience of the individual which gives him a push
into teaching that he cannot resist, and the advantages and disad
vantages of teaching remain uneonsidered. Perhaps it is an inherent
need of the personality for being in some sort of managerial position
which prompts one to take up teaching as an occupational goal. Per
haps it is a training which has interested one in the things of the
mind so that the attractiveness of other occupations has been dulled
and that only teaching is left as a compromise (creative art being
left out of consideration for lack o f talent). Perhaps it is a training
which has made one almost able to enter some other profession, such
as law or medicine, but has left him at the door. (Students of one
midwestern institntion refer to the customary fifteen hours of educa
tion as an “ insurance policy.” ) Perhaps it is a desire for ready
380 THE SOCIOLOGY OP TEAOHING
money 'which prompts the young graduate to take up teaching, where

lie can command a slightly higher salary as a heginner than he can
in business.
Few facts are available as to the composition of the teaching popu
lation determined by these selective factors. We know that teachers
are predominantly native-horn, that the large majority o f them come
from the rural districts, and that they come from families of the
lower middle class. Teachers are fairly young, about two thirds of
the women and one half of the men heing under thirty. There is
little in any of these facts to give occasion for either regret or re
joicing. What we should like to Imow is the psychic qualities of
these something more than eight hundred thousand, native-born, pre
dominantly rural persons who teach. This is precisely' what we do
not know. The average intelligence quotient of teachers may be high
or it may be low. Their will-profile may go this way or again it may
go that. Writers on the subject of the teaching population in general
seem agreed that there are too many teachers of mediocre personal
and mental qualifications, and far too few who would rank in the
superior class either as intellectual agents or as persons.1 Granting
that this generalization is as true as such a broad generalization can
ever he, we may mention the ohviosity that one of the tasks! facing
the teaching profession is the attraction of superior persons and the
gradual displacement of the inferior.
When the mills have ground which supply to each profession its
accustomed human material, the teaching profession receives each year
a large numher of plastic and unformed minds. These new recruits
have whatever qualities they may have, and upon the hasis of their
present personalities their life in the teaching profession will build a
different structure. They do not know how to teach, although they may
know everything that is in innumerable hooks telling them how to
teach. They will not know how to teach until they have got the
knack o f certain personal adjustments which adapt them to their
profession, and the period of learning may he either long or short,
These recruits who face teaching as a life work are ready to learn
to teach, and they are ready, though they know it not, to he formed
hy teaching. When teaching has formed them, what shape will it give
them? Their daily work will write upon them; what wall it write?
1 I n t e l] ig e n e e te s ts g iv e n in a le a d i n g e a s t e r n u n i v e r s i t y d u r in g th e l a s t few
y e a r s h a v e c o n s is t e n t ly sh o w n fr e s h m a n e d u c a t io n s t u d e n t s to b e o f lo w e r aver
a g e i n t e l l i g e n c e t h a n th e f r e s h m e n o f a n y o t h e r s c h o o l. W o m e n s tu d e n ts seem
fu r t h e r b e lo w th e g e n e r a l o v e r a g e th a n m e n s t u d e n t s . T h is i s l a r g e l y re m ed ied
b y s e v e re e lim in a t io n in th e s c h o o l o f e d u c a t io n .
I DETERMINANTS OF THE OCCUPATIONAL TYPE 381
What teaching does to teachers it does partly hy furnishing them

those roles which hahit ties to the inner frame of personality and use
makes one with the self. Our method in this discussion w ill be to
descrihe those social situations which, the teacher most often en
counters, and to analyze them to discover how the qualities con
sidered to be characteristic of the teacher are produced in them. We
must admit that this is a method o f empirical analysis, and that it
has its first and most important basis in what the writer has seen
and thought and done. The only test of such analysis and of the
generalizations which come from it is the judgment of other writers
who have had equal opportunity to ohserve. Although this method
is vague and is little subject to control, it is the only method avail
able at the present time for pursuing an inquiry of this sort, and
we shall endeavor to apply it in as fair-minded a way as possible.
Where there seem to he two sides, we shall state hoth and leave the
reader to choose for himself.
Aside from a scattering company o f panegyrists, most of those
who have presumed to comment on the teacher as an occupational
type have done so in an unfriendly manner. This is perhaps regret
table, hut certainly significant, for most o f those who have passed
unfavorable judgments upon teachers have been teachers themselves;
from pondering this, one gets a little insight into the conditions of
stress and strain in the teacher mind. Unfriendly commentators upon
the manners of teachers are ahle to compile a long list of unpleasant
qualities which, they'say, are engendered in the teacher’s personality
by teaching experience. There is first that certain inflexibility or
unhendingness of personality which is thought to mark the person
who has taught. That stiff and formal manner into which the young
teacher compresses himself every morning when he puts on his collar
becomes, they say, a plaster cast which at length he cannot, loosen.
One has noticed, too, that in his personal relationships the teacher
is marked hy reserve, an incomplete personal participation in the
dynamic social situation and a lack of spontaneity, in psychological
terms, hy an inhibition of his total responses in favor of a restricted
segment of them. As if this reserve were not in itself enough to
discourage ill-considered advances, it is supplemented, when one
has become very much the teacher, hy certain outward harriers which
prevent all and sundry from coming into contact with the man he-
hind the mask and discovering those inhibited and hidden possi
bilities of reaction. Along with this goes dignity, the dignity of the
teacber which is not natural dignity like that of the American Indian,
but another kind of dignity that consists of an abnormal concern

over a restricted role and the restricted hut well-defined status that
goes with it. One who has taught long enough may wax unenthu-
siastic on any subject under the sun; this, too, is part of the picture
painted hy unfriendly critics. The didactic manner, the authoritative
manner, the flat, assured tones of voice that go with them, are lured
in the teacher hy his dealings in the school room, where he rules over
the petty concerns o f children as a Jehovah none too sure of him
self, and it is said that these traits are carried over by the teacher
into his personal relations. It is said, and it would he difficult to
deny it, that the teacher mind is not creative. Even the teacher’s
dress is affected hy his occupational attitudes; the rule is that the
teacher must be conservative, if not prim, in manner, speech, and
dress. There are other traits which some ohservers have mentioned;
a set of the lips, a look of strain, a certain kind of smile, a studied
mediocrity, a glih mastery of platitude. Some observers have remarked
that a certain way of standing ahout, the way of a person who has
had to spend much o f his time waiting for something to happen
and has had to he very dignified ahout it, is characteristic o f the
teacher. Sometimes only small and uncertain indications hotray the
profession. Sometimes, as a cynical novelist has remarked of one of
his characters, one cannot see the man for the school master. If
these traits, or those essential ones which make up the major outlines
of the picture, are found among the generality of teachers, it is
hecause these traits have survival value in the schools of today. If
one does not have them when he joins the faculty, he must develop
them or die the academic death. Opinions might differ as to how
widely these characteristic traits are found among the memhers of
the profession and as to how deeply they are ingrained, as to whether
the ordinary man might see them, or only one with the curse of
satire. But Henry Adams has said that no man can he a school master
for ten years and remain fit for anything else, and his statement
has given many a teacher something to worry ahout.
There is enough plausibility in the ahove description to make us
teachers ponder about the future, if not the present, of ourselves and
our friends. But there is another side, and we may well pause to
look at it before going on with our analysis. Teaching brings out
pleasant qualities in some persons, and for them it is the most gratify
ing vocation in the world. The teacher enjoys the most pleasant asso.
ciations in his w ork; he lives surrounded hy the respect of the com
munity and the homage of his students. Teaching affords a splendid
DETERMINANTS OP THE OCCUPATIONAL TYPE 383
o p p ortu n ity fo r a self-sa crificin g person (h o w m any o f th ese are

th e re ?) to realize h is d estin y v ic a r io u s ly ; in an y case th e teach er is
■ less soiled hy lif e th a n those w h o fo llo w m ore v ig oro u s p ro fession s.
I t m a y w e ll be questioned, too, w h eth er there is a n y o ccu p a tio n a l
conscience m ore stric t th an th at of th e teach er. T ea c h in g breeds
patience in som e teachers, patien ce a n d fa irn e ss a n d a reserv e th at
is o n ly g e n tlem an ly a n d n e v e r fr o sty . T h ere are some p erso n s w h o m
teaching liherates, an d these sense d u r in g th eir first fe w m o n th s o f
teaching a ra p id g ro w th and ex p an sion o f p erso n a lity . W h i l e we
are statin g th is sid e o f th e case, w e m u s t record the p o in ted o b serva
tion o f one person on the co n stru ctiv e side o f th e a rg u m e n t th a t
those v e r y teachers w ho are h itterest in the d en u n cia tio n o f tea ch in g
w ould n ot fo r a m o m e n t co n sid er d o in g a n y th in g else, a n d t h a t even
the m ost d isco n ten ted teach ers can ra rely b rin g th em selv es to leave
the p ro fession . T h ese co n sid era tio n s sh ou ld he en o u g h to con vin ce
us th at th ere are tw o sides to ev eryth in g th a t can be sa id a h o u t th e
teacher, p e rh a p s th a t tea ch in g p ro d u ces ra d ic a lly d iffe re n t effects
upon d ifferen t ty p e s o f p erson s. B u t w h a tever th e classification o f
the qu a lities w h ich are p ro d u c ed in the tea ch er h y tea ch in g , th ey
all m a r k th e o ccu p ation al ty p e . O u r th eoretical p ro b lem sh o u ld n ow
be c le a r ; it is to accou n t f o r th e gen esis o f th e ch a racter tr a its be
lon g in g to th e teach er h y sh ow in g h ow th e y flow o u t o f th e action
o f h is life situ a tio n u p o n h is p e rso n a lity , i f possihle, to sh ow h ow
different effects are p ro d u c ed u p o n d ifferen t hasic p e rso n a lity ty p es.
T h e w e ig h tie st social relation sh ip o f th e teach er is h is rela tio n
ship to h is s tu d e n ts ; it is th is re la tio n sh ip w h ich is te a ch in g . I t is
arou n d th is relation sh ip th a t th e te a c h e r ’s p e rso n a lity te n d s to he
organized, a n d it is in a d a p ta tio n to th e n eed s o f th is re la tio n sh ip
that th e q u a lities o f ch aracter w h ich m a r k th e tea ch er are p ro d u ced .
The te a c h e r -p u p il relation sh ip is a sp e c ia l f o r m o f d o m in a n ce a n d
subordination, a v e r y u n stab le rela tio n sh ip a n d in q u iv e r in g e q u ilib
rium , not m uch su p p o rte d hy sa n c tio n and th e stro n g a rm of
a u th o rity , b u t d e p e n d in g la r g e ly u p o n p u r e ly p erso n a l a scen den cy.
E v e ry teacher is a task m a ster a n d ev ery task m a ste r is a h a r d m a n ;
i f he is n a tu r a lly k in d ly , he is h a r d fr o m d u ty , b u t i f h e is n a tu
ra lly u n k in d , he is h a r d because h e loves it. I t is a n u n fo r tu n a te
role, th a t o f S im o n L e g re e , an d h a s co rru p te d th e h est o f m en.
C onflict is in the role, fo r th e w ish es o f th e teach er a n d th e stu d e n t
are n ecessarily d iverg en t, a n d m ore conflict hccause th e tea ch er m u st
protect h im s e lf fr o m the possih le d estru ctio n o f h is a u th o rity th a t
m ig h t arise fr o m th is d iverg en ce o f m otives. S u b o rd in a tio n is p o s-
384 THE SOCIOLOGY OF TEAOHTNG
sible on ly because th e su b o rd in a ted one is a su b o rd in ate w ith a mere

fra g m e n t of his p e rso n a lity , w h ile the d o m in a n t one participates
co m p letely . Th e su b je c t is a su b je c t o n ly p a r t o f the tim e an d with
a p a rt o f h im se lf, b u t the k in g is a ll k in g . In schools, too, sub
ord in ated ones a tte m p t to protect th em selves hy w ith d ra w in g from
the re lation sh ip , to su ck the ju ic e fr o m the ora n ge o f c o n fo r m ity he-
fo re re n d e rin g it to th e teacher. B u t the teacher is doom ed to strive
a ga in st the m ech an ization o f his rule an d o f obedience to it. I t is
the p a r t o f the teach er to en fo rce a rea l obedience. Th e teacher m ust
be a gg ressiv e in h is do m in a tio n , a n d th is is v ery u n fo rtu n a te , because
d o m in a tio n is tolerable o n ly w hen it stays w ith in set bou nds. Prom
this n ecessary an d in d isp en sab le a ggressiven ess o f th e teacher arises
an a n sw e rin g h o stility on the p a r t o f the stu den t w hich im p e r ils the
very existen ce o f a n y in terc ou rse b etw een th em . T h e teacher takes
u p o n h im se lf m o st o f th e b u rd e n o f the fa r -r e a c h in g p sy ch ic ad ju st
m en ts w h ich m ake the con tin u an ce o f the relation sh ip possible.
T h a t in fle x ib ility or u n b en d in g n ess o f p e rso n a lity w h ich w e have
m en tion ed as c h a ra c terizin g th e school teach er flow s n a tu r a lly out
o f h is relation s w ith h is stu d en ts. T h e teach er m u s t m a in ta in a con
siste n t pose in th e presence o f stu d en ts. H e m u s t n o t a d a p t to the
d em an d s o f the ch ild ish g ro u p in w h ich he liv es, b u t m u s t fo rce the
g r o u p to a d a p t to h im , w h erefore th e tea ch er o fte n fe els th a t h e must
take leave o f graciousn ess an d ch arm an d th e art o f b ein g a good
fe llo w a t the classroom door. T h e teach er m u st n o t a ccept the defini
tion s o f situ a tio n s w h ich stu d en ts work out, b u t m u st im pose his
o w n defin ition upon stu d en ts. H is position as a n a gen t o f social con
tr o l, as th e p a id rep resen ta tiv e o f the a d u lt g r o u p a m o n g th e group
o f ch ild re n , req u ires th a t w hen he h as fo u n d a pose he m u st hold
it; to com p rom ise u p o n m a tte rs w h ere a d u lt m o r a lity ru n s w ould
be th o u g h t treaso n to the g ro u p th a t p a y s h is sa la ry . T h ere is added
a n ecessity o f h is p ro fessio n a l career w hich, since m e n an d careers
are a lw a y s m in g le d a n d n ever a p p ear sep a rately , is also o f the greatest
p erso n a l i m p o r t a n c e : he m u st m a in ta in d iscip lin e, a n d it is easier
to m a in ta in d iscip lin e b y m a k in g con tin u al d em an d s o f the same
so rt and b y k eep in g o n e ’s social role co n sta n t iu c o n fo r m ity with
those co n stan t d em a n d s th a n b y c h a n g in g roles fr e q u e n tly an d m ak
in g d em an d s con sisten t w ith those ch a n g in g roles b u t inconsistent
w ith each other. I t is, fu r th e r m o r e , v e r y w e a r in g to ch an ge roles
w h en one is responsible fo r a g ro u p , fo r one m u st m ake the fact
o f the ch an ge a n d all its Im p lication s clear to the en tire g r o u p ; it
u su a lly requ ires a certa in e ffo rt to con stellate a ll the m em hers of
DETEKMINANTS OP THE OCCUPATIONAL TYPE 385
t i e g ro u p in the new set o f a ttitu d es w h ich take th eir k ey fr o m

the te a c h e r ’s ch an ged r o le ; there are la g g a rd s w ho n ev er q u ite catch
the poin t, an d some la c k in g in social com p rehen sion w ho can n ot kn ow
that the teacher is jo k in g or do n o t observe th at he h as s t o p p e d ;
there are risks to th e teach er-dom in ated order in the s tr a g g lin g m arch
to a new m e n ta l alig n m en t. T h erefo re the teacher can n ot ch an ge
his role as o ften as the fu lfillm e n t o f h is personal im p u lses m ig h t d ic
tate. W h e n he does change it, he m u st lab el the tran sitio n in such
a m a n n er a s to d estroy its p o in t, erect, sign -p o sts, take th e salt fr o m
his h u m or b y b ro ad h in ts th a t he is jo k in g now . B u t the a h ility o f
a person to h o ld ou r in terest as a person d e p e n d s in la rg e p a rt
upon a s h iftin g of social roles so rap id th at th e eye m u st look
closely to sec it a n d so subtle th at no rea d y-m ad e lab els ca n fit it.
I f there are fe w roles w h ich classroom life p e rm its the teach er to
p lay, he m u st p u t on each o f th e m m a n y tim es a d a y . T h e teacher
must, a ltern a te his roles because he is tr y in g to do in con sisten t th in g s
with h is stu d en ts, a n d he can b r in g th em a b ou t o n ly b y r a p id ch an ges
fro m one establish ed pose to anoth er. H e is tr y in g to m a in ta in a defi
nite dom inan ce over y o u n g person s whose liv e s he p resu m es to r e g u
late v e r y co m p letely . T h is req u ires o f th e teach er aggressiven ess, u n
y ieldingn ess, a n d d eterm in ation . I f p ersisted in , th is a ttitu d e w ould
exterm inate in stu d en ts a ll interest, in subject, m a tte r and w ou ld
crush out ev ery fa i n t in c lin a tio n to p a rtic ip a te in the social life o f
the classroom , w h ich p resen ts no v e r y a llu r in g v ista s at the best.
A n d th e teach er w h o w en t v e r y lo n g upon th is tack w o u ld be kn ow n
for a k n ave an d a fo o l, a n d ju s tly h ated fo r a m a rtin et. S o m etim es
an u n im a g in a tiv e teacher ru n s in to ju s t this situ a tio n . T h e solu tion
is fo u n d in a lte rn a tin g th is a u th o rity role w ith som e oth er w h ich ; is
not altogeth er incon sistent w ith it b u t which, veils the a u th o rity so
that h o stility is no lon ger arou sed. But the a u th o rity im p ression
must, be c o n tin u ally renew ed, and there ensues a lo n g series o f ra p id
but n o t su btle ch an ges o f role, A s a resu lt, the lim ita tio n s a n d im p li
cations o f the te a ch er-p u p il relation sh ip are m a d e clear to the p u p il
group.
A clever fr ie n d h as p e rh a p s su m m ed u p th e m a tte r b y sa y in g , “ Th e
successful teacher is one w h o k n ow s how to g et on a n d off h is h ig h -
horse r a p id ly .” ( A s it h ap p e n e d , the a u th o r o f th is re m a rk d id n ot
h im self possess th is sk ill, and fa ile d in tea ch in g , a s so m a n y oth er
clever m e n h ave (lone, fo r w an t o f d ig n it y .) T h u s one sa ys, “ I am
y ou r te a c h e r ,” in a certain u n em otion al tone o f voice. Th is begets
discipline, p erh ap s som e suLlenness, ce rta in ly em otion al an d p ersonal
fr u s tr a tio n on th e p a rt o f both stu d e n t an d teach er, B e fo r e this re-

a ction h as been carried th ro u gh to co m p letion , one says, " B u t I am
a h u m a n bein g an d I try to he a g oo d fe llo w . A n d y o u are all fine
peop le a n d w e h ave som e g oo d tim es tog eth er, d o n ’t w e ? " Th is is
role n u m b e r tw o , a n d i f ta k e n at its fa c e v a lu e it h egets a desirable
ch e e rfu ln e ss a n d a d a n g ero u s frien d lin ess. I f he ta rrie s too lo n g upon
th is grace n ote, the teacher loses h is a u th o rity h y b ecom in g a member
o f th e g ro u p . H e m u s t revert to role n u m h e r one, an d sa y , w ith ju st
a h in t o f w a r n in g a n d an im p lication o f a d u lt d ig n ity in h is voice,
"B u t I am th e te a c h e r .” A l l th is occu rs a h u n d red tim es a day
in e v e r y school roo m , a n d it m ark s th e r h y th m o f th e te a c h e r ’s move
m e n ts o f ad va n cem en t a n d re tre a t w ith referen c e to h is students,
th e a ltern a te ex p a n sio n a n d co n tractio n o f h is p erso n a lity . I t does
n o t occur, o f cou rse, in so ohviou s a fo r m as t h i s ; it is p e rh a p s only
th e v e r y u n s k illfu l teach er w ho needs to p u t such th in g s in to words.
T h is p u lsa tio n o f the te a c h e r ’s p e rso n a lity , w ith its a n sw erin g change
o f p o stu re on th e p a r t o f stu d en ts, is u su a lly r e d u c e d to a mere
con versation o f gestures. T h is co n versation , fo r all th a t h a b it has
s tr ip p e d it so bare o f id e n tify in g ch a racteristics a n d d r a in e d it so
d r y o f em otion , is th e m o st sign ifican t social process o f th e classroom.
I t is also a v ery im p o rta n t d eterm in a n t o f th e te a c h e r’s personality,
a n d one o f th e p o in ts on w h ich t r a n s fe r is said to he m ade most
ea sily . A f t e r a ll, it need cause us n o am azem en t i f one w ho has learned
to g e t his w a y in th e school hy a ltern a te a p p lica tio n s o f h o t and
cold w a ter sh ou ld f a l l into th at tech n iq ue o f con trol in h is more
in tim a te relation sh ip s. I n the lif e o f ev ery teach er there is a significant
lo n g -te r m ch an ge in the psych ic w e ig h t o f these roles, a n o t un usu al
r e s u lt bein g th a t role n u m h er one, the a u th o rity role, eats u p the
fr ie n d ly role, or absorbs so m u ch o f the p e rso n a lity th a t n o th in g is
l e f t fo r frie n d lin e ss to fa tte n u pon .
T h e a u th o rity role becom es v e r y m u ch fo r m a liz e d , hoth because o f
th e p sy ch o lo g ica l la w th a t p erfo rm a n ces lose th e ir m ean in g fu ln ess
b y fr e q u e n t rep etitio n a n d because there is an a d v a n ta g e in having
it so. A r m y m e n speak o f a voice o f co m m a n d , a flat, im p erson al, u n
q u estion ab le, n on -con trov ersia l tone o f voice in w h ich com m ands are
b e st given . I t is a ton e o f voice w ith o u t overtones, r ep resen tin g o n ly
a seg m en t o f th e officer’s p erso n a lity an d d e m an d in g ohedience from
o n ly a se g m e n t o f the su bordin ate. S ch ool teach ers learn h y trial
a n d error, h y im ita tio n an d practice, to fo r m a liz e th e ir com m ands.
T h e y d evelop , too, the voice o f exp osition , w h ich is a voice p e r fe c tly
d r y an d as m ech an ical as a d ictap h on e, a voice a d ap ted to th e ex -
DKTEBMINANTS OP THE OCCUPATIONAL TYPE 387
po u n d in g o f m a tter th a t has lon g since lost w h a t in terest it m a y

have h a d f o r the expou n der. L a c k o f en th usiasm has su r v iv a l v alu e.
H ence th e p a r a d o x th a t som etim es the hest teach ers are th ose lea st
interested in th eir w ork , a n d th at others do th eir hest w o rk w h en
least concerned. B u t all these th in g s co n trib u te to th e final flatness
and d u lln ess o f th e teach er w ho fa lls a p re y to them .
I t h as o fte n been rem arked th a t a ce rta in k in d o f d ig n ity is ch a r
acteristic o f teachers. I t seem s th a t teach ers develop a certain w a y
o f ca rry in g them selves w h ich sets th em o u t fr o m th e rest o f th e
w orld. T h is w c m a y call sch ool-teach er d ig n ity . T h ere seem to he
two m a jo r roots o f sch ool-teach er d ig n ity . O n e is in the c o m m u n ity
and in the a ttitu d e which th e c o m m u n ity takes tow ard th e te a c h e r '
the oth er is in the n atu re o f the te a c h e r ’s w ork. (T h e se are not u n
connected, fo r th e c o m m u n ity a ttitu d e is d eterm in ed h y the school
experien ce o f the a d u lt m em h ers o f the c o m m u n ity .) "W h at h a p p e n s
w hen a n ew a n d u n fo rm e d teach er first goes about in the c o m m u n ity
in w h ich he is to tea ch ? L e t u s say th a t a person w ho h as n ever
before kn ow n deference tak es u p teach in g. S u d d e n ly he finds h im se lf
the o b je c t o f fla tterin g atten tion fr o m stu d en ts, catered to hy th em
and addressed re s p e c tfu lly an d cerem on iou sly hy fe llo w teachers. I n
the c o m m u n ity he is called " P r o f e s s o r . ” T ra d esm e n ap p roa ch h im
o b se q u io u sly ; p la in citizens kow -tow . P eo p le p ro fess to show him
special con sideration on the g ro u n d s th at he is a teacher. H e is su p
posed to he m ore tru stw o rth y th an other m o rta ls, m ore m o ra l, m ore
learned. A place o f h on or is p re p a re d fo r h im . I t is a d ig n ity th a t
is u n earn ed , an d it is e m p ty because it is unearned. I n a n y other
occu pation , w ith the sam e tra in in g an d experien ce, he w o u ld still
be a m en ial o f low degree, h u t i f he ever fo u g h t th ro u gh the ranks
in another p ro fession an d a tta in ed to h is top h at at last, h e w o u ld
m erit th e d istin ction , a n d it w o u ld fit h im well. N o t so teach er d ig
n ity , fo r it is too c h e a p ; on ly the finest m a n can give it a h igh v a lu e ,
and th en it is not th e p ro fession , b u t the m a n , th a t cou n ts. Som e
y ou n g teach ers, kn ow in g th at th ey m e rit no deference, en deavor to
fe n d it off as g ra c e fu lly as th ey can. O th ers realize v a g u e ly th a t this
external respect o f the co m m u n ity is a p a rt o f the sch ool-teach er
stereotype, th a t it is the obverse side o f a laten t h o stility an d is
m ore th an halan ced hy an in clin ation to r id i c u le ; som etim es th ey
know th a t th is respect is p a rt o f the iron fra m ew o rk th at sh u ts th e
teacher, as a sacred o h jec t,1 out o f society an d keeps h im fr o m a ctin g
as a h u m a n being— these rebel a ga in st tea ch er d ig n ity . P e r h a p s th eir
1C f . D u rkeim , E m ile, Elementary Forms of Religious Life.

reb ellion b r in g s them person al d isaster, a n d th e y arc fo r c e d to com

p rom ise at la st w ith d ig n ity . P e rh a p s th e y m e re ly suffer a m yriad
o f t in y h u rts fr o m th e satire o f th e d ig n ity , a n d th at g ives them
d ig n ity h y a process o f scar-tissu e. B u t d ig n ity th e y m u st g et, rebels
or no— som ehow . O th ers accept teach er d ig n ity , an d m ake the m ost
o f it. I t is a fla tte rin g role. T h e y liv e it. They live it the more
d e te rm in e d ly i f th ey ever becom e aw are of th e ir o n y th a t comes
w ith it to th e lip s o f the avera ge m an.
T h e secon d root o f teacher d ig n ity is in th e n a tu re o f the teach er’s
w o rk in th e classroom . The teach er liv es m u c h b y the a u th o rity role ■
h is livelih ood d epen ds u p o n it. T h o se w h o liv e m u ch b y one role
m u st le a rn to d e fe n d its u ltim a te im p lic a tio n s. D ig n it y is a m eans
o f d e fe n d in g the a u th o rity role. T h e n ecessity o f m a in ta in in g d ign ity
is increased b y the fa c t th a t the role w h ich gives rise to it is p ecu liarly
lia b le to attack. O n t h e o b jective sid e th is d ig n ity w h ich arises in
th e classroom is a n e x a g g e ra te d co n cern over all the ram ifications
o f respect a n d a ll th e fo r m a l a m en ities d u e to one w h o occupies a
n a r r o w b u t w ell-d efin ed social statu s. O n th e su h jec tiv e sid e, d ign ity
is first an in h ib ition o f a ll action ten den cies in con sisten t w ith the
m a jo r role o f th e school teacher. W h a t is in h ib ited is u su a lly tbe
teach er s responsiveness to tb e m ore m in u te and su b tler s tim u li;
w h a t th e teacher m u st cru sh ou t in h im se lf is h is alertn ess fo r h u m an
p a r tic ip a tio n in u n im p o r ta n t b y -p la y . B u t since it is th is little re
sponsiveness th a t m akes u s h u m a n , o r m akes u s seem to be h u m an ,
w e sa y th a t the teacher, w hen h is d ig n it y h as becom e h ab itu al, has
lo st the h u m a n tou ch . S in ce, fu rth e rm o re , th e teach er m u st dem an d
a n d o b tain resp ect i n a ll the ram ification s o f h is a u th o rita tiv e role,
h e m u s t develop ce rta in m ech an ism s in h im se lf w h ich w ill d efea t a n y
attacks m ade b y others u p o n th at role. A m o n g these m ech an ism s,
p erh ap s c h ie f a m o n g th em , is the b a ir -tr ig g e r tem p e r so o fte n observed
in th e m a n w ith the poin ter. T h e p erso n le a rn in g to teach m u st re
co n d itio n h is a n g e r response. T h e teacher m u st le a rn w h en to get
a n g r y a n d h o w to g et a n g r y q u ic k ly. H e m u st le a rn every h y-p a th
o f tbe social in tera ction o f the classroom so th at he m a y k n ow w h at
does a n d does n o t co n stitu te a n a tta ck u p o n h is d ig n ity . T o keep
little m isd eed s fr o m g ro w in g into g re a t ones, he m u st lea rn to m a g
n i f y them to th e la r g e r size o r ig in a lly ; th is is e a sy because the m ore
b is h ab its are con cern ed w ith the establish ed ord er tbe m ore heinous
b reach es o f it w ill a p p ear. W h a t is even m ore im p o rta n t, h e m u st
le a rn th a t b reach es o f o rd er co m m itted in h is presen ce or w hen he
DETEEMINANTS OP THE OCCUPATIONAL TYPE 389
js responsible con stitu te d ire ct attack s u p o n h is a u th o rity . T ea c h ers

are cra n k y because cran k in ess h e lp s th e m to h o ld th e ir job s.
I f b y v ir tu e o f u n u su a l p erso n a l fo rce o r som e p sy ch o lo g ica l sleig h t
o f h an d th e teacher is ahle to d ispen se w ith d ig n ity , or i f th ere i s
jn h im no n eed fo r p la y in g a n a u th o rita tiv e role, b u t r a th e r a r e
vulsion a g a in st it, so th a t h e p a y s th e p r ic e a n d goes all u n d ig n ifie d ,
be still sta n d s to h av e d ig n ity fo r c e d u p o n h im b y others. T h o u g h
be avoids the open d isresp ect w h ich m o st tea ch ers w ith o u t d ig n ity
encounter, o r th in k s camaraderie a co m p en sa tio n f o r it, h e m a y still
be w o u n d ed w h en he lea rn s th a t h is stu d e n ts com p are h im un
fa v o ra b ly w ith th e ir oth er te a ch e rs on acco u n t o f h is lack o f d ig n ity
or h is la c k o f con cern f o r th e resp ect due h im . O r h e m a y fin d th a t
he loses the fr ie n d s h ip o f th e fe w stu d en ts w h o m a tte r to h im becau se
o f h is tolerance fo r th e a ffro n ts o f th ose w h o do n o t m a tter. B u t m ost
o f a ll is d ig n ity en fo rced b y o n e 's fe llo w teach ers. T h e sign ifican t
people fo r a school teacher are oth er teach ers, a n d b y c o m p a riso n w ith
good sta n d in g in th a t fr a t e r n it y th e g o o d o p in io n o f stu d en ts is a
sm a ll th in g a n d o f little p ric e . A la n d m a r k i n o n e ’s a ssim ila tio n to
the p ro fessio n is th a t m o m e n t w h en be decides th a t o n ly teachers
are im p o rta n t. A c c o r d in g to the teach er code th ere i s no w orse o f
fen ce th a n fa ilu r e to d ep o rt o n e 's s e lf w ith d ig n ity , and th e p en a lties
e x a c ted f o r th e in fr a c tio n o f th e code are severe. A m o re su btle in
fluence o f the teacher g ro u p arises fr o m th e fa c t th a t i t passes o n
its tr a d itio n to th e n ew m e m b er o f th e p ro fessio n a n d fu r n ish e s h im
w ith his m o d els o f im ita tio n .
O n e h as becom e a school tea ch er w h en he h a s le a rn e d to fe a r the
loss o f h is d ig n ity . N o t th a t a g re en h o rn ca n resolve to be v e ry
d ign ified on the m o rrow , a n d becom e a fu ll-fle d g e d teach er b y v irtu e
o f his resolu tion . H e m u s t le a rn to b e d ign ified w ith o u t th e sligh test
effort, a n d w ith o u t b e in g conscious o f th e fa c t th a t h e is b e in g d ig n i
fie d ; i t m u s t he so n a tu r a l fo r h im to rid e u p o n th e h ig h horse th a t
he fe a r s a lig h tin g a s he w o u ld fe a r fa llin g fr o m a balloon. U su a lly
the p sy ch olo g ica l process b y w h ich one com es to fe a r the loss o f
d ig n ity a n d to he b o u n d b y iro n h ah it to th e dign ified p a tte r n is
n ot at a ll u n d ersto o d b y th e p erso n w h o is g o in g th ro u g h it. H e
ra rely k n ow s th a t he is a c q u irin g d ig n ity , a n d w h en h e h as acq u ired
it he does n o t know th a t he h as it. T h e process h y w h ich d ig n ity is
b u ilt u p in th e teach er is a p p a r e n tly a b o u t as fo llow s. A fe w u n
p lea san t exp erien ces h u ild u p a fe e lin g o f in sec u rity or a fe a r of
w h at w ill h a p p e n i f one lets the situ a tio n g et ou t o f h an d . T h is fe a r
prod u ces a lim ita tio n o f in tercou rse w ith stu d en ts to th e starkest
essen tials a n d a n in h ib itio n o f o th er ten d en cies to resp o n d to the

person s abou t him . O n e does n o t love ch ild re n w h en th e y are likely
to becom e d a n g e r o u s; one does n o t even tru st them . T h is p a r a ly se
o f p a r t o f th e p e r so n a lity a n d lim ita tio n o f action is school-teacher
poise a n d sch ool-teach er d i g n i t y ; it cnahles one to c u t th ro u g h all
ex tra n eo u s m a tte r to th a t core o f h eh av io r w h ich in v o lv es discipline
T h e teach er w h o h as it is “ a ll b u sin e ss.’ ' W h e n it h as hecom e hahitual
and one h as h u ilt u p a n ew co n cep tion o f h is role a ro u n d his de
lim ite d a ctiv ities, one h as a cq u ired d ig n ity a n d one h as becom e a
school teacher. T h o u g h confidence retu rn s, as it u su a lly does, and.
th o u g h th a t confidence g ro w s to g re a t p ro p o rtio n s, as it som etim es
does, th e lim ita tio n o f h eh avior rem ains. I t sh ou ld also he n oted that
th e n ecessity o f trea tin g a ll stu d en ts alike co n trib u tes to the school
te a c h e r ’s d ig n ity , in so f a r as th a t is a m a tte r o f th e social distance
h etw een s tu d e n t a n d teacher.
T h is w o n ted seek in g-a vo id in g b alan ce o f th e teacher, connected
w ith d ig n ity , is n o t m a in ta in e d w ith o u t som e in n er conflict. Teachers
te n d to w ith d ra w fr o m n o n -in stitu tio n a l co n tacts th e w h ile th ey
y e a r n fo r th e o p p o r tu n ity a n d th e str e n g th to liv e a lif e o f dust
a n d d a n g er. T h e ir cu sto m a ry ro u tin e o f d u ties, th eir w e ll-k n o w n cere
m o n ia l o f p erso n a l relation s, com e to he th eir w o rld , a w o rld w hich
th ey th in k o f as in som e sense a shelter. T h u s in one m o o d the teacher
reflects th a t th e school y e a r d ra w s to a close a n d h e sh u d d ers slig h tly |
a t the th o u g h t o f the n ew co n tacts w h ich the su m m er m a y h r in g him .
S o m e h u d d in g o ra to rs h av e fo u n d th eir p ow ers d esertin g th em as
th ey d ev elop e d into sch ool te a c h e r s; th e ir g ro w in g sh ell m ad e the
se lf-r e v e la tio n a n d ex p ressio n o f em otion w h ich are the so u l o f su c
c e ssfu l sp eec h -m a k in g in c re a sin g ly d iffic u lt; p e rh a p s th e y even cam e
to take p r id e in th e fa c t th a t " g u s h ” w a s no lo n g e r in th e ir lin e
a n d to loo k hack w ith sh am e to th eir sp ec ta c u la r h eh avior in the
days w h en th e ir h ab its o f social ex p ressio n w ere less restricted . “ D o n ’t
be a n ass, ” is a ru le o f co n d u ct w h ich h as a sp ecia l a p p e a l to teachers
a n d to a ll oth ers w h o liv e m u ch in a d o m in a n t role. Y e t i t is a p r in
cip le th a t p a ra ly ze s, too, a n d one th a t c u ts the p erson o ff fr o m com
m u n io n w ith h is n a iv e fello w s, a n d th e teach er o fte n fe e ls th e isola
t io n w h ich h is p e rso n a lity tr a its im p ose u p o n him .
E n th u sia sm does n o t co m p ort w e ll w ith d ig n ity . E n th u sia sm , th ere
fo r e , is had fo r m . “ I rath er resent y o u r in feren ce th a t an yon e w ho
b elieves in th e D a lt o n p la n is a ‘ p r o g r e s s iv e ’ teacher, a n e n th u sia st,”
sa id a h ea d m a ste r at a reg io n al m e e tin g o f p r iv a te-sch o o l teachers.
M a u g h a m has fu r n ish e d a classic b i t :
DETERMINANTS OE THE OOOUPATIONAIi TYPE 391
It was W in k s who summed up the general impression and put it into a

form they all felt conclusively damning. W inks was the master o f the upper
third? a weak-kneed man with drooping eyelids. H e was too tall fo r his
strength, and his movements were slow and languid. H e gave an impression
of lassitude, and his nickname was eminently appropriate.
“ H e’s very enthusiastic,” said W inks.
Enthusiasm was ill-bred. Enthusiasm was ungentlemanly. They thought o f
the Salvation A rm y with its hraying trumpets and its drums. Enthusiasm
meant change. They had goose-flesh when they thought o f all the pleasant
old hahits which stood in imminent danger. They hardly dared to look
forward to the future.1
O n e is p u zz le d to ex p la in th a t p e c u lia r b lig h t w h ich affects the

teacher m in d , w h ich creeps o ver it g r a d u a lly , and, possessin g it b it
by hit, d ev ou rs its creative resources. S om e th ere are w h o escape
this disease en d em ic in th e p ro fession , h u t th e w o n d er is th e y are
bo few . T h a t the p la g u e is rea l, a n d th a t it strikes m a n y teach ers,
the kindest critic ca n n ot d en y . Th ose w h o h a v e known, y o u n g teach ers
w ell, an d h av e ohserved th e course o f th e ir p erso n a l d ev elop m en t as
they hecam e set in the tea ch in g p a tte rn , h ave o fte n heen g riev ed b y
the p ro gressive d eteriora tio n in th e ir g en eral a d a p ta b ility . And
h a r d ly a college teach er w h o h as ta u g h t a class in su m m er school has
fa iled to la m en t th a t la c k o f su p p le com p reh en sion a n d w illin g n e ss
to fo llo w th e h all o f discu ssion w h ich ch aracterizes th e teach er in
class. T ea ch ers m ake a sad and seriou s h u siness o f le a rn in g , a n d th e y
stand m o u r n fu lly in co n trast w ith stu d en ts o f th e w in te r session, in
whom a reason able degree o f w illin gn ess to ju d g e ev ery q u estio n o n
its ow n m e rits is m u c h m ore fr e q u e n t.2
Som e o f th e g ra d u a l d e a d e n in g o f th e in te lle ct w h ich th e observer
rem arks in th e teach er as h e grow s in to h is p ro fe ssio n m a y no douht
be ex p la in ed as an effect o f age. P e rh a p s age does d u ll som e p e r
sons, and c e rta in ly exp erien ce d iscip lin es th e creative im p u lse out
o f m a n y . B u t i f all the d eteriora tio n in th e teach er is due to age,
there m u st he a sp ecia l ty p e o f sh ort-h loo m in g m in d th a t is a ttra cted
to te a c h in g ; i f th is is so, w e are th r o w n hack u p o n the u n an sw ered
qu estio n o f occu p a tio n al selection. A n o th e r ty p e o f ex p la n a tio n cou ld
1From O f Human- Bondage by Somerset Maugham, copyright 1917 by Double'

day, Doran & Company, Inc., pp. 58-59.
2The witticism of a clever colleague is perhaps worth recording. It is one o f
many current in the profession concerning the peculiarities o f summer-school
students. He said: “ The difference between students in the winter term and stu
dents in the summer session is this: When I go into my classroom in. the winter
I look at the class and say, ‘ Good Morning,’ but the students are all making
so much noise they don’t hear me. When I go into a summer-school class I
say, ‘ Good M orning,’ and they all take out their note-books and write it down.’ ’
392 TEE SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING
be based u p o n the ten d en cy in cu lcated u p on one p ra c tic in g any pro-

fessio n to respond to recu rrin g social situ a tio n s in stereo ty p ed ways. rays.
Tile d eep en in g of some grpoves o f social exp ression is a p p a re n tly in
ev ita b le in a n y occu pation , a n d th is em p h asis o f the p a r t m u st in
v olve d eterioration o f the w hole. Th e m e n ta l stru c tu re o f the unspe
cialized person is n ecessarily p la s t ic ; h y specia lizin g a n d developing
p a rticu la r p roficien cy a lo n g some one line, one n ea rly a lw ay s loses
some o f his general a d a p ta b ility . P e rh a p s th at w as w h y the elder
J a m es r e g a rd e d so m a n y o f th e established p u r su its as “ n a r r o w in g .”
T h e ex ten t to w hich a p ro fession stereotyp es a n d n a rro w s th e social
exp ression o f th e in d iv id u a l d ep en d s u p on the ran g e o f variation in
th e social situ ation s w hich the p ractice o f the p ro fessio n presents.
T h e situ a tio n s w h ich the teacher fa ce s are som ew hat m ore stereotyped
th an th ose w h ich th e law yer a n d th e doctor m u st co n fro n t. P erh aps
tea ch in g is on ly a little m ore r ig id in th e so cia l p a tte rn in g w hich it.
im poses u p o n its devotees, hut it is a v e r y im p o rta n t little . The
over-at.tcntion o f teach ers to tool su b jects m u st c e rta in ly he called
in to help e x p lain the sm allness a n d u n im p o rta n c e o f the con tribu
tio n s w h ich teach ers h av e m ade to the arts a n d sciences. Th e teacher,
fr o m the v e r y n atu re o f h is w ork , m u st sp en d m o st o f h is tim e in
the classroom in d rillin g his stu d en ts u p on th ose su b je cts w h ich m a y
la te r open to th e m th e doors th a t lead to w isd om . O th er m en, w hen
th ey have reach ed m a tu r ity , m a y th em selves use th ose tools to unlock
th e d oors o f the p alace and en ter w ith in . B u t th e teach er, u n fo r
tu n a te ly , m u st a lw ay s sit u p on th e fr o n t step s and ta lk about the
m ean s o f o p e n in g the d o o r ; he m u st in stru ct others in the technique
o f do or-o p en in g , and u su a lly he finds w hen he has fin ish ed his task
th a t he h as no en erg y le ft fo r exp lora tio n s o f his own. A l l th is is
in c id en ta l to the fa c t th a t the teach er m u st deal w ith p erso n s liv in g
in a w orld o f ch ildish a ttitu d e s an d valu es, and comes h im se lf to
live in i t p a r t w a y , T h is is w h at one teacher called “ th e d ra g o f the
im m a tu re m i n d ,”
T h e rou tin e situ ation s w h ich th e teach er c o n fro n ts give rise to
rou tin e h a b its o f social exp ression a d a p te d to m eet th em . T h is we
have m ention ed. W h a t w e have n o t dealt w ith is th e influence o f
these ro u tin ize d reactions u p on the selective p a tte rn o f experience
w hich the teach er b u ild s u p w ith in h im se lf. A c tu a lly the teach er faces
a n a rro w h u t co m p lex an d d yn am ic social situ a tio n , one fr o m which
he m ig h t w e ll receive a lib e ra l ed u ca tio n in a d a p ta b ility , h u t fr o m
th is co m p le x n etw ork o f h u m a n a ttitu d e s an d a ctiv ities he is forced
to select m a in ly those w h ich affect his d iscip lin e. H e m a y peer into
DETERMINANTS OF THE OCCUPATION AD TYPE 393
the book o f h u m a n life , a v a rio u s -volum e w h ich h as m a n y obscure

and deviou s p assages, h u t he is p riv ile g e d to read in it o n ly the i n
sults to h im se lf. A s to su h jec t m a tter, th e te a c h e r ’ s p ossib ilities of
reaction a re e q u a lly lim ite d . N o t c o n fu ta tio n , n or u n d e rsta n d in g , n or
yet the n otation o f the h ea rt m u st he h is a im as he reads, h u t m e re ly
the a n sw erin g o f the m o st ohviou s qu estion s a n d th e p re v e n tio n of
the m o s t s tu p id errors. T h e se le c tiv ity w h ich th e teach er h u ild s u p
m ust be one which, w ill give h im a m a x im u m o f disciplin e and a
m in im u m o f su h je c t m a tter. W e h a v e n o te d th e p a r tia l p a ra ly sis o f
the te a c h e r ’s p e rso n a lity th ro u g h a fe a r o f possib le consequences i f
he a llo w s h im s e lf fre e d o m in hid social l i f e ; th is is a sort o f se lf-
fr u s tr a tio n p ro d u c ed by the elahorate sy ste m o f d efen ce reaction s
which th e tea ch er h u ild s a h o u t h im se lf. W e h a v e m en tion ed , too, a
certain tenseness as ch a ra c terizin g th e tea ch er, a tenseness w h ich
arises o u t o f th e conflict im p lic it in the in h ib itio n o f the m a jo r p a r t
o f h is p o te n tia litie s o f resp on se in fa v o r o f a fe w n e c e s s a iy hut. p er
sonally u n s a tis fa c to r y responses. T h is ten sen ess p rev en ts the w h ole
some fu lfillm e n t of crea tiv e p rocess. C re a tio n req u ires m o tiv a tio n
with c o n t r o l; th e teaeher h a s a n ex cess o f m o tiv a tio n w ith an even
greater excess o f inh ibition .
T h e re is so m e th in g in the a ttitu d e o f g r a d in g , to o , w h ic h m akes
a ga in st ch a n ge, a n d ren d ers m e n ta l g ro w th difficult. O n e who p re-
( sum es to ra te th e p e r fo r m a n c e o f a n oth er m u s t h av e a v e r y definite
idea o f the p e r fe c t p e r fo r m a n c e , a n d he ju d g e s other p e rfo rm a n ce s,
not b y th e ir in n er, g r o p in g o n w ard n ess, h u t s im p ly b y th e ir resem
blance to th e p e r fe c t p erfo rm a n ce. T h is p e r fe c t p e r fo r m a n c e is a th in g
finished, f o r n o th in g can e v e r he su per-perfect, excep t fo r a d v e r tisin g
w riters, an d so th e teach er n eed n o t th in k ahout it any m ore. Y e t
the teacher m u s t h av e i n m in d a p e r fe c t p erfo rm a n ce, or he is no
very accu rate m a rk er. T h e g r a d in g , m a r k in g h a b it a ssum es in c reas
ing im p o rta n c e as one hecom es a teach er. T h e n ew teacher r a r e ly has
definite sta n d a r d s o f g ra d in g . O ft e n h e does n o t con sid er that, part,
of h is task im p o rta n t. B u t scep tica l th o u g h one he co n cern in g th e
n u m erical e v a lu a tio n o f so su h je c tiv e a th in g as le a rn in g , he must,
at le n g th co n fo rm . P r o m h ah it, fr o m the im p o rta n c e w hich others
(e sp e c ia lly th e p erso n s g r a d e d ) a tta ch to g ra d es, an d fr o m th e in
volvem en t o f the te a c h e r ’s sta tu s fe e lin g s w ith the d ev elop m en t o f
f rig o ro u s sta n d a rd s, th ere arises a ch a n ge in the te a c h e r ’s a ttitu d e .
I li s sta tu s fe e lin g s becom e in volved w h en h e realizes th a t stu d en ts
helieve th a t he is “ e a s y ,” and p reen th em selv es u p o n th e ir a b ility
to deceive h im . (S o m e tim e s th ere arises a c ir c u la r in te ra ctio n as a
r esu lt o f the altern ate stiffe n in g an d re la x a tio n o f acad em ic stan d

ard s. T h ese ch an ges in the stan d a rd s prod u ce ch a n ges in the a tti
tu d e s o f stu d en ts, an d these in tu rn w ork u p on the teach er to effect
the r e la x a tio n or stiffen in g o f sta n d a rd s, a cco rd in g to the place in
the cy cle where the grou p h ap p en s to h e.) T h e teach er m u st establish
stan d a rd s o f g r a d in g ; he m u st id e n tify h im s e lf w ith th em a n d make
them a p a r t o f h im self.
T h e crea tiv e p ow ers o f teachers d isa p p e a r hecause the teach er tends
to lose th e le a r n e r ’s a ttitu d e. A s B u r n h a m has p u t it, “ A g a i n , o n e ’s
o w n o p in io n hased u p on p ersonal experien ce an d stren g th en ed hy
d a ily re p e titio n 1 is ap t to d evelop a d id ac tic a ttitu d e th a t makes
le a rn in g im possihle. W i t h th is m e n ta l set, teachers ca n n ot learn be
cause so eager to te a c h ; an d n o th in g p erh ap s w earies th em so much
as to h ear a g a in w h a t they th in k th ey a lrea d y know . T h is in h ib ition
o f le a rn in g hy the attitu d e o f the teach er as su ch , com h in ed with
th e com m on critical a ttitu d e, m ade it im possible fo r a larg e p a rt of
th e teachers to profit g re a tly h y the tea ch in g s o f gen etic p ed a g o g y
a n d g en etic p sy ch olo g y. ” 2 N ow G. S ta n le y H a ll w a s one o f those rare
teachers w ho keep the le a rn e r 's a ttitu d e to the ex ten t o f h ein g anxious
to lea rn fr o m th eir ow n stu d en ts, an d th is w as su rely n o t unconnected
w ith the creativen ess o f h is intelligen ce.
I t is lik e ly th a t th e g en eral a d a p ta b ility o f the tea ch er su ffers also
fr o m th e over-stab le a d ju stm e n t w h ich the teach er m a k es to a nurnher
o f sim p le, ch an geless rh y th m s. T ea ch in g, p erh a p s, exceeds o th er p r o
fe ssio n s o n ly in th e u n v a r y in g q u a lity o f these r h y th m s an d the
tig h tn e ss w ith w h ich th ey arc hound togeth er. T h ere is the rh y th m
o f th e class period , w h ich hecom es so ex act a n d u n v a r y in g th a t the
ex p erien ced teach er o ften has a fe e lin g f o r th e end of the h ou r
w h ich no d ela y ed h ell can delude. O n e tea ch er h as r e p o rte d th at
w h en he h ad ta u g h t fo r som e y ears in a school w h ere th e d a ily
re g im e n w a s ad h ered to s tr ic tly he d evelop ed a tim e m ech an ism w h ich
a lw ay s to ld h im w h en tw o m in u te s o n ly w ere le ft o f the h o u r ; at
th is tim e, co n tra ry to th e ru le s o f p e d a g o g y , he a ssig n ed th e lesson
f o r th e n e x t day. H e said th a t i f h e fo rced h im se lf to assign the
lesson at 'th e h eg in n in g o f the h ou r, as he o cca sion a lly d id , he m ig h t
fa il to n ote the n earn ess o f the end, h u t i f the hell w ere delayed hy
so m u c h as tw o or three m in u tes, he a lw a y s n oticed it, Th is is no
1 Strengthened by repetition, we should say, under circumstances which do not

admit o f challenge. The preacher and the teacher are infallible because it is
not permitted to argue with them.
3 Burnham, Wm. H., Great Teachers and Mental Health, p. 211, New York,
1926. (B y permission of D. Appleton & Company,)
DETERMINANTS OF THE OCCUPATIONAJj TYPE 395
dou b t ra th e r an u n usu al case, b u t sim ila r m ech an ism s o p era te in

other teach ers w ith less p erfe ctio n . T h e n th ere is the d a ily r h y th m ,
w ith its h ig h p o in ts and lo w , its crises r e lie v in g m o n o to n y , its a u to
m atic tr a n s itio n fro m one class toi anoth er, a n d its altern a tio n of
school d u ties. T h ere is a w e e k ly r h y th m , m a rk e d h y M o n d a y and
F r id a y , a n d h y sp ecia l d a y s d ev o ted to sp ecial tasks. W h e r e the d a ily
rou tine d iffe rs m u ch fr o m one d a y to th e n e x t, th e teach er ten d s to
live h y th e w e e k ; th is seem s to be tru e o f th e college teacher. T h ere
is a m o n th ly r h y t h m ; p a y d a y , qu izzes, g ra d es, a n d the co m p letio n
o f certain task s m ark off th e m o n th . I n ce rta in com m u n ities, th e lif e
o f the teach er is fr o m one s p r in g to th e n e x t, fo r a t t h a t tim e i t is
decided w h a t teach ers sh a ll he re ta in e d and w h a t ones d ism issed,
and it is n e v e r a lto g e th e r a fo re g o n e con clu sion i n w h a t class one is
goin g to he. I n a n y case, one reck on s tim e fr o m h is y e a rs o f tea c h in g
fo r th e first fe w years. The m y r ia d sm a lle r h ah its w h ich c lu ster
about tea c h in g (u s u a lly in terp reta h le as th e m a n ife sta tio n s o f cen
tral, d e term in in g r o le s) are org a n ized into the p a tte rn o f life hy
bein g m ad e a p a r t o f one o f these h asic r h y th m s, a n d th is in p a r t
accounts fo r the m e a n in g w h ich these h a b its h a v e ; a v io la tio n o f th e
rh y th m in even its sm allest d eta il th ro w s the w h ole schem e o f th in g s
out o f jo in t. T h is extrem e ro u tin iza tio n a m o u n ts a lm ost to ste r e o ty p y . •
T h u s a ce rta in m a n r e p o rts th a t he used to p a ss a v e r y b a d day
i f he did not h ave tim e in th e m o r n in g to read h is p a p e r c a r e fu lly
and sm oke h is pipe. T h is external schem e o f th in g s, h o u n d tog eth er
hy hasic sim ple rh y th m s, h as a deeper hasis in th e fu n d a m e n ta l m o
tives o f th e in d iv id u a l, or acqu ires it h y th e in tern a l rew o rk in g o f
extern als h y w hich tim e g ives valu es to a n y life arra n gem en t. H a h it,
bound to g e th e r hy rh y th m , rew orked hy a n d in term s o f fu n d a m e n ta l
m otives, tw isted ahout u n til it expresses those m otives, accounts fo r
m ost o f th e r ig h tn e ss an d o ugh tness o f the ex isten t social order.
Th e m oss o f m e a n in g u p o n the stone lo n g ago given us fo r h read
can m ake it hread.
W e h ave tou ch e d u p o n fe a r in its relation to the n on -in v en tiv en ess
o f the teach er m in d , a n d w e h ave elsew here identified the w ish fo r
secu rity w ith ce rta in m e n ta l m ech an ism s called in to a ctio n h y defi
n ite fe a rs. I t seem s w o rth w h ile to an alyze a little fu r th e r th e resu lts
o f the d o m in a n ce o f th is secu rity m o tiv e, b a sed u p o n fe a r , in the
life o f the teacher. T h a t secu rity does receive p r e fe re n tia l tre a tm e n t
as co n trasted w ith the oth er possihle values o f th e te a c h e r ’s life
is ohviou s en ou gh to one w h o has k n ow n a n u m h er o f tea ch ers in
tim a tely . T h is p refe re n c e fo r se c u rity , w h eth er it is a co n stitu tio n a l
q u a lity w h ich causes one to choose te a c h in g ra th e r th a n one o f the

m ore risk y ca llin g s, or w h eth er it is p ro d u c ed h y the co n d ition s of
teach in g, m akes fo r the d ev elop m en t of an e a rly and rig id con-
servatism . W h e n teach ers m eet a n d ta lk fr e e ly , one h ea rs ta lk of
p o sition s a n d the h old th a t one h a s u p o n t h e m ; one h ea rs as well
o f th e th in g s th a t th re aten seisin. W hen i t is a g ro u p o f college
teachers, one hears o f academ ic fre e d o m , and th o u g h th e ta lk jg
o ften bold , one senses th e fe a r it covers u p . T h e estab lish ed teacher
h as been p la y in g safe so lo n g th a t he h as lo st th a t n ecessa ry m in im u m
o f recklessness w ith o u t w h ich life becom es p a in fu l. A rea lization o f
th e stren gth o f th is sec u rity m otive enahles one to u n d e r sta n d some
o f the su sip icion w ith w h ich teach ers re g a rd each o th e r ; certainly
one does n o t exceed the tr u th w h en he a sserts th a t a v e r y larg e per
centage o f the n u m ero u s qu arrels betw een teach ers arise fr o m a
b e lie f o f one teacher th a t anoth er is sa w in g at th e strin g s w ith which
his jo b is h eld.
T h ere is basis en ough in th e c o n d ition s o f the te a c h e r ’s lif e for
the existence o f m a n y fe a rs and the con sequ en t d om in an ce o f security.
The te a c h e r ’s h o ld u p o n h is stu d e n ts is c o n sta n tly th re aten ed by the
stu d en ts th em selves, and there are m a n y reason s other th a n in e f
ficien cy fo r a te a c h e r 's lo sin g his position . T h e o c cu p a tio n al risks
o f teach in g are h ig h , and there is no C om p en sation A c t w h ic h covers
them . T h e in sec u rity o f the te a c h e r ’s te n u re of office p ro fo u n d ly
affects the in w ard n ess o f the te a c h e r ’s life . T h is p r e v a le n t insecurity
h as a p p a r e n tly g iv en rise to a social t y p e w h ich is v e r y comm on
a m o n g teach ers, th at o f th e “ w a r n e r .” O n e in fo r m a n t relates his
experien ces w ith persons o f th is species as f o l l o w s :
One thing I soon noticed about teaching was that wherever I went I had
to fight off a whole coterie o f “ warners.” These people, seeing that I was
new in the system, would come to me with an offer to set me right about
the people there. They would say, “ Look out fo r Smith,” “ Don't trust Jones,”
“ The less yon have to do with Robinson the hetter,” “ Johnson’s a snake in
the grass," “ Keep your eye on this chap Brown,” “I wouldn't trust Thompson
any further than I could throw a hull by the tail,” etc. W ith the utmost
show o f secrecy, they would announce the generous intention o f “ giving me
a tip.” Usually I did not want a tip, but I nearly always got it, and when
I did get it it was perfectly meaningless. Sometimes they would hint at di>-e
disclosures they could make about the principal, hut when the disclosures
were made they were rarely important. Sometimes they would tell one haldly
that So-and- So was “ making a fight on you,” or was “ after your job.”
Details were rarely forthcoming. A ll this was done in the name o f friendii-
ness, hut its egotic character was perfectly apparent. These warners got a
gree t deal o f ego-gratification from their activities, and demanded a corre
sponding abasement o f self from the warned one. The warners themselves
wore rarely important in the school system, perhaps because their over-
suspicious disposition kept them in trouble; apparently, too, the warning
was a compensation fo r lacks within themselves. Sometimes these warnings
covered an opposition o f the Warner to the administration and at other times
they were an attempt to get the newcomer enrolled on the right side in, the
war o f faculty cliques and factions. I found that I did much better to
disregard warners altogether. W hen I did follow their advice it nearly
always got me into trouble. (L ife history document.)
U n d o u b te d ly th ese taleb earers a n d se lf-a p p o in te d tip sters co n trib u te

much to m a k in g the life o f th e teacher a h a r d one.
I t is od d th a t th is s e c u rity m otive does n o t u s u a lly suffice to m ak e
the teacher a ccu m u la te exten sive savin gs. F o r it is g en e ra lly th o u g h t
that the savin gs o f teachers do n o t eq u al those o f business person s
m the sam e in com e-gro u p . I t i s q u ite ce rta in th a t the sa v in g s o f
teachers are r a r e ly ad eq u ate. T h e h ig h sta n d a rd o f liv in g o f th e
teacher, w ho has u su a lly tra v e lle d a b it fu r th e r a n d seen m ore th a n
the business m a n o f sim ila r incom e, a n d th e lo n g su m m er v acation ,
with its te m p ta tio n to sp en d w h a t h as been accu m u la ted in the w in te r,
appear to be a basic p a rt o f the e x p la n a tio n o f the fa ilu r e o f teachers
to save. B esid e s, th e check w ill a lw a y s he w a itin g on the first o f the
month, i f o n ly one does n o t en d a n g er it b y u n u su a l d o in g s or u n
conventional teach in gs. I t is the co n d u ct, th en , an d n o t the e x p e n d i
ture, w h ich is con trolled. Teachers are cru cified b etw een th e desire
to be safe a n d the sta n d a rd o f liv in g .
Som e o bservers have spoken o f a certa in h a b it o f im p erso n a lity
which grow s u p o n teach ers a n d fin ally sh u ts th e m off fr o m a ll th e
subtler k in d s o f p ersonal in terch a n ge w ith th eir fello w s. I n a d d itio n
to certain th in g s which w e h ave a lre a d y con sidered , th e f a c t th a t
the teach er m u st p ro d u ce resu lts in hum an m a te r ia ls con du ces
stron gly to this h ah it o f im p erso n a lity . T h is is a n essen tial o f the
peculiar distan ce betw een teach er a n d stu d en t, th a t the stu d en t is at
best m a teria l i n w h ich th e teach er w orks, at w o rst, a m ean s fo r th e
attain m en t o f the te a c h e r ’ s p erso n a l ends. A sim ila r b u t sep a rate
split o f the te a c h e r 's p e rso n a lity arises because the teach er i s fo rced
to say over and over th in g s so elem en ta ry th a t th ey have no in terest
fo r h im a n d so m a n y tim es repeated th a t th ey h ave lost w h a t m e a n
in g th e y once h ad . P a r t o f h im m u s t serve as an a n im a ted p h o n o
graph w h ile a n oth er p a rt stan d s aside a n d jeers. H e m u st in h ib it
the n o rm a l m e n ta l processes o f th e a d u lt in o rd er to th in k a s a
ch ild a n d speak as a c h ild ; it fo llo w s in c v ita h ly th a t he is shut out
fr o m hoth w orld s. If T h o r n to n W i ld e r had never heen a school
m a ster h e cou ld not h ave k n ow n t h a t it is a lu x u r y to speak out o f
o n e ’s w h ole m in d . E x tr e m e in tro v erts, hecause o f th e ir ten d en cy to
sp ea k fr o m the w h ole m in d o r n ot a t all, m ake p o o r teachers. A n
a d d itio n a l cause o f im p e rso n a lity , an d o f u n p le a sa n tly ton ed im p er
so n a lity , inheres in the fa c t th a t the teach er is r a r e ly on good term s
w ith a ll h is stu d en ts at the same tim e. A s h is eye r u n s over the class i
h e sees tw o or th ree p a r tic u la rly in terested stu d en ts a n d a m uch
la r g e r n u m h er o f persons w h o are a t h est apath etic. A lw a y s th ere
are sore sp ots in th e class, a n d a lth o u g h the teach er a v e rts h is gaze
fr o m these th ey still p ro d u ce a n effect u p o n his attitu d e. T h ere is
L a u r a B a k e r ; she h as a lw a y s looked a h it d is d a in fu lly at h im . T h ere
is S ta n le y B ro w n , w h o still resents h is fa ilin g gra d e i n th e last
ex am in ation . T h ere is G eorge A d a m s , w h om o n ly y e ste r d a y it w as
necessary to sen d fr o m class. R osie A lle n is g o in g to flu n k th e c o u rse;
she sits a n d glares a n d does n ot u n d ersta n d . A l l fa ilin g stu den ts
are p o te n tia l enem ies. A n d J o h n n y Ju k es, deficient in g r a y m atter
a n d sh ort o f fo o d , is a co n stan t w o r r y in the classroom . I t w ill be
w e ll to he w a r y , to w atch , w a tc h , w atch . One m u st g u a r d o n e ’s
b eh a vior i n th is g rou p .
W e have spoken o f ce rta in situ a tio n al n ecessities w h ich m o ld the
teacher, o f the roles w h ich these situ a tio n al im p era tiv es im p ose u p on
h im , a n d o f the en d u rin g effect of- these roles u p o n p erso n a lity . I t
rem ain s to con sider in a connected w a y tra u m a tic le a r n in g a s a
d eterm in a n t o f the occu pation al ty p e , the effect o f shock u p o n the
teach er p erso n a lity . W h a t we h av e in m in d is thatl le a rn in g w h ich
takes p lace u n d e r terrific pen alties, and in w h ich th e lea rn er is suh-
je c t to shock i f he m akes the w ro n g choices. T h e p a th o log ica l effects
o f shock h av e heen in vestigated fr e q u e n tly , h u t these effects h ave
r a r e ly heen discussed as lea rn in g , n o r h a v e th e y ev er heen treated
in th eir p ro p er relation to the social org a n ization . Y e t , i n th a t le a rn
in g w h ich involves m odification o f p e rso n a lity , shock o fte n p la y s a
d o m in a n t role, and the g iv in g o f shocks is one o f th e p rin c ip a l m eans
hy w h ich the social grou p tailors p erso n s to its specifications. T r a u
m a tic lea rn in g is th erefo re im p o rta n t in hoth so ciology a n d p sy ch olo g y.
T h is k in d o f le a rn in g is n o t easily separable fr o m oth er sorts o f
lea rn in g , a n d still it h as ch aracteristics w h ich seem to ju s t i f y a d is
tin ctio n . T r a u m a tic lea rn in g is con tin u ou s w ith h ah it fo rm a tio n ,
h ein g, perh aps, a special instance o f the la w o f e ffe c t ; th e use o f slig h t
pen alties is also a com m on in c id e n t o f la b o ra to ry p roced u re. T r a u m a tic

le a rn in g is co n tin u ou s w ith th e n o rm a l m o ld in g o f p e r so n a lity hy
i social c o n d itio n in g , and we h av e a lr e a d y discu ssed m in o r shocks
w h ich m o ld th e te a c h e r ’s p e rso n a lity . T r a u m a tic le a rn in g is con
tin u ou s w ith the m od ification o f p e rso n a lity in crisis situ a tio n s, b u t
rep resen ts th e rea ctio n o f p e rso n a lity to the m o st su d d en a n d ex
trem e crises. We are ju stifie d in r e g a r d in g tra u m a tic lea rn in g as
d ih eren t fr o m o rd in a r y le a rn in g hecause rad ica l differen ces a p p e a r
betw een reaction s to slig h t sh ocks a n d rea ctio n s to severe shocks. T h e
psy ch olo g ica l a n d p sy c h o p a th o lo g ie a l effects o f shock h ave in d ee d
heen in v e stig a te d , h u t th eir m e a n in g in te r m s o f p e r so n a lity a n d
social o rg a n ization has p e rh a p s n o t heen su fficien tly p o in ted out.
F o r t h e tea ch er, tra u m a tic e x p erien c es u s u a lly con cern th e loss o f
h is p o sition , esp ec ia lly th e su d d e n a n d u n fo re seen loss o f h is p o sition .
The loss o f co n trol o ver a class m a y he tra u m a tic in its effect, a n d so
m a y a q u a rrel w ith a colleague. V a r io u s m in o r shocks arise, a n d w e
shall need to reco n sid er a ll th a t w e h ave sa id co n cern in g th e m o ld
ing o f p e rso n a lity h y the tea ch in g situ a tio n in th e lig h t o f th e n ew
in sigh t fu r n is h e d b y the con cep t o f tra u m a tic le a rn in g . In d iv id u a ls ,
o f course, differ g re a tly in th e ir a b ility to a ssim ilate sh ocks w ith o u t
dam age to th e ir p erson alities.
These shocks w h ich teachers ex p erien ce m a y in d u c e lig h t d issocia
tion, m ore p ro n o u n ced in p erson s o f h y steric co n stitu tio n , a n d asso
ciated w ith a ten d en cy to repeat th e tr a u m a tic experien ce in a m a n n e r
akin t o th a t o f th e w a r n euroses. T h e dissociation v e r y lik e ly p r o
longs a n d exacerh ates the con flict, since it p rev en ts th e in d iv id u a l
fr o m fa c in g it a n d re a c tin g to it, h u t a llow s the conflict to prod u ce
effects in d ire ctly . W h a te v e r th e u ltim a te a d ju stm e n t, the m in d d w ells
upon su ch crises a lo n g tim e, r eliv es th em in c essa n tly f o r m o n th s
and even y ears, elab orates reaction s to th e m w ith o u t end. U s u a lly ,
a cu riou sly b ifu r c a te d a d ju stm e n t a p p e a rs. O n the one h a n d , th e
in d ivid u al re fu se s to accep t th e re sp o n sib ility f o r th e sh ock in g even t
an d th a t p a r t o f h is h ehavior w h ich led u p to it. H e m u ltip lie s r a tio n
alization s to th e sam e e n d : “ I t w a s n ’t m y f a u lt ,” “ T h e c irc u m
stances were m o st u n u s u a l,” “ I w a s th e g o a t ,” etc. T h is is o ften
atten ded h y a conscious or u n con sciou s r e fu sa l to ev alu a te th e situ a
tion co rrectly , the fa c e -s a v in g ration a lization s d e m a n d in g th a t th e
realization o f resp o n sib ility he sh u t fr o m consciousness. O n th e o th er
h and, th e in d iv id u a l hehaves as i f h e accep ted r e sp o n sib ility com
p letely, so m eth in g w h ich h e does n o t find at all in con sisten t w ith his
conscious insistence th a t it w a s n o t h is fa u lt. H e m u ltip lie s p reca u -
tio n s to p r e v e n t the recu rren ce o f th e u n fo rtu n a te even t, tak in g an

a lm o st obsessive in terest in the p ro te ctio n o f th a t w h ic h p rev io u sly
w a s th reaten ed . T h is, o f course, rep resen ts the rea ctio n to th e other
side o f th e a m bivalen ce. L ik ew ise, a n in d iv id u a l m a y in sist th at in a
ce rta in collapse o f h is social w o r ld he h a s lo st n o statu s, the while
h e in d u lg e s i n no en d o f b e h a vior w h ich can o n ly be in te rp re te d as
co m p e n sa to ry f o r th a t loss o f statu s. M u c h o f the ru th lessn ess of
tea ch ers to w a r d stu d en ts is in th e n a tu re o f co m p en sa tio n fo r fears
traceable to tr a u m a tic d iscip lin e experiences.
A s a r e su lt o f shocks, too, th ere ap p ear effects n e a r ly an a log o u s to
th e specific c o n d itio n in g o f the b eh a viorists, beh a vior m echanism s
w h ich are v e r y little d ep en d en t u p o n b road er associative contexts
a n d w h ich th erefo re te n d to be set off i n q u ite in c o n g ru o u s circu m - j
sta n c es i f th e specific stim u lu s is presen ted . S o ld ie rs acqu ire certain
p o sitiv e beh a vior p a tte rn s w h ich m a y be set o ff w h en ev er the stim u lu s
so u n d is h ea rd . T eachers come likew ise to r e a c t v io le n tly to specific
stim u li. A tea ch er once fo u n d o n h is desk a n ote fr o m h is p rin cip al
a sk in g h im to ca ll at th e office the n e x t m o r n in g . H e c a lle d a t the
office, a n d w a s su m m a rily dism issed. T h e r e a fte r he e x p e rie n c e d acute
fe a r w h e n e v e r he rece iv ed a req u est to ca ll at the office o f a school
su p erio r, a n d th is rea ctio n d id n o t r a p id ly su ffer a ttritio n in spite
o f th e fa c t th a t h is h ehavior d id n o t a g a in ex p ose h im to attack.
C on v ersio n , as a su d d e n ch an ge o f the w o r k in g o rg a n iza tio n o f a t
titu d e s in p e rso n a lity , m a y r esu lt fr o m a sin g le sh ockin g experience.
T r a u m a tic ex p erien ces redefin e situ a tio n s. W h e r e t h is occurs, i t is
p ro b a b ly co rrect to sp ea k o f it as a ch a n ge o f th e d o m in a n t a ttitu d e ;
it is lik e ly to tak e the fo r m o f tra n sp o sitio n o f op p osed sid es o f an
a m b iva len ce. T r a u m a m a y re su lt in a co m p lete rev ersal o f m o ra l
cod es o r in r a d ic a l ch an ge o f p o li c y ; su ch te rg iv e rsa tio n is com m on
a m o n g te a ch e rs w h o su ffer shocks b y reason o f bein g k in d to stu den ts.
C o n v ersio n u su a lly in v o lv e s a c h a n ge o f g ro u p allegiance.
M o s t lik e ly to be su b je c t to th e c r u d e r t y p e s o f tr a u m a tic lea rn in g
are eg o -c en tric persons, and o th e r m a la d ju s ts of n o n -c o n fo rm in g
ty p e . T h ese p erso n s e ith e r fa il to observe social necessities, or feel
capah le o f o v e r r id in g th em , a n d th e y su ffer th e consequences. Borne
p erso n s a re c o m p le te ly d em ora lized b y these consequences, a n d if
those con sequ en ces are so severe as to en tail a collapse o f the social
w o r ld , th e y u s u a lly h a v e m o st seriou s resu lts. U n d esira h le p erso n a lity
tr a its are in m o st cases e x a g g e ra te d ra th e r th a n rem e d ied b y tra u
m a tic e x p e r ie n c e s; these are u n u su a lly d istressin g experien ces, an d
th e y f a l l p re c ise ly u p o n the p erso n s le a st ca p a b le o f a ssim ila tin g
DETERMINANTS OE THE OCCUPATIONAL TYPE 401
th em . T h e lu n a tic fr in g e o f tea ch in g , e v e r y y e a r slo u g h e d o ff a n d

e v e ry y e a r renew ed, is m ad e u p o f p erso n a lities b a ttered b y m a n y
1 trau m a.
A m in o r so rt o f tra u m a tic le a rn in g r e su lts fr o m th e effect o f co n
flict u p o n the sy stem o f v alu es. P o in ts i n o n e ’s sch em e o f li f e w h ich
m u st he s h a r p ly d e fe n d e d com e to a ssu m e a d isp ro p o rtio n a te im p o r
tan ce. R e c u rre n t crises in the te a c h e r ’s lif e , su ch as in te r -d e p a r t
m e n ta l squ abbles, con stellate a te m p o r a ry o rg a n iza tio n o f p e r so n a lity
a ro u n d the v a lu e s th e n to be d e fe n d e d fr o m attack. T h is te m p o r a ry
o rg a n ization lea ves traces i n the n e rv o u s system , a n d a s a r e su lt o f
th e tra c es th is fig h tin g o rg a n iza tio n is m ore ea sily ca lled in to p la y
th e n e x t t im e ; th e traces m a y in d e e d g ro w so g re a t as to set the
tone o f th e p erso n a lity . T h a t f o r w h ich m e n m u s t o fte n fig h t is d e a r
to th em . T h is m ech an ism is v e r y im p o rta n t in the life o f th e school
teacher. T h e exp erien ced tea ch er fig h ts h a r d e r f o r d iscip lin e th a n
does the n ovice, a n d he b e g in s to fig h t a g re a t d e a l m o re re a d ily .
T h e h ea d o f th e d ep a rtm en t figh ts fo r th e p r iv ile g e s o f h is d e p a rt
m en t m u c h m ore v a lia n tly th a n in stru c to rs, a n d h a s a keen er nose
f o r sniffing o u t conspiracies. I n a ll t h is the p e rso n w h o h a s stu d ie d
the social p sy c h o lo g y o f con flict g ro u p s w ill fin d n o th in g s ta r tlin g
o r new .
T h e a n a ly sis o f d rea m s is a n excellen t tech n iq u e f o r u n c o v e rin g
the te n sio n p o in ts ex istin g w ith in the life -situ a tio n o f th e in d iv id u a l.
Th e d rea m s o f teach ers, then, o u g h t to show w h ere the p o in ts o f
stress a n d s tr a in a p p ea r i n the school situ a tio n as it affects th e
teacher. P a r tic u la r ly is th is tru e o f re cu rre n t dream s, o r o f sim ila r
dream s o f d ifferen t teachers. A n y th oro u g h research in to th is to p ic
w o u ld d em a n d th a t w e exam in e the entire dream li f e o f a n u m b e r
o f teach ers, b u t we have chosen to con sider here o n ly som e h ig h ly
ty p ic a l d rea m s co n cern in g the school situ a tio n . F o llo w in g is th e r e
cu rren t d rea m o f a m a le tea ch er o f tw e n ty -six . H e h as a n excellen t
re p u ta tio n a s a d iscip lin a ria n , a n d h as su cceeded w ith som e difficu lt
schools.
T h e reco rd o f the d re a m fo llo w s :
Each year as the horrid conflict o f the first month was going on and the
feeling against me was considerable and hitter, I would have a dream. I t ran
as follow s:
It is morning. The nine o’clock bell calling the school formally to atten
tion has not rung yet. Part o f the pupils are in the school building visiting
and p layin g; others are outside doing likewise. A ll is going nicely. I bend
intently over m y work at the desk fo r several minutes.
402 THE SOCIOLOGY OF TEAOHINO
Pinally a noise in the room draws m y attention. Annoyed, I look up

quickly. To my surprise a big hoy is scuffling with a smaller one. I loudly
command them to stop. They do, but reluctantly. A bout that time some girls
start running noisily u p and down the aisles. This on top o f the scuffling is
too much. X tell them to take their seats. They do, but I can see by tbeir
faces that they have a notion not to. There is rebellion in tbe air. B y this
time the boys in tbe corner are throwing hooks at each other. I am amazed.
W h y , wbat ails them 7 Throwing things inside is strictly against tbe rules.
And these hoys are usually so docile. B ut there is A lfred Davis among
them, and be is a very mischievous hoy and antagonistic towards me. And
it was Bernice Keller, ever slow to mind, who led tbe girls in their racing
among tbe seats. I sbout at the boys. They do not beed me. I bawl them out
and remark that i f they can’t find anything better to do they had better
wash tbe blackboards fo r me. They interpret the remark in the- imperative
mode, which is correct, and scowling and muttering begin tbe task.
There is a commotion on the playground. Prom the window I see the boys
fighting over a swing. I go out. They do not stop as I approach. I speak to
them. I cuff them. They pay no attention. I am aghast. Neither look, nor
speech, nor action, nor presence of the teacher avails. I note some girls
running back and forth across the street in front o f the prss'n g automobiles.
I call to them, but in vain. W rathfully I start toward the street. Tbe girls
run away down tbe street. I am no child; I will not run after them. Baffled
I ring the school bell. I t is past nine o’clock anyhow.
Inside pandemonium reigns. The girls whom I le ft in their seats are dash
ing about the room upsetting tbe loose furniture. The boys at the black
boards are pelting each other with chalk and erasers. They pelt me as I
appear. I charge upon them. They elude me. This is terrible, terrible l
B ut where are tbe boys and girls from outdoors? W h y do the^ not come
in? Did they not bear the bell? Tbe boys have stopped fighting and are
standing looking sullenly at the building. W h at shall I do? W b a t can I do?
They beed neither teacher nor bell. I attempt to expel them. They will not
go home. Tbe girls are standing tantalizingly aeross tbe street. I shall take it
up with the school board. They laugh at me. They even scorn tbe board 1
Then I shall settle this thing by force. I go inside to get a club. They
follow me in. The sight o f the club quiets them somewhat. They all take
their seats.
I preach to them. Smirkingly they listen. W e start the lessons, but the
conflict reasserts itself everywhere. I leave the desk and tbe club to help a
student whose band is raised. In the other end o f the room a titter arises and
increases in volume. A h a ! So they’re at it again. I seize the cluh. A few
hlows restore order. But it is no use. No matter where I turn the club must
be used. Nor can I use it fast enough to be effective, to keep order. I shall
have to call in the board. I have failed ! But no, I will not fa il! I redouble
m y efforts. Tbe students begin breaking up desks and tearing down casements
so that they too may have clubs. I seek refuge behind my desk and pound
upon it fo r order. They ignore tbe act. The whole school gathers itself to
rush upon me with clubs. Pale with fear, I square myself fo r the finish.
They start . . . but never reach me because I awake, cold with sweat. Parts
o f the dream and the faces appear and fade away in the darkness before
my eyes. I recall a few pupils— good students, "teacher's pets,” friends o f
mine outside o f school, or students with whom m y associations in school have
been close, who took no part. Vernon H art, Lucille Ollinger, Harold Childers,
and Oscar Olson had nothing to do with i i They stood off in the comers
and at the edges staring without expression. They were neutral. They favored
neither side. God hless them! I must he better to them in the future. The
dream is still real. I begin to plan what I shall do tomorrow to get even
with them and to restore order. I excuse m yself fo r letting such a thing get
started. I wasn’t feeling well, m y head ached so, or this would never have
happened. W ell, i f I can't control them, I ’ll just disappear, I'll skip the
country.
Then I become fu lly conscious. I wonder what I really would do, i f such
a thing should happen. I resolve not to rule with quite such an iron hand.
W ell, i f it ever does happen, they'll never see me again. A n d thus for an
hour or so until I fa ll asleep again. The dream, however, haunts me fo r
several days.
During my first year o f teaching, when this dream came, it frightened me.
I thought it must be a bad sign. B u t nothing o f tbe kind ever happened.
Only one little red-baired cliap even so much as dared to talk hack to me
that year. A n d at the end o f the term I was asked to return at an increase
in salary; and so in the years o f teaching after that I looked upon this
dream, when it came, as a good omen, as a portent that the year would he a
successful one. (Autobiographical document.)
T h is d rea m a p p a re n tly rev eals a fe a r , g ro u n d ed in a n in fe r io r ity

com p lex o f lo n g sta n d in g , that th e situ a tio n m a y g e t o u t o f con trol.
It is a fe a r "which the teach er refu ses to fa c e in h is w aitin g h ou rs,
so th a t it is fo r c e d to com e out in th e d ream . B u t it is d e e p ly g ro u n d ed
in h is m en tal life , f o r the dream , id e n tic a l in a ll details, recu rs y e a rly .
T h e e n e rg y a n d a c tiv ity , as w e ll as th e strict d iscip lin e o f th is teacher,
m a y be in te rp re te d as co m p en sa tio n f o r th is u n d e r ly in g fe a r , an d
fo r the in fe r io r ity co m p lex w h ich it bespeaks. I t is in terestin g to n ote
th at th e cu stom ary social a lig n m en ts o f the classroom , relation s o f
conflict, allian ce, n e u tra lity , etc., h a d im pressed th em selves so str o n g ly
u p on th is te a c h e r’s m in d th at th e aw areness o f th e m w as n ot d im m ed
in th e d ream .
T h e account o f th is d rea m w a s rea d to a class in E d u c a tio n a l
S o ciolo gy , a n d the a p p rox im ate in te rp re ta tio n g iv en above w a s in -
cheated as a c co u n tin g fo r the o rig in o f the dream . O n the fo llo w in g

d a y anoth er y o u n g m a n in the class p resen ted the fo llo w in g d re a m :
’Twas tbe opening day of the fall term. My good resolutions were to tbo
fore, and I was determined to execute some of the ideas gained during tbe
summer. Chief of them was that I would be masterful as well as understand-
ingly human. Tbe method in wbicb all work was to be done and when
bad been carefully predetermined.
Of course a good beginning was desirable and an assured means of start
ing tbe school in the proper manner. No one should be given permission
to speak, nor to leave tbeir seats. Tbe slightest whimper from tbe newly
arrived freshmen would be frowned upon in my most ferocious manner. And
as for tbe new seniors—well, as Juniors they bad behaved quite according as
tbeir name indicated, but things were going to be different this year.
I bad hoped that I would not be troubled with before-sebool assembly duty
as I bad been tbe year before, but evidently the pleasure was still mine.
During tbe period before tbe nine o'clock bell rang quite a few of tbe
“also-go-to-scbool” type bad entered and seated themselves with evident
pleasure at the reopening of school.
Then the bell rang.
No delay on the part of tbe students to respond to the assembly summons.
They came pouring in like a herd of excited cattle. As the tardy bell sounded
I suggested in a very sarcastic tone, “ Tbe summer vacation is a thing of tbe
past. So, if you dear young things will remember that you are again in
school and quiet down I shall make a few announcements.”
As I bad started speaking the magic of my voice bad brought about an
abrupt silence. But as my tone indicated a period, bedlam broke loose. A
general war wboop seemed to come from the throats of every member of
tbe assembly, and seemingly with a fine disregard for my presence each and
all began to do as tbey pleased.
Before I could determine tbe course to be pursued tbe infernal disturbance
aroused me from slumber.
T h is dream , less m e a n in g fu l th an the p rev io u s one, a p p a r e n tly pre

se n ts and re je c ts a so lu tion w h ich th is y o u n g m a n has heen w o rk in g
o u t f o r h is tea ch in g prohlem , th a t is, h is resolu tion to he m a sterfu l.
I t s occu rren ce a t th a t p a rticu la r tim e w a s u n d o u b te d ly due to the
str o n g su ggestion o f th e d a y h efore, h u t th a t does n o t en tire ly d estroy
th e sign ifican ce o f th e dream , f o r it w o u ld he v ery difficu lt to get
such a d rea m hy such a low degree o f su gg estion in one w ho did not
a lr e a d y h ave a p red isp ositio n to w ard it. W e are p ro h a h ly ju stifie d
in sa y in g th a t the procedu re o f the d a y h efore m e re ly tou ch ed off
a c o m p le x an d t h a t th e dream is the resu lt. T h is y o u n g m a n , w ho
c h a rac terized h im se lf a t anoth er tim e, rath er too u n k in d ly , a s “ a
DETERMINANTS OF THE OCCUPATION AX. TYPE 405
w in d y e x tr o v e r t,” represents a ty p e , w ith diffu se a n d fr ie n d ly , a lm ost

breezy, social expression , which com es v e r y slow ly into c o n fo r m ity
with the teach in g a ttitu d e. A f t e r a y e a r o f none too su cc essfu l teach
in g experience, he h as reach ed the p o in t w h ere he resolves to be
m a sterfu l. IIo w fe a r -r id d e n an d u n stable such a desire is w h en it
first appears seem s to com e o u t p r e tty w ell fr o m th is d o cu m en t. The
dream is also v e r y e n lig h te n in g as an in d ica tio n o f w h a t h ehavior
th is y o u n g m a n regard ed as “ m a s t e r fu l.”
S u b seq u en t in q u ir y re v e a le d th a t the a n a ly sis o f dream s w a s p o te n
tia lly o f g re a t assistance in in te r p r e tin g the im p a c t o f th e tea ch in g
situ a tio n u pon th e te a c h e r ’s p erso n a lity . N e a rly ev ery teach er a p
p roached , som e in th e m o st casu al w a y , had one o r m ore d rea m s to
co n trib u te, a n d the lis t o f d rea m s soon g re w to several dozen. P e w
teach ers retu rn ed a n e n tir e ly n eg ative rep o rt. T h ere w ere in c lu d ed
in the lis t, o f course, o n ly u n d isg u ised tea ch in g dream s, a n d th is
m ean s th a t o n ly the sim p le r so rt o f p ro h lem w a s rev ealed b y them .
S in ce th o ro u g h a n a ly sis o f a ll these dream s w a s n o t p ossih le, it
seem ed b est to a d o p t f o r a ll o n ly the sim p le st a n d m o st o h jeetive ty p e
o f in te rp re ta tio n . T h e u n d e r ly in g a ssu m p tio n w a s t h a t the d rea m
p o in te d to so m eth in g w h ich th e tea ch er d id n o t o rd in a rily fa c e in
h is con sciou s life. T h u s these d rea m s represen ted rep etitio n s o f tr a u
m a tic experien ces, statem en ts o f p roblem s, an d , p erh ap s, o f solu tion s,
expression s o f repressed fears, of w orries, w ish -fu lfillm e n t m e ch a
n ism s, a n d th e like. W e are w e ll a w a re th a t m ore exh au stive an a lysis
h y m ore su b je ctiv e m e th o d s w o u ld h ave revealed a g re a t deal m ore,
h u t it w ou ld so h ave broaden ed the scope o f the in q u ir y th a t it did
n o t seem possihle to c a r iy it out. A s u m m a r y o f these m a te ria ls is
p re se n te d herew ith.
The d iscip lin e d rea m w as fo u n d to he e x ceed in g ly com m on. I t was
fr e q u e n tly stereotyp ed and recu rren t, I t w a s p ro te an in its fo rm s.
I n several eases, it recu rred m o n th s or even y ears a fte r the in d iv id u a l
q u it teaching.
S u p e rv isio n d ream s ran k ed n e x t in ord er o f freq u en c y . T y p ic a l o f
these w a s the fo llo w in g :I
I had this dream while I was doing my practice teaching in Richmond the
past summer. I might say that I was teaching Ancient History, a suhjeet
I bad never studied even in high school. Also that I bad a particular horror
for the supervisor.
The night I bad this dream I bad gone to bed early without preparing
my lessons and bad set the alarm in order to get up early the next morning
and do it. I dreamed that the alarm bad not gone off and that I awoke just
in time to get to school—totally unprepared. I went to my class and decided

to give them a study period for fifteen minutes in which I also could prepare
the lesson. I had no more than made this decision when in walked the super
visor. I was panic stricken. I opened my book and desperately tried to read
a few sentences so that I could ask some questions. 1 started asking ques
tions that had nothing to do with Ancient History. The supervisor listened
for a few minutes and then got up and with a look of scorn started teaching
the class herself. I awoke.
Needless to say the alicelive tone of this dream was most unpleasant.
T h ese su p ervisio n dream s w ere a p p a r e n tly expression s o f lig h tly re
p ressed fe a r s or w orries. T h e situ a tio n in w hich the d rea m er w as
c a u g h t in som e u n e th ica l or tahooed b e h a v io r fr e q u e n tly recurred.
O n e m a n d rea m ed th a t h is su p erv iso r c a u g h t h im ta lk in g d isp a ra g
in g ly abou t A m e r i c a ’s e n tr y into th e w a r, a n d p o lite ly rep ro ved him .
A n o t h e r dream ed that, tw o su p erviso rs ca u g h t h im a t a dance w ith a
h ig h -sch oo l g irl. O th ers d rea m ed o f d etectio n in laten ess to class.
T h e se d rea m s show th a t su p ervisio n can be a n im p o r ta n t source of
strain .
TJnpu n ctu ality, in terp reta b le in som e cases as w ish -fu lfillm e n t
th ro u g h th e avo id a n ce o f tea ch in g , an d in oth ers as sim p le fear,
recu rred as a fe a tu r e o f qu ite a n u m b er o f dream s. In several cases
it w a s co m p lic a te d b y th e d r e a m e r ’s lo sin g h is w a y w hile g o in g to
c la s s ; th is w as a lw a y s associated w ith som e u n u su a l source o f u n
p lea sa n tn ess in th e tea ch in g situ a tio n . Th e fe a r d ream s also reveal the
p e r fe c tio n o f th e social m ech an ism h y w h ich the th re a t o f classroom
d iso r d e r en fo rces p u n c tu a lity u p o n th e tea ch er.
S o m e co m m u n ic a tio n d rea m s occurred. T h ese revealed th e strain
u p o n tliei tea ch er o f tr y in g to co m m u n ica te, the n ea rly im passable
b a rriers set u p b y th e difficulties o f la n g u a g e and th e breakdow n
o f co n figu ra tio n s in co m m u n ica tio n , a fe e lin g o f th e uselessness o f
talk . T h is is a sig n ific a n t clue to th e teach er m in d .
A n o t h e r r a th e r com m on ty p e of d rea m rep resen ted th e teacher
as “ lo sin g th e p la c e ” in th e te x t, or u n ab le to “ find the p la c e .” In
one case th is w a s recu rren t. I t rep resen ted , a p p a re n tly , a n u n ac k n o w l
e d g e d fe a r .
T h e r e w a s one c le a r ly defined ex ecu tiv e d rea m , rep resen tin g th e
w o r r y o f a sch ool h ea d over th e a d e q u a c y o f su p p lies a n d fa cilitie s.
I n t e r e s t in g ly en ou gh , i t w as still re c a lle d som e th ir ty y e a rs a fte r
th e in fo r m a n t le ft the p ro fessio n . T h e re w e re oth er dream s w hich
m ig h t h a v e been sim ila r ly in te rp re te d .
T h e fo llo w in g d rea m situ a tio n s are rep resen ted b y single e x a m p le s :
DETERMINANTS OF THE OCCUPATIONAL TYPE 407
an a rg u m e n t o ver a g rad e, g o in g ou t w ith a bigli-school g ir l, a h om o

sexu al d rea m , a stern a tte m p t to be f a i r to a ll stu d en ts, a n d d e a f
ness (rep rese n tin g a fe a r o f g o in g d e a f) . N u m e r o u s d rea m s show ed
r iv a lr y w ith colleagues, reb ellio n a g a in st execu tives, o r fe a r o f losin g
o n e ’s position.
The auth or believes t h a t th is m e re ly scratches th e su r fa c e o f th is
su b ject, an d th a t exten ded s tu d y o f teach er d rea m s in v o lv in g m o re
su bjective techniques, m ore exh au stiv e a n alysis o f each d rea m , an d
greater p en etration in to the d r e a m e r ’s p erso n a lity , m a y p r o v e v e r y
rew a rd in g in the fu tu re . E v e n the p resen t lis t o f teacher dream s, i n
terp reted m ost su p erficially, seem s to p o in t to im portant, sources o f
stress a n d str a in in the teach in g situ a tio n . A n in v estig a to r w ill n eed
to exercise care i n ev alu a tin g the influence o f su ggestion , fo r it h as
been d em on strated re p e a te d ly th a t b o th the fo r m a n d con ten t o f
dream s are ea sily su b je c t to th is influence.
T h e p h a n ta s y life o f school teach ers also g ives som e in terestin g
clu es to th e n a tu re o f th e a d ju stm e n t th e y have m ade to th e ir occu
p a tio n . T h ese p h an ta sies are som etim es p u r e ly co m p en sa to ry , bein g
u n re la ted in su h jc ct m a tte r to th e life o f th e teach er in th e s c h o o l;
the classic e x a m p le o f th is is the v ery com m on case o f th e teach er
o f E n g lis h m o o n in g a b o u t b reak in g in to the Atlantic as he corrects
ex am in ation papers. Th ose p lan s w h ic h so m a n y teach ers h ave of
goin g in to some other occu p a tio n w h ich w ill b rin g th em in to th e heat
an d d u s t o f th e m a rk et place, and into the sp o tlig h t o f p u b lic ity ,
m u st be re g a rd e d as iu this class also, fo r th ey are r a r e ly m o re e a rn
est, a n d a lm ost n ever a n y b etter a d ju ste d to rea lity. M a n y o f the
p h an tasies o f teach ers, how ever, concern the d a ily p rob lem s o f the
classroom . There is a trou blesom e b o y w h om the teacher d a y d rea m s
o f p u ttin g i n h is place, b u t w h o m he n e v e r docs p u t in h is place.
O r th ere is a fe llo w teacher w h o p resu m es to o m u ch u p o n good n a
tu r e ; the teach er m a y have lon g ph an tasies in w h ich he bests th is
colleague in a battle o f w ords, b u t the two m a y n ev er come to w ords.
Som etim es teach ers en dow ed w ith less th a n m ediocre lite r a r y ability
sta r t to w rite , a n d w hen th e y w rite their hero so closely resem bles
th em selves th a t th e w is h -fu lfillin g ch a racter o f the w ritin g is m ore
th an obvious. T h ere w as the sex -sta rv ed teacher w h o h ad u n realizable
d re a m s o f a lo v e ly y o u n g th in g w ho w o u ld be ex ceed in gly th rilled
b y h im s e lf; he w rote n u m erous sh ort stories in w h ich th is sam e them e
w as r e p e a te d : a y o u n g m a n o f h is age and p erso n a l ch aracteristics
m e t a g ir l i n h er te e n s; so on th ere arose betw een th em a p e r fe c t
u n d erstan d in g. The episodes a n d th e dialogue, in th is case, w ere
o ften id en tica l fro m sto ry to story. A n o th e r m an , a fa ilu r e in teach

in g heeause o f his in a d eq u a te p e rso n a lity and extrem e shortness of
statu re, m a d e h is hero a n a rm y officer o f v ery sm a ll size, and caused
th is h ero to tr iu m p h over a ll k in d s o f op p osition a n d persecution.
S im ila r to these se lf-d e te rm in e d ph an tasies are th e books th a t the
teacher read s, f o r one obtain s p h a n ta sy gratification in th a t w ay,
too. I t w o u ld he v e r y difficult, how ever, to trace a p a tte rn in these.
C on ce rn in g th e s e x tensions o f teach ers, esp ecially w om en, a great
deal has h een sa id a n d som e fe w th in g s have been w ritten . A m a te u rs
in p sy c h ia tr y have b een free w ith diagnoses. I t is true th a t the choice
o f tea ch in g as a career con d em n s m a n y w om en t o rem a in u n m arried,
a n d th a t th e m o ra l ord er coils so tig h tly abou t th e w o m a n teacher
th a t even le g itim a te cou rtsh ip is o ften ou t o f the question. B u t there
is n ot, a p p a r e n tly , a one to one correspondence betw een spinsterhood
and that n ervo u s, w ra ck ed u n h a p p in e ss w h ich the a m ateu r p sy
ch ia trists sa y a tta ck s the teach er because she is u n m a rried . T h e life
h isto r y o f th e u n m a rried teacher seem s to follow , a p r e tty definite
p a tte rn . T h ere are a n u m b er o f y e a r s in w h ich the hope o f finding
a m ate is n o t relin qu ish ed . T h ere is a critic al p e rio d w h en that
hope dies. A n in fo r m a n t h as su ggested th a t hope has d ied w h en a
w o m a n b u y s a- d ia m o n d fo r h erself. T h e critical p e rio d is an in cu b a
tion p e r io d d u r in g w h ich sp in sterh o od rip en s. D u r in g th is critical
p e r io d m a n y d esperate a n d p a th e tic th in g s occu r. Th e w om an goin g
th ro u gh th is p e rio d f a lls in lov e v e r y ea sily , a u d m a y come to m ake
the m ost open ad van ces u p on slig h t or no p rovocation . T h e atten tion s
o f a lo v e r b ein g ahsent, th e m o st p e r fu n c to r y civ ility m a y he m a g n i
fied to th a t size, and d isto rted to fit th a t con figu ration . H en c e arise
deep p lots to tr ic k th e doctor or th e d en tist in to a declaration. H en ce,
too, p itifu l m isin terp reta tio n s o f the m o st com m on place rem arks. I t
is a p eriod o f the m o st inten se conflicts, a n d no w a y o f so lv in g the
p ro b lem is le ft u n th o u g b t o f ; these d ign ified w om en som etim es a t
te m p t, p a th etic to record, to lea rn th e tech n ique o f sex lure fr o m
the tw e n ty -y e a r -o ld s of their acqu ain tan ce. P e rh a p s th is h ope of
fin d in g a m ate alw ays dies h ard an d slow ly, an d req u ires little stim u
la n t to keep it alive a fte r its tim e.
T h e a d ju stm e n t in w h ich th e sp in ster stab ilizes a fte r th is critical
p eriod ten d s to he final. S everal fo r m s are com m on. There is the
d isco n ten ted m isa n th ro p y o f th e w o m a n w h o is b itter heeause the
m ale sex has p assed her h y. T h ere is the sp lit-o ff, p h an ta stic love
life o f the w o m a n w h o preserves her su scep tib ility, perh ap s her hope,
to an a d van ced age. T h ere is the sw eetly resig n ed attitu d e o f th e
DETEBMINANTS OF THE OCCUPATIONAL TYPE 409
w om an w ho accep ts celibacy and a rra n g e s h er life o n th a t b a s is ;

this a d ju s tm e n t is easier i f the in d iv id u a l is able to live w ith b er ow n
fa m ily or w ith close relatives w b o h av e a stron g fa m ily life w h ich
includes her. T h ere is the “ b a c h e lo r -g ir l” a d ju stm e n t, ca rried o ff w ith
different d eg rees o f success, a n d w ith m ore or less a tte n d a n t con flict.
There is th e a d ju s tm e n t o f th e te a c h e r w h o achieves v ic a r io u s f u l
fillm ent in h er stu d en ts. T h ere is h o m o se x u a lity , h otb th a t w h ich is
deeply in g r a in e d a n d th a t w h ich is faute d& mieux, a n d nu m erous
other a d ju s tm e n ts o f a p a th o lo g ic a l n atu re.
I t is tru e th a t m a le v a lu e s are la c k in g in the u n iverse in w h ich
spinsters liv e, a n d th a t th is la c k is som etim es sa d ly obvious. I t is
a p e c u lia r ity o f som e o f these m a id e n teachers, a p e c u lia r ity w h ich
has b een ohserved in several w id e ly se p a ra te d g ro u p s, in ord er to
relieve the lon elin ess o f th eir liv e s, to give n am es to in a n im a te ob
jects. T h e y p o p u la te th e u n iv erse b y n a m in g th e th in g s abou t th e m ,
especially those a rticles w h ich are in d a ily use and m a y be th o u g h t
to h ave so m eth in g o f a ch a racter o f th eir ow n . T h u s a car is J o h n , an
ashtray M r . J o h n so n , a fo u n ta in -p e n M r . W r i g h t , a n d so on. I t is
sign ifican t th a t m o st o f these n a m es are m a le. T h e sex sta rv a tio n , an d
its a tte n d a n t iso la tio n fr o m th e p ro cession o f th e gen eration s, are
there, a n d th ey m a te r ia lly a ffect th e a d ju s tm e n t o f m a id e n teach ers
to the tea ch in g p ro fession . Y e t i t is d o u b tfu l w h eth er one can a d
vance h is e x p la n a tio n v e r y m u c h b y fo llo w in g o u t this line. S p in ster
teachers so m etim es p resen t a s o rr y p ic tu re an d one r ig h tly d ia g n o sed
as a p ic tu re o f fr u s tr a tio n . B u t , th en , so do th e m en w h o t e a c h ; an d
men teach ers are fr e e to m a r r y . I t is so m eth in g in the teach in g i t
self, or so m eth in g in th e life o f the teach er, w hich fr u str a te s. No
douht th e sex th w a rts of sp in sters h av e some effect upon th eir
personalities, b u t it is a n effect w h ich takes the fo r m o f a n en h an ce
m ent o f a p e rso n a lity d isto rtio n p ro d u c ed otherw ise. The wom an
teacher, fu r th e r m o r e , b u t fo r th e p erso n a l th w a rtin g im p lic it in the
necessity o f in stitu tio n a liz e d d o m in a tio n , is in a v e ry fa v o ra h lc p o si
tion, associated, as she is, w ith m a n y ch ild re n , to w ork ou t a sa tisfa c to r y
su b lim ation o f h er sex u al life . T h e m a jo r lines o f her p e rso n a lity diffi
c u lty , th e re fo re , h ave tb e ir ca u sation in th e social situ a tio n s which,
her p ro fe ssio n im poses u p o n her.
C hapter XXTII
TEACHER TYPES; THE TEACHER STEREOTYPE, ETC.
I t would be in c o rrec t to assum e th a t teach in g' in e v ita b ly develops

th e sam e ch a ra c ter tr a its in all teach ers. T h e a d ju stm e n ts o f per
so n a lity w h ich d ifferen t teach ers m ake to th e co n d ition s o f school
life d iffer as r a d ic a lly as the p erso n a lities o f th ose w ho en ter teach
in g . T h e re are a ll k in d s o f teachers. T h ere are “ n a tu r a l b orn teach
e r s ,” a n d m a d e teachers, a n d d ifferen t classes o f each. “ N atural
te a c h e r s,” a p p a r e n tly in clu d e h oth th ose w hose en th u sia sm enables
th e m to m u d d le th ro u g h in sp ite o f m istak e s and those w ho, b y vir
tu e o f b a lla st a n d in h ib ition s, m ak e no m istakes. T h ere are problem
teach ers, p erso n s w ith definite tw ists to th e ir p erso n a lities, w hose ad
ju s tm e n t takes th em f a r fr o m con tact w ith re a lity . T h ere are teach
ers w h o com e in to close b u t e n tir e ly n eg a tiv e c o n ta c t w ith reality,
a n d oth ers, ju s t as rea listic a lly m in d ed , w hose g en eral orien tation is
p o sitiv e . A n d th ere are both p o sitiv e a n d n eg a tiv e orien tation s in the
flig h t fr o m rea lity. E sp e c ia lly is it tru e th at there are sev eral kinds
o f good teach ers. T ech niqu es, too, a n d th is is a p o in t o f the v e r y first
im p o rta n ce, m u st differ w ith d ifferen t p ersonalities.
T w o teach ers who seem to h ave been at the op p osite p o le s o f teach
in g tech n iq u e b u t w ere b o th rem a rk a b ly su ccessfu l h ave been de
scribed b y E d w a r d E g g le sto n . W e quote h is d e sc rip tio n :
Probably no two teachers of equal ability were ever associated who were
more unlike in the constitution of their minds, and who conducted a recita
tion in modes more dissimilar, than Judge Story and Professor Greenleaf.
The latter, the beau ideal of the lawyer in his physique, was severe and
searching in the classroom, probing the student to the quick, accepting no
half answers or vague general statements for accurate replies, showing no
mercy to laziness, and when he commented on the text, it was alwrays in the
fewest, pithiest words that would convey the ideas. Language in his mouth
seemed to have proclaimed a sumptuary law forbidding that it should in any
case overstep the limits of thought. Indolent students who had skimmed over
the lesson dreaded his scrutiny, for they knew that an examination by him
was a literal weighing of their knowledge— and that they could impose upon
him hy no shams. Judge Story’s forte, on the other hand, was in lecturing,
not in questioning, in the communication of information, not in ascertaining
410
TEACHER TYPES; THE TEACHER STEREOTYPE, ETC. 4H
the exact sum of the pupil’s knowledge. In most eases, his questions were put
I
in such a way as to suggest the answer. For example, having stated two
modes of legal procedure under certain circumstances, he would ask the
student; “ Would you adopt the former course or would you rather adopt the
latter?” “ I would rather adopt the latter,” the student would reply, who
perhaps had not looked at the lesson. “ You are right,” would he the comment
of the kind-hearted Dane professor; “ Lord Mansfield himself could not have
answered more correctly.” Whether he was too good-natured to put the stu
dents on the rack, or thought the time might he more profitably spent, we
know not; but no one feared to recite hecause he was utterly ignorant of the
lesson. The manner of the judge, when lecturing, was that of an enthusiast
rather than of a professional teacher. . . . He had that rare gift, the faculty
of communicating, and loved, ahove all things, to communicate knowledge.”1
J u d g e S to ry had oth er q u alities w h ich also fitted in to th is p a tte r n ,

as E g g le s to n d escribed h im . l i e su ffered fo o ls g la d ly , an d w a s n ev er
out o f p a tien ce w ith the slow or the u n c o m p reh en d in g . A n d the t e x t,
fo r h im , w a s n o t the su m and substance o f k n ow led ge , b u t so m e
th in g to he used as a p oin t o f d e p a rtu re f o r in stru c tiv e excu rsion s.
H e ta u g h t u n sy ste m a tic a lly , one ju d g e s , b u t he p u t a ll o f h im s e lf
into h is teach in g.
One w o n d ers w h a t w o u ld h ap p en to a m a n like J u d g e S to r y i f
he w ere fo r c e d to u p h old the academ ic sta n d a r d s in the co n v e n tio n a l
way or lose h is m ean s o f liv elih o od . O ne w on d ers how his ty p e o f
J teach in g w o u ld stan d th e goose-step o f a la r g e sch ool m ach in e. U n
qu estion ab ly th e b est and h a p p ie st teach ers, an d those w hose in stru c
tion is lon g est rem em b ered , b e lo n g to his ty p e , b u t it seem s certain
that su ch a teach er w o u ld lose h is effectiveness i f he w ere n o t free.
Such p erso n s n eed to be ju d g e d less h a r sh ly b y those w h o 1 c o n fo rm
to the m ore u s u a l tea c h in g p a tte rn , fo r it is v e r y difficu lt fo r th em
to can alize th e ir te a c h in g w ith o u t the loss o f all th e v a lu e s in h eren t
in it. T h ere seem to be tw o o p p osite tech n iq u es o f in stru ctio n , a n d
it seem s th a t th ey c o n fo r m to p e r so n a lity ty p e s a t op p osite poles.
There is th e tech n iq u e o f fo r m a l an d c a r e fu lly d elim ited d rill a n d
r e c ita tio n ; t h i s .i s the cu sto m a ry p a tte rn o f teach in g. T h en th ere is
the tech n iq u e o f im p ro v isa tio n b y teacher and class. Th e tech n iq u e
o f fo r m a l d r ill p u ts su b je c t m a tte r first, and m akes o f it the d o m in a n t
i value. I t is m ost effective fo r th e c o m m u n ica tio n o f fa c ts. B u t th e te c h
n iqu e o f im p r o v is a tio n is one w hich in v o lv es both teacher and class
in a free an d m o v in g in teraction , a n d p u ts the in terc h a n g e o f p e r-
' E g g le s t o n , E d w a r d , In H o u rs W it h M en and B o o k s , ed. by W in . M a t t h e w s .

( R e p r in t e d by p e rm is s io n o f S c o t t , E o r e s m a n a n d C o m p a n y .)
sonalities b efore the valu es o f su b ject m atter. In the fo r m a l class

th e in v o lv em en t o f personalities is a v e r y lim ite d o n e ; there is a
te n d e n c y fo r both p erson alities a n d in terests to sh rin k. I n th e in
fo r m a l class, in terest in k in d led , a n d ■whatever is learn ed is attended
to m o st p o sitively . T o be in J u d g e S t o r y ’ s class m u st h ave been a
con stru ctive experien ce, a n d i t m a y o fte n h av e been a n experience
th at w as v e r y im p o rta n t in the su h sequ en t gro w th o f personality.
T h e tech n iq u e illu strated b y J u d g e S t o r y is best a d a p te d fo r the
p a ssin g on o f a ttitu d es and th e k in d lin g o f in terest, p e rh a p s fo r the
a w a k en in g o f th e desire to p o n d e r th in g s an d the d ev elo p m en t of
u n d e rsta n d in g th at goes w ith p o n d e rin g. I t is possihle to th in k o f
those tw o c o n tra stin g a d ju stm en ts o f p erso n a lity as ch aracteristic
o f in tro version a n d extroversion . T h e in tro v erted teach er reacts in
class a cco rd in g to p la n an d v e ry o b je c t iv e ly ; he is n o t a t h is best
in the extem poran eou s Bort o f in stru ction because i t takes h im too
lo n g to th in k th in g s th ro u gh an d he m u st th in k th e m th rou gh too
th o r o u g h ly before answ erin g, an d th erefo re h e is slow o f speech. The
e x tro v erted teacher reacts e n th u sia stica lly a n d d iffu s e ly ; h e wears
a su b ject o u t v e r y q u ic k ly and p asses ea sily to an oth er, an d there
fo r e the textbook is no an ch orin g p o in t fo r h im , b u t th e starting
p o in t o f an excursion.
B u t th ere are other p o in ts o f d istin ction hetw een these contrast
in g personalities w hich the categories o f in troversion an d extroversion
do not w h o lly exp lain . A n in tro v e rt w ho suffers fo o ls as g la d ly as
Judge S to ry m a y m a in ta in as fa v o ra b le a fe e lin g ton e w ith his
stu d en ts. A n d th e im m u n ity w h ich J u d g e S t o r y h a d fo r m o st o f the
o ccu p ation al traits w e have discussed dep en d s in p a r t u p o n group
a lig n m e n ts a n d e g o -g r a tify in g devices w h ich en able one to avoid
ta k in g h u rt w h en his stu d en ts do n ot p rep a re lessons d ilig e n tly fo r
h im . (J u d g e S to r y h ad g ain ed enviable reco g n itio n elsew h ere.) The
en tire ly p lea san t reaction o f such persons to tea c h in g m a y depend
u p o n a selective p a tte rn in consciousness w h ich en ab les them to over
look u n p le a sa n t th in g s a n d to fo rge t a t once those w h ich im pose
th em selves u p o n a tten tion . T h is does n o t a lw ay s co rresp o n d to the
ex tro v erted character. Som e ex tro v erts are n o t wise en ou gh to edu
cate as J u d g e S to ry did, and m u st u n d ergo p a in fu l se lf-d iscip lin e to
confine th eir th ou gh ts w ith in reasonable bo u n d s. Som e other extro
v e rts are com p eten t b u t not fr e e , an d th e y are lik e ly i f restricted to .
take a v e r y destru ctive attitu d e tow ard th eir work. O n e ’s w illin gn ess
to c o n fo r m is an oth er fa c to r o f im p o rta n ce in d e te rm in in g w h a t a tti
tu d e one w ill take tow ard teach in g a n d w h a t c o n figu ra tio n o f traits
'
TEACHER TYPES; THE TEACHER STEREOTYPE, ETC. 413
tea ch in g w ill develop in h im . Th e person w ho accep ts th e w o rld as

it is (u s u a lly the e x tro v ert, b y the w a y ) d ev elop s the m ore fa v o r
able set o f q u a litie s ; the non -con form ist, ten d s to develop a d ifferen t
p erso n a lity pictu re. M o s t teachers represen t m ix ed rath er th an p u re
types.
T h e a d ju stm e n t o f p erso n a lity to tea ch in g d iffers a cco rd in g to the
grade o f tea ch in g a n d the su b je c t t a u g h t T eachers o f h om e eco
nom ics, sh op -w ork , an d the p ra c tic a l su b jects develop th e occu pa
tional traits little because th e y are not p u t into the o rd in a ry class
room situ ation and do n o t suffer so m u ch fr o m the strain o f g iv in g
un w anted in stru ction . I t is said th a t “ the classics m ake te a c h e r s’ ’ ;
i f so, it is the n ecessity o f d rill and the strain o f in stru c tin g th at
b rin g i t ahout. E n g lis h teachers have special p roh lem s a n d develop
special a d ju stm e n ts to t h e m ; it is p erh ap s m ore difficult fo r a teach er
I o f E n g lis h to ta k e leave o f h is role th an fo r a n y other teacher.

realization o f th e pressu re co n sta n tly u p o n th em w a s p r o b a b ly w h a t
p rom p ted a g ro u p o f E n g lis h teach ers at a con feren ce in M is s o u r i to
(A
sing a so n g assertin g “ W e a in ’ t p rissy , w e a i n ’t p r im .’ ’ ) In te lle c tu a l

racketeers, persons w ho teach n on -ex isten t su b jects, su b je cts w hich
cannot be ta u g h t, or su b jects w hich they th em selves do not u n d e r
stand, m u st develop special tech n iq u es an d special a d ju stm en ts of
personality. (T h e y fr e q u e n tly take r e fu g e in p o m p o sity , v erb osity, te m
peram ent, e tc .) T h e p e rso n a lity a d ju stm e n ts o f teachers an d adm inis-
trators differ som ew hat- A d m in istr a tiv e p o sts, w ith th eir lo n g hours
I
and th e ir im m ense a m o u n t o f d eta il, a p p e a r to m ake fo r a fa llin g
off in m e n ta l con ten t a n d a d eterioration in its q u a lity , h u t th is is
p robab ly m ore th an com p ensated fo r b y a b road er ran ge o f h u m an
contacts. T h e sm a ll-to w n su p erin ten d en t o f schools is fo r c e d to con
fo rm to a m ore r ig id p a tte rn th a n are other teachers, an d he is co r
resp o n d in gly biased. T eachers are su p p osed to develop the teach in g
p erso n a lity m ore r a p id ly in p riv a te schools th an in p u b lic , esp ecia lly
i f the p riv a te schools are o f the b o a rd in g v a r ie t y ; th is is because
they h a v e fe w er opportu n ities to tak e leave o f th eir role. T h ere are
vast differen ces betw een th e p ersonalities o f teachers reg a rd ed as
successful a n d those o f teachers w ho are n o t su ccessfu l.
T h e m in d s o f those in d ifferen t occupations w ork upon, different
m aterials, a n d the con ten t o f th o u g h t d iffers m u ch fr o m one p r o
fession to another. Y e t m e n ta l processes are tran sposah le, an d ten d to
reproduce them selves in ev ery w alk o f life . T here are careers ev ery
where, rew ards, riv a ls, “ p o litic s ,” rig h t an d w ro n g w a y s o f doin g
things. O ne “ m akes g o o d ” even in prison . Th e prod u ct o f th e w ork-
ing of the mind upon the conditions of life, has hecn called the life
organization.1 The occupational life-organization is an important de
terminer of the occupational type. The life organization of the rural
school teacher is well brought out in the following document:
Mr. Wise was attending the summer session of a midwestern university.

He must have a few more hours of college credit in methods of teaching so
that he could qualify for a hetter teaching position. Yes, Mr, Wise was a
school teacher. Oh, not so much the school teacher as some school teaehers
were, hut nevertheless a school teacher. He had already had three years of
successful experience and was a junior in college and he was, therefore, not
only a practical school man hut also a professional school man—acquainted
not only with the actual hut also with the theoretical phases of education.
And tliis summer-school attendance was quite an important part of the
school-teaching game. You got a teacher’s certificate as soon as you could
after graduation from high school. Then you got a teaching position. It might
not he much of a position—out in a one-teacher rural grade school near
L’odunk—hut you got a position, and then you had experience. Experience—
that was the main thing, that was the magic word, that was the key wliich
unlocked the door to a hundred good jobs. So the teachers’ agencies and the
normal-school professors told you, anyway.
Well, you got the joh and you taught through the year You went to
summer school in the summer. Eventually you got a hetter certificate. Then
you secured a position in a small town. Ah, leaching in town! How you had
waited for that moment! You went to summer school some more. You hecame
a principal—perhaps a high-school principal! You took in a few more
summer sessions. You got a degree! Then you went out in the field as a
small-town superintendent. But you mustn’t he satisfied with this. You must
have a master’s degree. So you took a year off or attended a few more
summer sessions and you received a master’s. As a reward for your lahora,
you were taken into a large school system. Thus you went through college
easily—without learning much perhaps hut without much inconvenience to
yourself. And you were allowed to place an imposing string of letters after
your name to impress people with, especially school boards, high-school
students, and other persons just like yourself. And thus you hecame estab
lished—you were fixed for life! Oh, you might, if you played your cards
right, get into a school where so many years of service netted you a retire
ment pension. Or you might, if you were politician enough, become an
’ P a r k s a y s o f l i f e o r g a n i z a t i o n : " I t is th is i n t e l l e c t u a l e le m e n t t h a t ia r e p r e
s e n te d s p e c if ic a lly in t h e l i f e - o r g a n i z a t i o n . O n e m i g h t p e r h a p s e x p re s s the
n o t i o n b y s a y i n g t h a t th e in d iv id u a l h a s a c o n c e p t i o n o f h im s e lf, a n d th a t
t h is c o n c e p t i o n o f h im s e lf a n d h is r o le in H oeiety ia a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f h is p e r
s o n a lity .” ( P a r k , I t o b e r t E ., " T h e S o c i o lo g i c a l M e t h o d s o f W il l i a m G ra h a m
S u m n e r a n d o f W il l i a m T. T h o m a s a n d F l o r i a n Y n a n i e e k i ,” p , 1 7 0 , M eth o d s in
Social S cien ce, e d it e d b y S t u a r t A . R i c e , U n iv e r s it y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , C h ic a g o ,
1 9 3 1 .)
TEACHER TYPES; THE TEACHER STEREOTYPE, ETO. 415
instructor in a teachers college. But anyway you were “ pretty much on top
of the world” when you got your master’s degree.
Thus ran what Mr, Wise called his vision. {Unpublished manuscript, The
School Teacher in a Restaurant, Kenneth McGill.)
S u m m er school, h ou rs of edu cation , q u alification s, reco m m en d a
tions, su ccessfu l experien ce, p ro fession a l tr a in in g , “ p o lit ic s ,” cer
tificates, ad va n cem en t to a la r g e r tow n , te a c h e rs' agen cies— how
fa m ilia r all these to e v e r y ex p erien ced te a c h e r ! H ow th o r o u g h ly
does the te a c h e r ’s m in d hecom e h a h itu a ted to the u n iv erse in w h ich
these are the v a lu e s ! T h is d o cu m en t ca lls up also n u m ero u s qu es
tions c o n ce rn in g the la rg e r o rg a n ization o f th e profession .
Those w ho fo llo w c e rta in occu p ation s p la y o u t the. roles w h ich
go w ith it rath er co n sisten tly. O th er p erso n s com e to th in k o f these
roles as ch a ra c terizin g th e o ccu p ation , an d w h en th ey th in k o f the
one th ey th in k o f the other. E x p e rie n c e o f persons p la y in g those
roles lea ves resid u a in th e form , o f im a g in e d co n stru cts r e la tin g to
the a ppearan ce or h eh avior o f persons f a llin g w ithin certain o ccu p a
tional categories. These im a g in e d con stru cts are stereo ty p es. W h e n
a stereo ty p e h as been organized o u t o f the c o m m u n ity exp erien ce of
persons b e lo n g in g to ce rta in occu pation al g ro u p s and co n sisten tly
p la y in g out certain roles th at go w ith it, th e m em bers o f th e com
m u n ity te n d to organize a ll exp erien ce o f th e p erson s in such a n oc
cu p a tio n in termsi o f th e ex isten t ste r e o ty p e ; th e y h ave a low p e r
ceptu al th resh o ld fo r h eh avior c o n fo r m in g to th e stereotyp e, a n d a
h igh th resh old fo r fa c ts w h ich a rg u e a ga in st the correctness o f th e
stereotype. A stereotyp e, once establish ed , reen forces i t s e l f ; it p ro ves
its own correctness h y a r g u in g in a p e r fe c t circle. W h e n a stereotype
has once hecom e cu rren t, it m a y be passed fr o m one in d iv id u a l to
another b y social con tagion , an d it te n d s to d isto rt th e first n aive
experience o f n ew m em bers w ith p erson s b e lo n g in g to th e g ro u p in
cluded in the stereo ty p e. S tereo typ es are p r e d o m in a n tly v isu a l. L i p p -
m an n h as a p t ly ca lled th em “ p ictu re s in ou r h e a d s .” Som e stereo
typ es h av e the form , o f v e r y d efin ite visu a l im a g e s ; oth ers m e re ly
represen t ty p e s w h ich we ca n recognize h u t n o t reproduce.
M u ch o f social in teraction rests u p o n stereo ty p es. The. in tera ction
o f in tim a te s la r g e ly escapes th e influence o f the stereotype, an d so
does n aive experien ce fo r w hich no m o d el exists in o n e 's social,
w orld. B u t a v e r y w ide ran ge o f social in terc h a n ge is affected b y th e
presence o f m ore or less d efin ite stereotyp es, som etim es stereotypes
w h ich h a v e c u rre n cy in a n en tire g ro u p (th is is th e h est use o f t.hc
te r m ) an d som etim es co n stru cts o f o u r o w n r e la tin g to p a r tic u la r
persons or classes o f persons. T h is is possible because in m a n y kinds

o f re la tio n s w e do not respond to a n oth er p erson d ire c tly , b u t al
w ays to a m ore or less veracious con stru ct o f h im in our ow n m inds.
C e rta in consequences fo llo w ; one o f th e m ore im p o rta n t is th a t an
i n d iv id u a l’s b eh avior in our presence is no criterio n o f h is behavior
in th e presen ce o f others, no m a tte r how stab ilized h is beh avior in
o u r p resen ce (u n less w e h av e ex perien ced h im f u lly an d w ith no
in te r v e n in g stereotyp e, an d he has p resen ted to u s an eq u a lly u n
b iased se g m e n t o f h im s e lf). T h e error o f g e n e ra lizin g an in d iv id
u a l ’ s h eh av io r tow ard us, lim ite d by the p ossib ilities o f behavior
w h ich we, re a c tin g to o u r ow n im a g in e d co n stru c t o f h im , h av e offered
to h im , a cco u n ts f o r m a n y o f th e su rprises o f social li f e and for
som e of th e u n exp ected n ess o f h u m a n n a tu re. The young m a n ’s
fiancee, w o rsh ip p ed a n d id ealized b y h im , is sedu ced b y another in
a n even in g. A g r u ff e m p lo y e r is ren d ered h u m a n h y an u n u su al ap
p roach . D isra e li w on over Q u een V ic to r ia h y tr e a tin g h er as a hum an
bein g. I t seem s th a t p eo p le g a in w ho treat others a s h u m a n beings,
n e g le c tin g as fa r as possible th e co n ven tion al restric tio n s or stereo
ty p e d id eas as to h ow th ey ough t to be treated . I n in fe r io r ity -su p e
r io r ity relation sh ip s th e influ en ce o f th e stereo ty p e is particu la rly
vicio u s, f o r th e p a rties in v o lv e d a lm ost in v a ria b ly con clu d e th a t be
cau se th e relation sh ip is stereo ty p ed th e p erso n is b u t an en largem ent
o f th e stereo ty p ed relation.
S t u a r t R ice h as devised a tech n iq u e b y w h ich h e h as been able to
d e m o n stra te th e existen ce o f stereo ty p es sta tistic a lly an d to m easure
th eir effect in b iassin g p erso n a l ju d g m e n ts. H is w o rk w a s largely
w ith o ccu p a tio n al stereotypes, an d as such is in point, here. A n ex
p e rim e n t sim ila r to th e one first devised b y S tu a r t R ice w a s worked
ou t h y K e n n e th M c G ill1 in th e a tte m p t to in v e stig a te the school
teach er stereotyp e. T en p h o to g ra p h s, p osed p h o to g ra p h s a p p roxi
m a te ly equ al in size, w ere m o u n te d tog eth er on a larg e piece of
card b oard . F iv e o f the p h o to g ra p h s w ere o f m en an d five o f women.
O f the five w om en , th re e w ere teachers, tw o o f w h om h a d been selected
fo r this ex p e rim e n t because of th eir su pposed c o n fo r m ity to the
sch ool-teach er stereo ty p e. T h e y “ looked like te a ch e rs” to th e persons
c a r r y in g on th e ex p erim en t, an d the p o in t o f th e ex p erim en t w as to
see w h eth er th ey w ou ld look like teach ers to others. T h ese photo
g ra p h s w ere th en presented to sm all g ro u p s o f stu d en ts a t the U n i
v e r sity o f N e b ra sk a , an d stu d e n ts w ere asked to id e n t ify them as
1 O f . M c G il l , K e n n e t h , ' ‘ T h e S c h o o l - T e a c h e r S t e r e o t y p e ,” J ourna l o f Educa

tional S o c io lo g y , Vol. 9, J u n e , 1 9 3 1 , p p . 6 4 2 -6 5 1 .
to occupation. S tu d en ts w ere asked to state a reason fo r each id e n ti

fication. E x tr e m e care w as exercised to elim in a te all su gg estion as to
actu al occu pation s o f these in d ivid u als. In ord er to keep con dition s
u n ifo rm , in stru ction s w ere read to each g rou p .
The ex p erim en t gave very p o sitive resu lts. O ne o f the w om en
teachers, selected, be it u n d erstood , n o t fo r her su pposed c o n fo r m ity
to an actu al occu pation al ty p e b u t fo r her c o n fo r m ity to the p rev alen t
stereotype, w as identified as a teacher 8 6 tim es out o f 138. T h e other
c a r e fu lly selected p h o to g ra p h w as id en tified as a teach er 69 tim es
out o f 137. A tab le sh ow in g these r esu lts is in clu d ed . T h e teachers
w ere n u m b ers 3, 5, an d 9 on th e table. T h e identification s o f m en are
om itted fr o m th e table.
TAB LE I
N umber of P hotograph and T imes
I dentified in P articular Occupations
Occupation 1 3 5 7 9
Teacher..................................... . . . . 14 32 86 23 69
Housewife................................. . . . . 15 3 4 35 20
Office worker........................... . . . . 11 33 11 16 5
Musician................................... . . . . 35 3 13 3
Nurse......................................... 1 3 15 7 13
Saleswoman............................. . . . . 6 16 2 3 3
Actress...................................... . . . . 12 1 13 1
Singer........................................ . . . . IS 2
Student..................................... . . . . 7 3 1 6
Painter...................................... ___ 4 7 2 2
Business woman..................... a 1 7
Domestic.................................. . . . . 2 10 1
Social worker........................... 4 2 5
Writer....................................... . . . . 1 4 2 2
Missionary............................... 6 1 1
Mother..................................... 2 1 4
Society woman........................ . . . . 2 1 3
Country woman...................... 1 2 2
Beauty operator..................... 1 2
Church worker........................ 2
Lawyer..................................... 2
Librarian.................................. 2
Delinquent............................... . . . . 1
Telephone operator................ 1
Waitress................................... 1
130 130 138 131 137
A lth o u g h a m ore refined treatm en t o f this m aterial m a y h e 1p o ssi

ble, it is th o u g h t that- m e re ly ca llin g a tten tion to th e b u n ch in g o f
identifications u n d er h eadings 5, 7, an d 9 should be enough to con-
l vince the reader o f th e existen ce o f a sch ool-teach er stereotype. T h is
is p re tty good evidence, too, th at there is considerable con sisten cy in
these stereotyp es, fo r the h ea vy allocation o f teach er identification s
occurred p recisely at th e places w h ere the ex p erim en ters h ad decided
to p u t it. T h ose w h o ' ‘ loo k ed like te a c h e r s” to th e p ersons devising

the e x p e rim e n t looked lik e teach ers to th ose w h o m ad e th e identifica
tions.
S tu d e n ts w ere also asked to state th eir rea son s f o r id e n t ify in g in
d iv id u a ls as b e lo n g in g to p a rtic u la r o ccu p a tio n a l g ro u p s. T h e rea
sons fo r th e teacher id en tification s h ave been c o m p ile d a n d are given
in the fo llo w in g table.
TABLE II
P icture N o . T imes
W hat S uggested I dentification 1 3 5 7 9 M ention*
General Facial Expression
Stern, dignified, reserved.................... 1 2 10 2 5 20
Determined, firm, set.......................... 1 2 4 1 7 15
Intelligent, capable............................. 1 1 3 1 2 8
Serious, patient, hopeless.................... 2 2 3 7
Thoughtful, sympathetic, composed.. . 1 2 2 1 6
Prim, trim, neat................................. 1 3 1 5
Studious, instructive.......................... 2 3 5
Tired, bored, disgusted....................... 3 1 1 5
Leader-like, forceful, brooks no interfer
ence............................................... 1 3 4
Nervous, strained............................... 1 1 1 3
Old-maidish....................................... 2 1 3
Impersonal, hard................................ 1 1 2
Refined.............................................. 1 1 2
Ascetic.............................................. 1 1
Minister-like...................................... 1 1
No-one-is-right-but-me....................... 1 1
T um-riae-pass............................................ 1 1
Vinegar drinker.................................. 1 I
S p ecific F a cia l E x p ressio n
Mouth
Determined, firm, set...................... 4 6 2 6 18
Stern, stony................................... 2 2 2 6
Strained......................................... 1 2 1 4
Kindly, pleasant, understanding...... 1 1 2
Straight-lipped............................... 1 1
Eyes
Determined, firm, set...................... 2 3 1 4 10
Piercing, staring............................. 1 2 3 6
Straight-forward............................. 1 1 2 4
Dreamy, impractical....................... 1 1 1 3
Kindly, understanding.................... I 1 1 3
Strained.................................................. I 1 2 4
Oh-I-know-rdl-the-tricks-look.......... 1 1
Chin
Squared.......................................... 3 3
M a te r ia ls o f th is so rt n e e d to be in te rp re te d m o st ca u tio u sly . T h ere |

is a g re a t tem p ta tio n to d ra w f r o m th em con clu sion s m u ch too sw eep
in g a n d g en eral. W e m a y sa y , h ow ever, th a t th is ex p erim en t dem on
stra te s th at one or m ore p erso n s m a y select p h o to g ra p h s w h ich w ill
TEACHER TYPES; THE TEACHES STEREOTYPE, ETO. 419
be con sisten tly id en tified b y o tt e r s as c o n fo rm in g to the sch ool-teach er

stereotype. T h e reasons p resen ted f o r the identification s m a y be tak en
as g iv in g som e h in ts as to the q u alities or expressions w h ich are con
sidered ch aracteristic o f the school-teacher stereotype. I t w o u ld be
erroneous to conclude, h ow ever, th a t these traits are p resen t in th e
ph otograph a n d le a d to the id en tification as a teacher, fo r it is ju s t
as possible, a n d on p sy ch olo g ica l g ro u n d s a good deal m ore lik e ly ,
that the identification cam e first, a n d w a s m a d e because the p ictu re
co n fo rm ed to a gen eral co n figu ration , a n d th a t the qu a lities w e re p e r
ceived a fte r th e identification w as m a d e. T h is in te r p r e ta tio n is m ade
to seem m ore plau sible b y the fa c t th a t R i c e ’s w o rk show s th a t id en
tification in a ce rta in stereotyp e b iases ju d g m e n t o f p erso n a l q u a li
ties. I t is p erh ap s an essential p a r t o f th e stereotype th a t it loses
its ch a racteristics w hen s u b je c te d to a n a ly s is ; th e w h ole is n o t the
same as the su m o f its p arts. T h is con clu sion is s u p p o r te d b y the
fa c t th a t there is little m ore co n cen tration o f o p in ion as to th e d is
tin g u ish in g tr a its o f those p erso n s w h o c o n fo r m to the teacher stereo
typ e th an w ith re g a rd to o th e r s; co lu m n 5 is a b o u t as sca tterin g as
colum ns 1 o r 3. T h e c h ie f significance o f T a b le I I , th en , is the lig h t
it sheds u p o n the qu alities w h ich are p r o je c te d into the fa ce o f th e
person th o u g h t o f as a teacher.
O n th e basis o f th e sam e k in d o f em p irica l in sig h t th a t m ade th is
exp erim en t possible, one m a y conclude th a t th ere are tw o d ifferen t
stereotypes o f the teacher. T h e m ore com m on one is th e one w h ich
we h av e been discu ssin g. I t is, as w e elsew h ere p o in t out, the r esu lt
o f a h ostile rew o rk in g o f th e re sid u a o f c o m m u n ity experience w ith
te a c h e rs; it is a caricatu re. T h ere is anoth er stereotyp e o f the teach er,
that o f th e self-sa crificin g , gen tle, k in d ly , se lf-e ffa cin g creature, over
w orked, u n d erp a id , b u t n ever o u t o f p atien cq a n d a lw ay s re a d y to
“ give fr e e ly o f h er tim e a n d m o n e y ” fo r school p u rp oses. T h is is
the resu lta n t o f a fr ie n d ly rew o rk in g o f e x p e r ie n c e ; it is an id ea liza
tion o f th e teacher. W e sh o u ld n o t overlook, h ow ever, the p a r t w hich
has been p la y e d b y opposite ty p e s o f teach ers in d e term in in g the
fo r m o f these stereotypes. B o th these stereotypes m a y be p resen t in
the sam e m in d , and m a y su p p le m e n t each other in d e te rm in in g th e
sta n d in g o f a p a rtic u la r teacher. W e m a y say th a t th is fa v ora b le
stereotype represen ts the c o m m u n ity idea o f w h a t a teacher o u g h t
to b e, a n d th a t the u n fa v o ra b le one represen ts th e com m on opin ion
as to w h at a n actu al teach er is. T h e secon d stereotype carries those
ideals fo r w hich th e school serves as a con venien t rep ository.
Teachers are fo r c e d to rem a in m ore or less w ith in the bou ndaries
o f b eh a vior set u p h y these stereotypes. I t is an od d th in g th at be

h av ior co n tra ry to the stereo ty p ed p a tte rn sh ou ld so easily arouse
th e m o ra l in d ig n a tio n o f th e c o m m u n ity , b u t it does.1 T h e teacher is
im p riso n ed w ith in the stereotype. O u r con cern here is n o t so m uch
w ith the stereotype as w ith its effect u p o n th e teacher. F r o m long
im p riso n m e n t w ith in the stereotype th e teach er grow s u nused to
freed o m . A certain m a n ta u g h t to r som e y e a rs in a p riv a te school
w h ere a ru le o f th e in stitu tio n , su p p o rte d h y a clause in h is contract,
p rev en te d h im fr o m sm o k in g in the presence o f stu d en ts. F o r some
y e a rs he resen ted th e ru le, h u t oheyed it as w ell as possible. A t len gth
the ru le ceased to g a ll h im . O ne d a y he stood talk in g in fr o n t o f the
school w ith a fr ie n d o f h is who w as in husiness. H is fr ie n d offered
h im a cigarette. He rep lied , very m a t te r -o f-fa c tly , “ 'N o t now .
T h a n k s .”
“ ’W h y ? ” asked h is fr ie n d .
‘ ‘ I c a n ’t sm oke here. T h ere are stu d en ts h e r e .”
“ W e l l , w h a t difference does th a t m a k e ? ”
” 1 c a n ’t sm oke in the presence o f s tu d e n ts ,” said the teacher.
‘ ‘ "W e ll,” said the other m an , ‘ ‘ I ’m su re I c o u ld n ’t ever he a
teacher. I c o u ld n ’ t stand th e r e str ic tio n s.” B u t h ab it h ad m ade the
teacher unaw are o f the fa c t th at the ru le co n stitu ted a restriction,
W h e n th e teach er h as in tern alized the rules w h ich b in d h im , he has
hecorne tr u ly a teacher. O th er p ro fessio n s have oth er rules, and
p lace d ifferen t restriction s u p o n hehavior. I t is n ot ours to decide
here w h ich restriction s are m ost im p o rta n t. T h e p o in t is th at a p er
son is n ot free in any occu pation u n til he has m ad e co n fo rm ity a
part o f h im self. W hen c o n fo r m ity is the m o st n a tu ra l th in g fo r
h im , an d he c o n fo rm s w ith ou t th ou gh t, th e teacher is free, fo r fr e e
dom is o n ly an op tica l illu sion th at r e su lts fr o m o u r in a b ility to
see the restriction s th at su rrou n d us.
B u t anoth er d eterm in an t o f the teacher is his a tte m p t to escape
fr o m the occu pation al role, his attem pt, to step o u t o f the stereo
ty p e a n d to affect others as a h u m a n heimg rath er th a n a teacher.
Each teacher tries to save some segm en t o f h im s e lf fr o m the de
m a n d s o f h is p ro fession . A y o u n g teach er o f L a tin bore w ith some
p atien ce the e x a c tin g d r ill o f th e classroom , and su hm itted to qu es
tio n s con cern in g L a t in w h en he was on d u ty in stu d y h a ll. B u t one
day an over-en th u siastic, som ew hat d u ll stu d en t ap p roach ed him
on the ca m p u s, d u r in g his off h ou rs, with a req u est th at he listen to
1 Scandalous things happen, in every school administration. In most cases tha
scandal does not inhere in the teacher’s behavior, but in the discrepancy between
his behavior aud the prevalent stereotype,
a p a rad igm . l i e tu rn e d u p o n the stu d en t fu r io u sly , “ W h y d o n ’t y o u

recite it in cla ss? W h a t do y ou th in k I a m ? ” It is p la in en ou gh
w h at the stu d en t th o u g h t he w a s ; he w a s som eone w ho listen ed to
p a ra d ig m s, he w a s an e n larg em e n t .o f the tea ch in g relation . I n c i
d en ts o f the sort could he m u ltip lie d . A m ore k in d ly m an fu lfille d
all d em an d s m ade u p on h im se lf, an yw h ere a n d everyw h ere, a p p a r
en tly, h u t h o tly resented dem an d s w h ich th e co m m u n ity an d th e
school m a d e u p o n h is w ife . A com m ercial teacher, a w o m a n w ho h ad
heen v e r y conscientious and v e r y k ind th ro u gh o u t the year, reacted in
the su m m er w ith som e tem p er to a request o f a w in te r stu d en t fo r
her p ro fe ssio n a l o p in io n ; i t w as n ot, she e x p lain ed , the tim e th at she
m in d ed , h u t the a tte m p t to fo rce h er hack in to the tea ch in g role.
Not. o n ly does th e teach er attem pt, to p ro tect h im se lf fr o m the en
croach m en t o f th e tea ch in g role u p o n other seg m en ts o f h is p erso n
a lity , hut he som etim es striv es d esp era tely to h reak th ro u g h the
stereotype w h ich sh u ts h im off fr o m others an d to im p ress h im se lf
u p on h is fe llo w s as a h u m an h eing o f note. H e re th e te a c h e r ’ s situ a
tion is alm ost e x a c tly sim ila r to th a t o f th e m in is te r ; it is in th e
a ttem p t to escape th e stereotyp e th at some p reach ers have developed
into such h reezy, v ir ile “ h c-m en. ” T h e teach er is ta lk in g to a tra d e s
m an. T h e teacher says “ D a m n .” T h e tra d e sm a n is sta rtle d , and re
m ark s jo k in g ly , “ W h y , I ’m. su rp rised . T h a t ’s no w a y fo r a school
teach er to t a l k .” T h e teacher tr ie s to g et som e y o u n g fr ie n d s p a st
the school age t.o ca ll h im h y h is first nam e. l i e does not succeed. O ne
o f the y o u n g fr ie n d s rem arks, “ W h y , I ’d no soon er call M r . W h it e
hy h is first n am e th an w a lk up to m y fa th e r a n d te ll h im a d ir ty
jo k e .” T e t , in th is case, th e age difference w as sligh t, “ I am a h u m a n
h e in g ,” i s th e con stan t c r y o f th e p erson im p riso n ed w ith in the
stereotype a n d a tte m p tin g to shake it off. B u t it is a c r y th a t is ra re ly
heard, or ra rely u n derstood, or ra rely helieved. School teachers, like
negroes a n d w om en, can n ever q u ite en ter the w h ite m a n ’s w o rld , and
th ey m u st rem a in p a rtia l m e n , ex cep t in th e society o f others who,
like th em selves, a rc outcast. Sch ool-teach er p re ju d ic e is as difficult a
th in g to co m b at as negro p re ju d ic e . N o t o n ly th e teacher, hut ed u ca
tion itse lf, su ffers fro m the exclu sion o f th e teacher. T h e o rists m a y
con tin u e to la m e n t the lop -sid ed n ess and one-sidedn ess o f edu cation ,
but h ow can a n op tica l illu sio n educate a w h ole h o y ?
The a ttitu d e s of teachers to w a r d th eir p ro fession are v ery im
p o rta n t d eterm in an ts o f th e effect which th eir p ro fession h as u p on
them . W e h ave a lrea d y in d ica ted the place o f a w illin gn ess to co n
fo rm an d a ch eerful acceptan ce o f th in g s as th ey are in b r in g in g
422 t h e s o c io l o g y o f t e a c h in g
a h o u t th e m ore p ositive a d ju stm e n t to tea ch in g . T h e fa c t is, how

ev er, th at a v e ry la rg e n u m h er o f teach ers are e x tr e m e ly discon,
te n te d w ith th eir p r o fe s s io n ; th is seem s esp ecia lly tru e o f the y ou n ger ^
teachers. O n e y o u n g teacher (a g e d t w e n ty -s ix ) to ld o f th e attitudes
o f h im se lf a n d h is fr ie n d s as fo llo w s : "E v e r y su m m e r w h en you
com e hack to su m m e r school a fte r a w in te r o f tea ch in g y o u see your
o ld fr ie n d s a n d go th ro u g h th e sam e ce re m o n y o f e x p la in in g w hy
y o u are still te a ch in g . E a c h one te lls o f fla tte r in g offers th a t he has
h a d to go in to h u sin ess b u t e x p la in s th a t he c a n ’t m ake q u ite as
m u c h a t the sta r t in h u sin ess so h e h as d e c id e d to teach another
y e a r a n d save h is m o n ey . E a c h one en d s b y sa y in g , 'W e l l , I thought
I ’d teacb a n o th er y e a r , b u t I ’m p r e t t y su re th at anoth er y e a r w ill
fin d m e d o in g so m eth in g e ls e .’ S o m etim es h in ts are d r o p p e d about
sp le n d id o p p o r tu n itie s one is h o p in g to take u p — u su a lly based upon
c ir c u la r s fr o m life in su ran ce com panies. But e v e ry year i t ’ s the
sa m e o ld s t o r y .” B u t th e low sta r tin g salaries o f h usiness, a n d the j
f a c t th a t th e te a c h e r is b e g in n in g to w o rk u p in teach in g, m ake it
v e r y difficu lt f o r these y o u n g teach ers a c tu a lly to c a r r y th e ir plans
th ro u gh .
T e a c h e rs m ake a d eterm in ed fig h t, som etim es, a ga in st hecom ing

teach ers. T h e y o u n g e r ones are h orrified at the th o u g h t th a t i f they
go o n tea c h in g th ey m a y becom e like th e ir elder colleagu es. The
c y n ic a l V a n D r u te n m akes one o f h is y o u n g e r teach ers exp ress him
s e lf as fo llo w s :
“My God, Terry, are they all like that?”

“Most of them, more or less. Simmons is a hit worse than the average,
perhaps.”
“ Will yon he like that one day?”
‘ I hope not. That’s my one fear, that if I remain a school-master I shall
go the same way. They nearly all do.”
“ I know, hut you’re not going to remain a school-master.”
“How do you know?”
“ Oh, hut you’re not. You know you’re not. You know it’s only a temporary
thing with you."
“ That's what they all said once.”
“ Yes, but you’ll get to Camhridge. Or write.”
“ I expect most of them said that too."
“ Terry, how ghastly. What is it that makes them like that? What gives
them that . . . that domineering, self-conscious attitude of the pedagogue 1
that hangs around them like a halo?”
“I don’t know. Just being in authority perhaps. That, and the rut of it.
Never talking to anyhody but boys and other school-masters. Always having
to think o f dignity and position. I dare say Simmons wasn't sueb a bad
cbap once. H e ’s a crashing bore, o f course, and a self-satisfied prig, hut . . .” 1
T e a c h e r s ’ co n ven tion s u s u a lly h elp th e m o ra le o f th e teach er, fo r

th ey give h im a su h -g ro u p sanction f o r h is teach er m o r a lity . At
conferences ev ery teach er has an o p p o r tu n ity to m e e t person s who
are fa c in g the sam e tea ch in g p ro b lem s, a n d th e u su a l effect o f th eir
interchan ge is fa v o ra b le to a ll concerned. B u t som etim es th ere com es
ou t o f th e experien ce o f the co n feren ce a b itte r r e je c tio n of th e
id entification o f o n e ’s s e lf w ith o th er teach ers. One sees the others,
an d h ates to a d m it th a t he a n d th e y are o f th e sam e flesh.
I used to teach French. I imagine that tbe situation o f a man teaching

Freuch is particularly had when he goes to conferences because o f the
teriihly large percentage o f perfect wash-outs among the other men teachers
o f the subject. So I was always horribly shocked when I looked at a roomful
o f French teachers and realized that I was one o f them, that the world
classed me with them already, and that i f I kept on in my profession I would
be just like all the others. I used to be depressed fo r several days after
such an experience.
I delayed as long as I could hefore going to the meeting. But finally I had
to go, because it was necessary to fill out a card in order to be counted among
those present. I found the room at last, and went in, and this was the sight
that confronted me.
A frow sy little man is reading a paper. H e tells enthusiastically how to
teach students to pronounce French. H e dilates on the natural method o f
learning French. H e speaks of teaching objectives. W here have I heard all
this hefore? A nd how often, mutatis mutandis, will I hear it again? H e gets
a great thrill from making his speech, more than I get from listening to it.
I look around. They are the same people as last year. Here and there a new
face; the new ones look a little less hopeless than the older ones. I think
how many years I have been attending this section meeting, and I wonder
how I look to a newcomer. I take it all in. The pathetic women. The incredi
bly feminine men. There is the lame fellow who once tried to hold my hand.
H e is smiling at me hopefully. I pretend not to see him.
I hear their voices as from a great distance. They are still discussing
objectives. One woman has a clever device for making students understand
the difference hetween the accent aigu and the accent grave. She smirks as
she tells it. She sits down and smirks. So that is what she thinks about, is it?
A s i f I cared ahout her or the accent aigu.
These people are dead, I reflect. I wonder how long the body can live
when tbe mind has died.
l Van D m toil, Car], Young Woodley, p. 172. (Reprinted by pen .laaion of

Simun and Schuster.)
I reflect Hint in another sense, too, this is a charnel house. This, I say, ig
really the house of the dead. It is the burying place of dead hopes. All these
people had once high ambitions and bright prospects. The women to marry,
to love and be loved, to create and procreate. The reason for the unsuccess
is clear enough, as plain as the noses on their faces. The men, mingling with
all these lost souls of women in this petty hell, what did they once hope?
To teach French to hored and self-satisfied youngsters? I doubt it, but per
haps that is what men like these would want to do; I don’t know what they
would want to do, I am sure, and I care less. But. that is not fair; there is
defeat in the face of every person here.
I make bold to leave the room, hoping that no one will notice that I just
came a few moments before. I try to smooth it over hy looking at my watch
and pretending that I have an engagement. (Autobiographical document of
a man teacher.)
The very bitterness of the ahove narrative is an incident of the

writer’s violent reaction to being classed as a teacher. His way of
rejecting the school-teacher identification is to express his disgust
with the whole profession, hut his disgust also covers a real fear that
he will himself become like the other memhers of the group. The atti
tude of teachers toward teaching is conditioned hy the fact that many
teachers, and much of the community, regard teaching as a failure
helt. Even those teachers who proudly reject this notion sometimes
hetray themselves by their exaggerated respect and admiration for
business men and other "m en who are doing things."
The attitudes of teachers toward other teachers are striking marks
of the occupational character, and they operate as well to influence
the personality adjustment of new teachers. Of much interest arc
the conflicting and antithetical attitudes of teachers toward execu
tive officers whose duty it is to direct and supervise their lahors.
Attitudes of teachers toward executives are amhivalent. On the sur
face appears a loyalty that is highly intense and sometimes verges
upon sycophancy. Teachers often feel a very real gratitude to ad
ministrators who retain them in their positions. (Perhaps the grati
tude that is most outspoken is a ‘ ‘ lively anticipation of favors to he
received.") This attitude is fostered hy the executives themselves,
who rate the quality of loyalty to themselves very highly. There is
some justification for this attitude in executives, for the school head
is held responsible fo r the acts of his subordinates, and he must
therefore exact of them some respect for his personal wishes. There
are many names for loyalty and its opposite. The non-cooperative
teacher is usually the one who is disloyal to the superintendent. One
suspects that “ professional ethics,” a creation of executives for the

guidance o f subordinates, is really loyalty under another name. So
it is that teachers are usually obedient, and in some systems almost
slavishly so. But underneath this ohedience is a latent rehellion that
sometimes comes to the surface. Then are those quite unpredictable
“ rows” with the superintendent, those fallings out over trifles, which
alter the personnel of every school yearly, and then occur, too, those
intrigues whose purpose it is to oust the executive from his job. But
teachers who are not loyal must be very guarded in their utterances,
must approach carefully those whom they suspect of like disaffection,
and must close all windows before conspiring. From the guardedness
with which dissatisfaction must usually he expressed arises part of
that undue caution in speech which is thought one of the marks of
the teacher. A hold speaker is much admired hut he rarely stays long
in the same place.
The mental operations of teachers and of school executives display
some striking differences. The intellectual and verhal facility of
executives is prohahly less than that of teachers of equivalent train
ing, hut their ideas, though more limited in scope, have a much closer
connection with reality. Elements of social selection and of situational
molding enter into the explanation of these differences. "We may think
of the contrast between ahle classroom teachers and executives partly
in terms of the ancient contrast hetween talkers and doers. I f talkers
are proverhially no great doers, then doers are not talkers either,
and there must be something in the fundamental economy of the situ
ation that makes it so. The great artist does not talk about art hut
practices it; the great scientist does not prate ahout concepts hut
uses them. College professors are the greatest talkers in the world,
but they are no bind of doers at all. Perhaps all persons could he
rauged in a series according to the complexity of the configura
tions into which their world is organized; this would prohahly cor
respond roughly to the inverse order of the stahility of the
configurations. Simple and stahle configurations would likewise he
relatively easy of access. Doers, then, would he those whose world
is contained in many simple configurations, all relatively accessible.
Doers know how to manipulate their environment, hut they do not
find in it much that is worth talking ahout. Talkers, hy virtue of the
greater complexity and instability of their world, hy virtue, as well,
of their greater difficulty of inducing their subtle and intricate con
figurations to materialize, are notoriously slow and ill-organized doers.
The needs of executive work select out doers; and, within limits, use
d evelops ex ecu tiv es in to doers. T h ere are m a n y p erson s o f m id d le sort

whose n a tu r a l b en t m a y be in clin ed eith er w a y ; e ith er th e constant
str a in to v e rb a lize subtle co n figu ra tio n s ca n m ak e th em th eorists, or
th e press o f a m u ltitu d e o f n ew situ a tio n s to be m e t ca n m ak e them
in to executives.
T h e cleavage betw een th e execu tive a n d th e th eoretica l m e n ta lity
is a v e r y clear one. I t is o fte n difficu lt fo r the tw o to establish an
u n d e rsta n d in g . T h e ex ecu tiv e p resen ts a sim p le ta sk as i f its ac
com p lish m en t w o u ld str a in the fa c u ltie s o f th e oth er p erso n to the
u tm o st, a n d th e th eorist is p u zzle d an d a n n o yed . (T h is m ech an ism is
illu str a te d in the rela tio n s o f fa t h e r and son in Clayhanger, by
B r n o Id B e n n e t t .) T h e th eorist m u st en g ag e in an endless discussion,
w ith m a n y an d to rtu o u s co m p lex ities, b efore a r r iv in g at a decision
r e g a r d in g a p o lic y , and th is lea ves the ex ecu tiv e, a ccu sto m ed to
p ra g m a tism a n d th e m a in chance, p u zzled a n d a little ou t o f patience.
L e t it be p e r fe c tly clear th a t w e h a v e no w ish to d isp arage execu
tiv e m e n ta lity . I t is an u n co m m o n g if t o f con sid erab le social u tility ,
a n d u su a lly it d eserves th e g re a te r p a r t o f the rew a rd s w h ich it gets.
T h is is esp ec ia lly tru e o f execu tive a b ility in, its h ig h e r reaches, o f
th a t a b ility w h ich enables its possessor to m a n ip u la te co m p le x p e r
sons. T h e ex ecu tiv e ca n c a r r y a loa d o f re sp o n sib ility u n d e r w h ich a
less b a la n c e d p e rso n a lity w o u ld d isin te g ra te . H e can resist th e cease
less h a m m e r in g o f details.
E x e c u tiv e s w ho h ave b een teach ers em p lo y , as m ig h t be expected,
th e sam e sort o f tech n iq u es in c o n tr o llin g u n d er-te ac h ers th a t they
once fo u n d effective in th e classroom . U n d er-tea c h ers, likew ise, b u ild
u p th e sam e so rt o f co n trol over th em th a t stu d e n ts are able to exert
o ver teach ers. A y o u n g p ra ctic e teach er declares th a t h is su pervisor
n e v e r ca tch es h im u n re a d y because h is beh a vior a lw a y s b e tr a y s an
im p e n d in g v isit. O n m o rn in g s w h en a v isit is to be ex p ected , the
su p e r v iso r does n o t exch an ge g re etin g s w ith t h e y o u n g n o v i c e ; on
o th er m o r n in g s he speaks fo r m a lly . I n a v e r y te a ch e rly m a n n er, then,
th e su p erviso r h a rd en s h is h eart w ith social d istan ce b efore he strikes.
T h a t n u m ero u s trib e o f tea ch ers w h o striv e to in g ra tia te th em selves
b y fin d in g o u t w h a t p o lic y th e execu tive h ead fa v o r s a n d th e n p ro
p o sin g it h as also its a n alogu e in th e c la ssr o o m ; a m o n g stu d e n ts such
b eh a vior is “ c h is e llin g .” I t needs to be sa id th a t th is m a g iste r ia l tech
n iq u e f a lls sh o rt o f p e r fe c tio n w h en it is tra n sm u te d in to executive
p o lic y .
M o st school execu tives have le a rn e d th a t g ro u p s o f teachers are
difficu lt to h an d le. T h e reason fo r th is is p a r tly th a t the teach er grow s
TEACHEE TYPES; THE TEAGHEE STEEEOTYPE, ETC. 427
a ccu stom ed to h a v in g his ow n w a y i n the classroom , a n d p a r tly t h a t

h is a ttitu d e to w a r d the a d m in istr a tio n is u s u a lly a m b iv a le n t. The
< slig h test m istak e o f a n in c o m in g execu tive is o fte n enough to lose
h im th e su p p o r t o f th e en tire fa c u lt y . .P a r tic u la r ly difficu lt is th e
situ ation o f a n ex ecu tiv e su cc eed in g a p o p u la r m a n o r a m a n w h o
h as allow ed th e a u th o rity o f h is office to slip th ro u g h h is fin gers.
T h e new ex ecu tiv e m u st g u a r d h is speech, cle a rly , a n d m ak e su re
th a t h is n ew p o licies are n o t m isu n d ersto o d . S w e e p in g ch a n ges a re
p ro b a b ly m ore difficu lt th a n g r a d u a l ones, fo r in the slow er p ro cess
th e ex ecu tiv e is able to c a r r y h is g ro u p w ith h im . B u t a n y ch a n ge
is lik e ly to leave one or tw o fa c u lty m e m b e rs i n r e v o lt a g a in st i t ;
fr o m th en o n these person s are isola te d f r o m th e o n m o v in g cu rren t,
and th e y sta n d o u t lik e th ose h a rd rocks w h ich th e sea c u ts off fr o m
the la n d . S om e ex ecu tiv es h a v e le a rn e d to use w ith th e g re a test d e x
te r ity th e tech n iq u e o f deferen ce a n d w illin g n e ss to discu ss. An
execu tive w h o is r e a d y to receive id eas fr o m su bord in ates, or to lea ve
qu estion s o f p o lic y to be decided b y those su b o rd in ates i n d iscu ssion
g ro u p s, is o fte n able to g a th e r a b ou t h im a v e r y en th u siastic f a c u l t y ;
the e x p la n a tio n is sim p le , fo r each fa c u lt y m e m b e r is en th u siastic
because he fe els th a t he is r e a lly the m a in sta y o f th e a d m in istra tio n .
Th is tech n iq u e, how ever, m ay lea d to very b itte r q u a rrels w h en
r e a l differen ces b etw een teach er a n d ex ecu tiv e arise. W h e n there is '
e x cep tion a lly b itte r d isag reem en t b etw een th e m e m b ers o f th e g ro u p ,
| adroit ex ecu tiv es con trive to g et th e su b je c t d ro p p ed a n d d e la y d e
cision u n til fe e lin g h as su b sid ed . B u t an execu tive m a k es a bad
b lu n d e r w h e n he su bm its a m a tte r fo r d iscu ssion a m o n g h is te a c h
ers, and th en a llo w s it to becom e a p p a re n t, w h en h is d ec ision
is ren d ered , th a t th e w ish es a n d op in io n s o f th e teach ers h av e n o t
been con sid ered . S om e execu tives co m m it the in cred ib le stu p id ity o f
h old in g a d iscu ssion a ft e r a decision h as a lrea d y been reach ed. T h e
ex ecu tiv e w h o ex p ects to p ro fit m o st fr o m discu ssion o f school m a t
ters b y h is teach ers m u st allow th ose a d visers to be p e r fe c tly fr e e in
th eir th in k in g . M o s t execu tives are n o t so m u ch in terested in g e ttin g
w isdom th ro u g h discu ssion as in k eep in g th eir teach ers in a good
h u m o r ; so m etim es th is is best done b y a n a d roit m a n ip u la tio n o f th e
discu ssion w h ich p erm its clever m em b ers of the fa c u lt y to seize
upon the e x e c u tiv e ’s u n spoken v iew s a n d reflect th e m b a ck u p o n h im ,
o ften a process o f w h ich both execu tive a n d sy co p h a n t tea ch er are
n o t f u l l y con sciou s. Som e executives, too, m a n ip u la te th e situ a tio n
b y g iv in g a b iased statem en t o f f a c t ; b u t th is is d a n g ero u s. I t sh ou ld
be ad d ed th a t the best use o f discu ssion a llow s each fa c u lt y m e m b e r
428 THE SOCIOLOGY O r TEACHING
to state h is v ie w and to fe e l th a t h e is p a r tic ip a tin g in a fin al de

cision , b u t p erm its th e execu tive to preserve th e p rero g a tiv e o f a
fin al decision. A s hetween teach er a n d ex ecu tiv e, there a p p ea rs a
con sid erab le a m o u n t o f m a n ip u la tio n o f th e execu tive h y the te a c h e r ;
th e tech n iq u e o f th is v a ries fr o m th a t o f th e c lin g in g v in e w h o asks
fo r m u c h ad vice to th at o f the m o st suhtle a n d sop h isticated sycophan t.
An endless su b je c t, h u t one w h ich ca n n ot here receive endless
tre a tm e n t, is th a t o f th e relation o f the teach er to h is colleagues.
T each ers are a closed g ro u p , a d o m in a n t g ro u p , w ith the m o r a lity of
th e d o m in a n t g r o u p ; y e t th ey are e n g ag ed in r iv a lr y , a n d are cu t off
fr o m con tact w ith each other hy th a t r iv a lr y ; the school-teacher
stereo ty p e cu ts dow n y e t fu r th e r th eir in tim a c y w ith each other,
th e w h ile i t th ro w s th e m hack u p o n each other fo r c o m p a n y ; close
association i n th e ir w o rk th ro w s th em into co n stan t con tact, h u t the
restrictio n s im p o sed b y th e situ a tio n p r e v e n t the co m p leten ess o f in
tim a c y . These are some o f the m o re im p o rta n t ph ases o f the relations
ofl teach ers to each other.
T h e tea ch in g g ro u p d em an d s th e ex clu siv e lo y a lty o f all its m em
bers. A s one execu tive h as ph rased it, th e fa c u lt y is lik e a ru lin g
cah in et, a ll o f whose m em h ers m u s t stan d or f a l l togeth er. I f dis
agreem en ts a p p ear am on g the m e m h ers o f th e fa c u lt y , as th ey m ust,
th e g ro u p m o r a lity d em an d s th a t o u tsid ers sh all n o t be ad m itted to
those disagreem ents. T h ere is a code o f “ in stitu tio n a l h e h a v io r,”
w h ich im poses u p o n its m em h ers th e m o st r ig id r e str ic tio n s; it is a
code w h ich h as its n iceties a n d its suhtle p o in ts w h ich w e cannot
a rg u e o u t here. B u t w e can con sid er th e m a in o u tlin es o f th a t code.
T each ers m u st n o t speak ill o f th eir colleagu es in th e presence of
stu d en ts, n o r m u st th ey p e rm it stu d e n ts to criticize th eir colleagues
to them . T h is is a ru le to w h ich a d m in istra to rs m ake excep tion s con
sta n tly , a n d i t h as its lim its outside w h ich it does n ot a p p ly . The
reason fo r the ru le is th a t one teach er who sy m p a th ize s w ith stu
d en ts in th eir d isagreem ents w ith h is colleagu es can h reak th a t circle
o f reen fo rcem en t o f each b y each u p o n w h ich tea ch er dom ination
rests. N o t o n ly is it n o t m o r a lity to hase o n e ’s ju d g m e n t o f a fellow
teacher upon, th e opin ion s o f stu d en ts, h u t it is n o t good p o lic y , fur
n o th in g is m ore u n reliab le th a n s tu d e n ts ’ re p o rts co n cern in g teach
ers ; th ey are n o t a lw ay s tr u th fu l, th e y n e a r ly a lw a y s reflect a n in
com p lete com p rehen sion o f the te a c h e r’s a ction , a n d in a n y case they
are in v a ria h ly ju d g m e n ts fr o m the p o in t o f view o f the student,
w hich d iffers r a d ica lly fr o m th a t o f th e teach er. E x e c u tiv e s have
been k n ow n to use ce rta in stu d en ts as stoo l-p ig eo n s fo r the purpose
TEACHER TYPES; THE TEACHER STEREOTYPE, ETC.
o f s p y in g ou t th e b eh avior o f su b o rd in a te s; th is i s open to n u m ero u s

objection s fr o m the p o in t o f view o f in -g r o u p m o r a lity , a n d to th is
one oh jectio n orien tated fr o m th e p o in t o f v ie w o f com m on sense,
th at one whose sta tu s d ep en d s u p o n m a k in g a n d r e p o r tin g im p o rta n t
discoveries m a y rep o rt such discoveries w ith o u t m a k in g th em .
B u t a s a tisfa cto ry eth ical fo r m u la fo r r e g u la tin g th e relation s o f
m em hers o f the p ro fession has b y no m e a n s heen ev olv ed . S h o u ld the
su b o rd in ation o f the teach er to th e execu tive be c o m p le te ? If it
should n ot he (a n d th e p resen t w rite r m o st em p h a tic a lly does n o t
believe th at it sh ou ld h e ) , h ow can u n a n im ity o f a ctio n he secured
in th e school ? W h a t ethics sh ou ld g o v ern the in ev ita b le d isag reem en ts
o f teacher a n d execu tive ? I f a fin al h reak is reached, w h a t is th e ethics
o f reco m m en d ation ? (T h is is a p o in t on w h ich a co n ve n tion is so re ly
n eed ed .) I n th e case o f th e m in o r ex ecu tiv e, w h ich sh ou ld h e d o m i
nant, a d m in istrative lo y a lt y or tea ch er-g ro u p lo y a lty ? (D o d ean s, fo r
instance, h a n g w ith teach ers or w ith a d m in istr a to r s?)
T h e r iv a lr y o f teach ers is k een a n d o fte n h itter. T h e p rizes o f co m
petition are p osition s, increases in sa la ry , a n d th e good o p in io n o f
those p ersons u p o n w h o m ad va n cem en t dep en d s. W h e r e ed u ca tio n is
th ou gh t o f as a process o f lea rn in g specific fa c ts, the r iv a lr y o f tea ch
ers o fte n cu lm in ates in h itter con flicts over th e r ig h t to im p a r t cer
tain su h jec t m a tte r to stu den ts. R iv a lr y over su h je c t m a tte r an d
the m anner in w h ich it is im p a rted com es to lig h t also in th e insisten ce
o f teach ers o f a ll levels th a t th eir stu d en ts h a v e n ot been p r o p e r ly
prepared. In te rd e p a rtm e n ta l m o r a lity arises as a co rrective to th is
riv a lry in h eren t in th e situ ation . I n the pro gressive school, r iv a lr y
concerns the in itia tio n o f n ew policies a n d a d m in istra tiv e devices.
In the h ig h ly stab ilized school, a n in ten se r iv a lr y sp rin g s u p in the
enforcem en t o f the statu s quo. A hreach o f d iscip lin e is ohserved h y
several p e r s o n s ; each, o f them m o v es q u ic k ly in ord er to be the p e r
son fr o m w h om th e correction com es. A n d w h en all are on th e spot
th ey vie w ith each oth er in the a tte m p t to sa y the m o st relev a n t and
poin ted tilin g , each str iv in g to d istin g u ish h im se lf h y h ein g th e one
who h as r e a lly dealt a d e q u a te ly w ith th is p a r tic u la r offender. A l l
m em hers o f the fa c u lty o f such a sta b ilized sch o ol are on the a lert
fo r the detection o f n ew evasions o f the ru le s, a n d th ey b r in g these
to the a tten tion o f a u th orities w ith zest. I t is n e v e r a n y d istin ction to
report a large n u m h er o f cases o f d iscip lin e in a g ro u p fo r w h ich one'
is solely responsible (a s the class or the s tu d y h a l l ) , h u t it is u su a lly
true th a t o n e ’s alertness fo r offences a g a in st th e g en eral ord er is
som ething o f a m easu re o f h is g en eral efficiency. T h e en fo rc e m e n t o f
the status quo becomes a way of life, and it is buttressed by a philoso.

phy. “ A punch in reserve, that’s my motto,” said a belligerent en-
forcer, knowing well it was a pose that would pr-ofit him greatly, feel
ing also that it was a virtuous thought. Rivalry in this rises to a high
point in the stabilized school. Sometimes the teachers, informally
and with an appearance of jesting, keep score. Different status-get-
ting mechanisms are in vogue in different groups. On college faculties
the pose most in favor is one of broad-mindedness. The conversation
of a certain group of younger sociologists is composed chiefly of
the boasts of the members concerning their utter freedom from race
prejudice. On another plane is the glorified iguorance of critical
minds.
As a point of pride, and as a means of defending their own posi
tions, teachers in the stabilized school become very jealous of the
prerogative which goes with such position as they may have, Disputes
over jurisdiction sunder such a faculty frequently, and with each new
dispute there occurs a new alignment of faculty friends and enemies.
Sometimes serious cases of discipline are not dealt with because of
disputes over the right to prosecute. A description of a faculty row
occurs in Young W oodley:
Having dispatched Riley to the sir.krrtom and the housemaid to the matron,
Plunkett went straight to the Head, Rateliffe, summoned to conference, was
bitterly indignant. Riley was in his House, a disgrace to it, but none the less
a memher of it and the fact that the venue of the crime was Plunkett’s did
not, in liis eyes, excuse Plunkett from coming to him first. He resented
Plunkett’s direct appeal to the Head, not merely as a breach of etiquette,
hut as a personal affront, a deliberate act of spite. He found himself almost
defending Riley. He went to Simmons and Blakcney, and enlisted them on
his side in censuring Plunkett’s action. Of the penalty for the offence there
was no douht; Riley’s expulsion was inevitable. But the technique of the
matter caused a decided split in the Common Room. Once again there was
a shuffling of cards, a re-grouping of allies; enemies in old feuds found them
selves on the same side in this. Simmons and Plunkett, cordially united in
the affair of bounds last term, were now frigid adversaries. In a few weeks
something else would arise and involve a further readjustment, hut, while
this lasted, feeling ran high.’
Rivalry, which cuts teachers off from each other, and the con
stant hunger for shop talk, which brings them together, are dis
tinctive features of the society of school teachers. The lack of spon
taneous and whole-hearted participation, the formalization of the
1 Van Drutan, Oarl, Young Woodley, p. 116. (Reprinted by permission of
Simon and Schuster.)
TEACHER TYPES; THE TEACHER STEREOTYPE, ETC. 43 I
cerem onies o f respect, th e g u a r d s w h ich are set u p o n the lip s, th e

co n stan t concern over d ig n ity a n d p re ro g a tiv e — a ll these th in g s o p er
ate to m ake th e society o f teach ers g e n e ra lly ra th e r d isa p p o in tin g .
O n e observer h as p u t it th is w a y ; “ W h e n a grou p o f p ro fe sso rs g e t
tog eth er, each one o f th em listen s o n ly to w h a t h e sa ys, a n d th e n
sits still an d th in k s o f w h a t h e is g o in g to sa y n e s t. N o b o d y listen s
to w h at the o th er fe llo w has to sa y. O n e ju s t look s a t the oth er f e l
lo w and n od s p o lite ly fr o m tim e to tim e . B u t one is r e a lly w a itin g
f o r a chance to g et in h is ow n r e m a r k s .” T h e sca th in g H e n r y A d a m s
has ch aracterized the society o f teach ers as fo llo w s :
The same failure marked the society of a college. Several score of the best-
educated, most agreeable, and personally the most sociable people in America
united in Cambridge to make a social desert that would have starved a polar
hear. The liveliest and most agreeahle of men—James Russell Lowell, Francis
J. Child, Louis Agassiz, his son Alexander, Gurney, John Fiske, Wilham
James, and a dozen others, who would havo made the joy of London or
Paris—tried their hest to break out and he like other men in Camhridge
and Boston, but society called them professors and professors they had to be.
While all these brilliant men were greedy for companionship, all were
famished for want of it. Society was a faculty-meeting without business.1
I t is n o t easy to r e tu rn a sa tisfa c to ry an sw er to th e qu estion , 1‘ W h y
do teach ers ta lk s h o p ? ” T h e f a c t th a t th ey do h as som etim es been
cited a s one o f the w holesom e an d h o p e fu l th in g s about the p ro fe ssio n .
F r o m one p o in t o f view th is in cessan t p reo cc u p a tio n o f teachers w ith
tea ch in g is h o p e fu l, fo r it a rgu es th at th e task o f fo r m in g th e y o u n g
is one o f g reat in trin sic interest. T h is it c e rta in ly is, an d teachers, w ho
hold the fa te o f th e g en eration s in th eir h an ds, h av e a rig h t t o talk
about th eir w ork. B u t p a r tly also the u n w illin g n ess o f teach ers to
talk a b ou t a n y th in g b u t tea ch in g betokens an u n h e a lth y n a rro w in g
o f th e ir m e n ta l horizon. T h e teacher m u st, i f he is to u n d ersta n d ch il
dren, rem a in con versan t w ith the v a lu es o f th e m e n ta l u n iv erse o f
childhood, b u t he m u st also, i f h e is to r e ta in his o w n m e n ta l h ealth ,
keep a stron g h old u p o n the a d u lt w o rld as w ell. M any younger
teachers, w h en th ey are th ro w n in to a grou p o f teach ers w h o live
teaching, brea th e tea ch in g , dream teach in g, an d h ave tea ch in g a s a
garn ish fo r every m eal, u n d ergo a p erso n a l deg en eration som etim es
called “ the red u ction o f p e r s o n a lity .” T h e red u ction o f p e rso n a lity
resu lts fr o m th e tra n sitio n fr o m a w id e an d stim u la tin g ra n g e o f
contacts to a m u ch n a rro w er atten tiorial fie ld ; a loss o f fa ith in
1 The Education o f Henry Adams, p. 307. (Reprinted by permission o f

Houghton Mifflin Company.)
su b tle r a n d less ea sily accessible p ersonal sa tisfa ctio n s, a regression

to w a r d th e elem en tal, an in n er g r ie f a n d lo n g in g fo r th e th in g s that
w ere, covered h y an o u tw a rd cy n icism o f th e m o st ca llou s a n d bru tal
s o r t ; these are som e o f the p h en om en a th ou g h t to he associated w ith
th e re d u ctio n o f p erso n a lity . The red u ction o f p e r so n a lity occurs
a m o n g teach ers w h en th ey leave th e b r illia n t w o r ld o f college fo r
th e m ore p rosaic w o rld in w h ich th e y are to teach. O n a n oth er level
it occu rs w h en one d ep a rts fr o m g ra d u a te sc h o o l; som etim es, when
one en ters it. T h is is w h a t sets the u ltim a te lim it to th e a m o u n t of
s h o p -ta lk in w h ich teach ers can in d u lg e w ith o u t in c u r r in g those
v ic io u s tissu e-ch a n ge s th at go w ith overin d u lgen cc.
Y e t B a g le y , an d f o r th e m o st excellen t o f reasons, advises that
tea ch ers cu ltiv a te the c r a ft s p irit, tu r n in g in w ard u p o n th eir own
g ro u p fo r su p p o r t a n d en cou ragem ent.
On the other hand, sympathetic intercourse with fellow-workers will con

stantly emphasize the craft spirit— the most priceless possession of the
teacher, and the possession that he is most likely to lose in the earlier stages
of his career. His effort should he to keep the craft spirit alive at all hazards.
He should constantly look upon his work as professional service, and upon
himself as an initiate into the privileges of that service. The free association
of kindred minds will do more to keep this craft spirit alive than anything
else. A ny form of social service must be dreary, discouraging work if the
tasks that it imposes are not attacked with enthusiasm. In many cities one
may find little coteries of teachers that gather together at stated intervals
for the purpose (not always avowed) o f cultivating the craft spirit, of keep
ing alive enthusiasm in the work. From these meetings the pessimist, the
malcontent, the teacher ashamed of his calling, and the teacher who works
with his eyes upon the clock and his mind upon pay day, are all rigidly
excluded. No better lot can befall the beginning teacher than to become
identified with one of these guilds— for guilds they are, although not always
consciously: There he will find the comfort that really cheers, the advice that
really helps, the idealism that really inspires. And there, too, he will receive
his due share hoth o f the praise that will not puff him up, and of the hlame
that will not cast him down. But above all, lie will learn from Ihis intercourse
that the trials and troubles are not his alone, that many of them are intrinsic
in the very nature of his calling, and that the safest and sanest policy is to
look upon them as problems of the day’s work— problems to he studied in
sober reflection, and solved with dispassionate judgment,1
B a g le y h as p resen ted the a rg u m e n t fo r th e in -g ro u p o f teachers
'B a g l e y , W . C ., Classroom M a n a g em en t, p p . 1 0 0 ff . ( R e p r in t e d b y p e r m is s io n
o f T h e M a c m illa n C o m p a n y .)
m ost alily in th is elo q u en t an d sym p a th etic passage. The p resen t

w riter can agree to all th a t B a g le y sa y s i f th e slio p -talk o f th e teach
ers is lim ite d in a m ou n t a n d d o es n o t d ev ou r the w hole social ex p eri
ence o f the teacher. The teacher m u st,' indeed, ta lk w ith o th ers whose
w ork su sp en d s them hetw een the tw o w o rld s o f a d u lt and ch ild , and
he can find sy m p a th etic com prehen sion o f his efforts o n ly in such a
grou p. But con tin u ou s sh op -ta lk becom es sterile, and it does n ot
nourish th e m in d th at fe e d s u p on it, Th e teacher n eed s to b elo n g to
m an y other gro u p s w here his tea ch in g p erso n a lity does n o t en ter, and
those other gro u p s m u st contest th e possession o f h is m in d liy teach
in g as d e te rm in e d ly as does h is w ife . These o th er g r o u p s sh ou ld
ce rta in ly p repon d erate over the tea ch in g g ro u p in n u m b e r a n d in
the a m o u n t o f tim e g iv en to them . L o d g e w ork, ch u rch w ork, lite r a r y
w ork or esthetic ach ievem en t, se lf-c u ltiv a tio n in lin es u n con n ected
w ith teach in g, the self-d iscip lin e in v o lv ed in th e care and tr a in in g o f
p ro g en y , the absorbin g in terests o f cou rtsh ip , tr a in in g in; the h a n
dling of ideas, k eep in g in fo r m e d on q u estion s o f p u b lic in terest,
active a n d p ersiste n t p a rtic ip a tio n in c o m m u n ity a ffa irs and com
m u n ity con flicts— some o f these, n o t a ll, fo r a teach er need n o t he a
dilettan te, should absorb th e te a c h e r ’s atten tion a fte r he h as p u t in
a fu ll d a y ’s w o rk in th e classroom . T h e y w ill be th e best possible
p ro p h y la c tic s aga in st d egen eration into a m ere occu pation al typ e.
The teacher w ho sp en d s his en ergies f u lly in th e m a in stream o f the
social process need not fe a r, i f h e tries to fo llo w a rea son a b ly en
ligh tened m ode o f classroom p roced u re, th a t his classroom w o rk w ill
m ark h im u n fa v o ra b ly . P e rh a p s fe w com m u n ities at p resen t w ill leave
their teach ers fre e to in d u lg e in all these a ctiv ities w ith ou t criticism
and w ith ou t in terferen ce. I f th is be tru e , as it ce rta in ly is, it loom s
up as the n ex t ta s k o f the tea ch in g p ro fession to hew its w a y re le n t
lessly th ro u g h th e social in h ib ition s w h ich su rrou n d it. A n d th is is
not s im p ly a stru g g le fo r person al lib e r ty , h u t a stru g g le to he whole
men, an d th at concerns th e first an d final p u rp ose o f all ed u ca tio n ,
fo r o n ly w hole m en can educate w h ole boys.
O b serv ation o f p e rso n a lity ch an ges in y o u n g person s ju s t b eg in n in g
to teach w ill help u s to u n d ersta n d th e process o f o ccu p a tio n al m o ld
ing. S in ce th e a d ap ta tio n o f p e rso n a lity to tea ch in g tak es place
ra p id ly , its true n a tu re m a y elu de research th a t does n o t concern
itse lf w ith the first fe w w eeks o f tea ch in g experien ce. The fo llo w in g
docu m en t, east in the fo r m o f co n versa tio n s w ith an older teach er,
illu strates som e str ik in g h u t ty p ic a l ch an ges o f a tt it u d e :
Before school began:

“ I ’m going to like teaching. I ’m an idealist. I believe that this course I am
giving is o f considerable importance to these youngsters and I ’m going to
give them everything I can. Teaching ought to be fu n .’ ’
“ You may not find it enjoyable,” said his friend. “ Your enthusiasm may
not stand up forever under the strain o f saying over and over things so
elementary that they have lost their significance fo r you. A nd your idealism
may he rudely jarred when you find yourself in antagonistic relations with
your students. That is, i f you allow yourself to come into such relationships
with them.”
A fter one week of teaching:

“I enjoy teaching. I get a great tic k out o f standing up in front o f these
boys and heing the oracle. That gratifies the old ego in great shape.”
“ I t ’s nice that you enjoy i t ."
A fter six weeks of teaching :

“ I did something this morning and I want you to tell me whether I did
right or wrong. I got so tired o f talking to that hunch o f mine and looking at
their stupid faces. Here I am working myself to death to give them a good
course, and they hardly hother to listen. I tell you, it gripes me. And I ’ve
had a couple o f fellows in there who are repeating the course and they are
always trying to make trouble. W ell, this morning when I turned to write on
the board, somehody let out a great big yawn. I don’t know whu it was, hut
I think it was one o f those fellows.
“ W ell, that just set me off, and I turned around and I let ’em have it. l.
I asked them what they’d think o f a fellow who went down here to Hansen’s
and bought a five-pound box o f candy, paid for it, le ft it in the store, and
then went around bragging to everyhody about the five-pound box o f candy
he had in the store. I told him that was what a fellow did who came to
college and paid out his good money and never tried to learn anything.
“ Further, ahout the noise, I told them that the next fellow that did that
was going to be dealt with severely. I told them that I would kick him out of
class and flunk him in the course. I said, ‘ G od'h elp the fellow i f I catch
him.’ Did I do right 1”
“ You did not. You antagonized the whole group. Y o u lost your own poise, j
Y ou made a threat, and a threat is a challenge. Now my idea is that one

should never threaten. One should find one guilty person, and i f necessary
punish him. But one should never antagonize a group. One should rather use
strategy to avert antagonism. A nd one should never threaten a group. That’s
a sure way to create disorder.”
A fter three months of teaching:

“ W ell, I helieve that from our discussions I ’ve learned a fundamental prin
ciple o f human management. The way to get cooperation is just to take it.
TEACHES TYPES; THE TEACHES STEREOTYPE, ETC. 435
Now when I came here I believed that a teacher could get the cooperation of
his students by asking for it and hy being willing to help them all he could.
1 think I understand better now. You just have to go in and manage things.”
(Condensed and arranged from a record of conversations with a beginning
teacher.)
O h servah le in th is d o cu m en t a r e :
(1 ) E a r ly p leasu re in the teach in g role and expan sion o f th e ego

in a d a p tin g to it, fo llo w e d h y d isa p p o in tm e n t a n d ego fr u s tr a
tio n th ro u g h hostile a ttitu d es o f stu d e n ts a n d the d isco very o f
th e lim ita tio n s o f the role.
(2 ) E n th u sia sm fa d in g u n d e r th e a tta ck o f n on -coop eration an d
rep etition .
(3 ) D issa tisfa c tio n w ith stu d e n ts g ro w in g o u t o f the fa c t th a t
th a t w h ich h as heen ta u g h t m a n y tim es te n d s to be im p a rte d
im p a tie n tly .
(4 ) T h e n ecessities o f d iscip lin e d isc ip lin in g sp o n ta n eity ou t o f
the teacher.
(5 ) G r o w in g in sig h t an d c o n fo r m ity to th e tea ch in g n o rm in flu
enced h y the older colleague.
(6 ) F a llin g into the con venien t, lo g ic a lly d efen sible ru t o f th e
p rofession .
C ertain m a rk ed con trasts betw een p erso n a lities o f ex perien ced an d

in experienced teach ers are th e fo llo w in g :
1. T h e p erson w h o has ju s t started tea ch in g experien ces a co n
siderable ego exp an sion in h is w ork, w h ereas the do m in a n t tone o f
the experien ced teacher is p ro b a b ly opposite.
2. T h e m ore experienced teacher is m ore in clin ed to resent th e in
trusion o f h is in stitu tio n a l u p o n h is p riv a te p erso n a lity th an is the
b eg in n in g teacher.
3. D isc ip lin e is m ore o f a p roh lem , th ou gh n ot recognized as such,
to the b e g in n in g teacher.
4. A n e w teach er is m ore lik e ly to h ave an id ealistic con ception
o f the stu d en t-teach er relation sh ip th an is an o ld e r teacher.
5. T h e n ew teacher is m u ch less in h ih ited in h is h ah its o f social
expression th an is the older teacher, i.e., he talk s w ith stu d en ts often er,
longer, a n d m ore in tim a te ly , a n d ex p la in s h im se lf m ore th an an older
teacher.
6. S tu d e n ts are m ore sign ifican t as person s to the n ew teacher. Th e
d isto rtin g influence o f the d ire ctin g , m a n a g in g role is less a p p aren t.
7. T h e y o u n g teacher is less lik e ly to he in v o lv e d in riv a lries w ith
436 TH!5 SOCIOLOGY OP TEACHING
colleagu es th a n the older teacher. The fiercely riv a lro u s attitude

to w a r d colleagu es is a late a d ju stm e n t, o fte n r eq u irin g ten years
or m ore fo r its com p letion .
8. T h e execu tive role e a r ly p ro d u ces effects u p o n the teacher, but
these effects are at first fa v ora b le to gen eral social a d ju stm e n t, con
sistin g o f an elim in ation o f childish m o b ility o f countenance and a
grow th o f decisiveness in m eetin g situ ation s. T h is elim in ation o f ex
p ression la ter grow s to im passiven ess, and tbe decisiveness, w ith tbe
increase b y experience o f p r e -ju d g m e n t o f situ ation s, to inflexibility.
9. T b e in itia l pleasure o f the teacher in the tea ch in g role endures
th ro u g h o u t the p eriod in w h ich tea ch in g h ab its are being form ed.
D u r in g th is p e rio d the w o rk o f teach in g fu r n ish e s n e a r ly the entire
co n ten t o f consciousness, and is atten ded to alm ost exclu sively. A s
h ab its recede fr o m the consciousness w ith in creasin g p erfection , satis
fa c tio n fa d e s, a n d d isconten t grows.' T h is gen etic a n alysis o f teacher
discon ten t p o in ts to w ard r o u tin iza tio n as one o f its m a jo r sources.
1 0. T b e s h ift o f allegian ce fr o m tb e s tu d e n t g ro u p to tb e teacher
g ro u p tak es p lac e g ra d u a lly o ver a p erio d o f m on ths.
T h e stu d y o f y o u n g persons d o in g tb eir p ra ctic e teach in g w ill prove
p a r tic u la r ly rew a rd in g . Th e c r y sta lliza tio n o f occu p a tio n al attitudes
m a y p ro gress fa r b efore the co m p letion o f th is p relim in a ry training.
A le r t y ou n gsters m a y acquire p e n e tra tin g k n ow led ge, th ou gh lim ited
b y its basic orien tation , in a fe w w eeks o f su ch fo rcib le learn ing. Tbe
value o f such experiences cou ld be g re a tly increased b y concurrent
in stru ctio n d irected at g iv in g social insigh t. T b e con servatism o f the
p ro fession , fu rth e r, is in p a rt due to pressure o f th e attitu d es o f ex
perienced teachers u p on the u n fo rm e d novice, and y e t these expe
rienced persons w h o consent to ta lk to n eop h ytes serve an im p ortan t
fu n c tio n . I t is su ggested, th erefore, th a t p ra ctic e-tea c h in g institution s
a p p oin t en ligh ten ed an d p rogressive teachers to serve as cicerones to
y ou n gsters ; it w ou ld be th eir fu n c tio n to p oin t out to n ew teachers
the p r in c ip a l lan dm arks o f the social w o rld o f school, an d to assist
the n ew teacher to fo rm fo rw a rd -lo o k in g rath er than excessively
con servative attitudes.
Th e in v o lu tio n o f tbe teacher is o f equ al scientific im portan ce. This
is illu strated am ong teachers w h o have ch an ged th eir p ro fe ssio n or
retired . T here is, it seems, a ra p id fa d in g o f the m e n ta l con ten t of
tea ch in g su b je c t m atter, so th at tbe teacher w h o h as been out o f the
classroom a fe w m onths can no lon ger r e c a ll the th in g s which were
once on the end o f bis tongue. T b e co m p lex m ental a d ju stm e n ts on
TEACHES TYPES; THE TEACHER 8TERE0TYPE, ETC. 437
w h ich teach in g is fo u n d ed fa ll r a p id ly in to r u i n ; the u n stable eq u ilib

riu m o f the tea ch in g p erso n a lity top p les. A fr ie n d o f W i lli a m J a m es
asked h im , some two y e a rs a fte r he had retired, w h eth er be still f e lt
eapahle o f teach in g. l i e rep lied , “ N o , an d I d o n ’ t u n d ersta n d n ow
b o w I ever could h ave heen cap ab le o f it. ’ ’
PROJECTS
1. Rank the members of your high-school clas3 in intelligence, social flexi
bility, and determination. Indicate their occupational choices. Where do the
teachers fit in?
2. Make a case study of a lawyer, a doctor, merchant, or minister from
the point of view of occupational selectivity and molding.
3. Compare students of a school of education "with students in another
school of the same university as to all mcasurahle traits (including physical
traits if possible).
4. Make a case history of a “family of teachers.” Analyze the social influ
ences at work within the family to direct'the occupational choices of its
memhers.
5. Locate ten persons who once thought of teaching hut decided not to do
so. What were their reasons for changing their minds? Show the relation of
this to the selective pattern of the profession.
6. Make an extended study of school teachers in contemporary novels.
Interpret carefully.
7. Study a single teacher (whom you consider typical) in the whole range
of hia social relations. Use as a cheek upon the text.
8. If you have taught, write the history of your first year of teaching.
Determine hy introspection and the comments o f others what personality
changes were produced and show their relationship to your experiences.
9. Write an objective study covering the last year in college and first
year of teaching of an intimate friend. Pay particular attention to personality
changes as ahove.
10. Analyze the intimate letters of a young school mistress in her first
year of teaching. Show changes of attitude as ahove.
11. Make a case study of a teacher in whom teaching has induced favor-
ahle personality changes. Compare with a teacher upon whom the effect has
been destructive. How do you explain the difference?
12. List the ten teachers whom you know hest. Make a list of the most
outstanding qualities in their social personalities, and check against the
analysis in the text.
13. Induce several teachers to discuss their most unpleasant experiences
and to indicate as far as they know it the effect of these experiences upon
their personalities.
14. Make a complete study of the routine of life of a particular teacher.
15. Contrast the personality o f a “ born teacher" with that o f someone who
has with difficulty learned to teach.
16. Compare the classroom behavior o f a group o f teachers with that of
ordinary undergraduates. H ow do you explain the difference?
17. Contrast an experienced and an inexperienced teacher with regard to
their ahility to observe classroom incidents which will affect discipline. How
is this related to the development o f occupational characteristics?
18. Carefully study a heginning teacher giving an examination, writing
questions on the board, watching students write, returning papers, explain
ing grades, etc. W h at insight does this give as to the impact o f the teacher’s
work upon his personality?
19. Get a number o f teachers to discuss their m ajor fears. Relate these
to occupational influences o f the profession.
20. Make a case study o f a “ warner.”
21. Trace the development o f ohjectivity in handling students in a particu
lar teacher.
22. Collect as many school-teacher dreams as possible and classify and
interpret them. Use as a check upon the text.
23. Study intensively the dream life o f a single teacher.
24. Study the phantasy life o f school teachers.
25. Make a case study o f a problem teacher, showing his initial unadjust-
merit and the effect o f teaching experience upon him.
26. Can you find teachers in your own circle o f experience who conform
to the types o f Judge Story and Professor Greenleaf ? Describe one o f each
type, relating characteristic incidents,
27. Study from life the interplay o f attitudes in the drill type o f recitation,
and compare with the recitation o f the more discursive type. Analyze the
effect o f each o f these upon the teacher's personality. W hich is the more
effective in communicating inform ation? I n awakening thought?
28. Study, comparatively, the personalities o f teachers o f different sub
jects, and draw sucn conclusions as the facts seem to w arrant
29. W rite out the projected careers— plans, hopes, and amhitions— of
several teachers in training. Compare with the actual careers o f a similar
number o f experienced teachers.
30. Descrihe your own generalized idea o f a school teacher.
31. List all the actions which you have heard to he unbecoming in a school
teacher. Classify and analyze.
32. Relate the story o f your own experiences with the school-teacher
stereotype.
33. Find young men and women teachers who have on various occasions
refused to admit that they were teachers. Get them to tell their reasons for
this hehavior.
34. Conduct an experiment similar to that o f M r, M cGill and check your
results against his.
TEAOHER TYPES; THE TEACHER STEREOTYPE, ETC. 439
35. Relate incidents showing the internalization o f school rules in the

teacher’s personality.
i 36. Relate incidents showing a continued rehellion o f a teacher against
eei tain rules o f a school.
37. Study the attitudes o f a young teacller in rehellion against his profes
sion. Analyze his discontent.
38. Study the personality o f a teacher who has made a good adjustment to
his profession. Analyze his technique o f adjustment.
39. Study intensively a teacher who has avoided the unpleasant features
of the occupational type. W h at prophylactics has he employed against
tcacher-mindedness? I f possible, make a similar study on other teachers and
extend your list o f prophylactic measures.
40. State clearly the prophylactics against teacher-mindedness which you
' intend to employ in your teaching career.
41. " A teacher must be absolutely loyal.” W hen, under what circumstances,
and how often have you heard the above? State all its implications.
42. Study the technique employed hy a successful high-school principal in
* handling his teachers.
43. Study the use o f discussion o f school policies as a means o f maintain
ing faculty morale. Give instances o f bad and good uses o f discussion.
44. Ohtain student judgment upon a particular teacher. Compare with
faculty appraisals. Show where each appraisal is most trustworthy; contrari
wise, where each falls down.
45. Describe the competition o f a group o f teachers in enforcing the
status quo. A t what point is competition most keen? W h at are the personal
characteristics o f the outstandingly successful competitors?
I 46.
you.
47.
Record the status-getting mechanisms in a group o f teachers known to
W rite a complete and detailed history o f a school row,

4C. Record the shop-talk o f teachers. Make your own interpretation o f
what it means to every teacher.
49. Make a ease study o f a young teacher who has suffered a “ reduction
of personality.”
50. Describe and analyze a husiness meeting o f a gronp o f teachers. W h o
controls? W h at professional attitudes crop out— what rivalries— what posing
for approval— what rapprochements and antagonisms are carried out o f the
meenag?
51. Study Burnham’s Great Teachers and Mental Health. W h a t personal
characteristics and social techniques saved these men from developing into
the teacher typ e? Is the occupation less hurtful in a radically different kind
o f school?
52. A caste is a marriage group. Trace out marriages o f one hundred
teachers. H ow many o f the spouses were teachers? I s there a recognizable
tendency fo r teachers to form a separate caste?
440 THE SOCIOLOGY OF TEAOHING
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) B ogardus, E. S., “ The Occupational Attitude,” Journal of Applied
Sociology, Vol. VIII, pp. 172-176.
(2) Burnbam, W. H., Great Teachers and Mental Health.
(3 ) H errick , R obert, Chimes.
(4 ) H ughes , E. C., “Personality Types and the Division of Labor,” The
American Journal of Sociology, March, 1928, pp. 754-768.
(5 ) M augham , S omerset, Of Human Bondage.
(6 ) M iller , G. F., Letters From a Hard-Boiled Teacher to His Half-
Baked Son.
(7) Patton, C. H., and F ield, W. T., Eight O’clock Chapel, Chapters
IV and V.
(8) Scott, Eleanor, War Among Ladies.
(9 ) S elver, P aul , Schooling.
(10) W hitridge , A rnold, Doctor Arnold of Ttughy.
(11) W eight, H. P., The Young Man and Teaching.
P art Si s
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Chapter X X I V
A PRINCIPAL REASON W H Y INSTITUTIONS DO NOT

FUNCTION
! A friend who is a minister is fond of the following story:

“ I was walking down the street one morning not long ago. A fine-
looking man came alongside and kept pace with me.
“ ‘ I am the devil,’ he announced.
“ 'W e ll,’ I said, ‘ I have always heen very curious ahout you and
I ’m glad to see you at last. And what are you doing this m orning?’
“ ‘ Oh, my usual husiness. I am going ahout corrupting the works
of man.'
“ We chatted pleasantly, for I have never heen a devil-hater, and
kept company fo r some distance. I was surprised to find the devil
such a pleasant and well-spoken gentleman. A fter a time, we noticed
, a man in front of us who gave all outward indications of having heen
’ struck hy a good idea. He stopped suddenly still, his face lighted
up, he struck his hand to his head in joy, and rapidly walked away
to execute his idea. Thinking that this gave me at least a temporary
advantage, I said, ‘ Now there’s a man who has an idea, and I ven
ture to say that it is a good idea. That’s a point against you. What
are you going to do ahout that?’
“ ‘ Nothing easier,’ said the devil, ‘ I 'll organize it.’ ”
Something happens to ideas when they get themselves organized
into social systems. The ethical ideas of Christ, flcxihle and universal,
have nevertheless heen smothered hy churches. A social principle de
generates into a dogma when an institution is built ahout it. Yet an
idea must he organized before it can he made into fact, and an idea
wholly unorganized rarely lives long. Without mechanism it dies,
, but mechanism perverts it. This is part of the natural flow and reces-
sion— the life principle in society.
Institutions have their informal beginnings in the mores; they are
“ formal trends in the mores.” In Sumner’s classic words, “ An insti-
441
tu tion consists of a concept and a structure.” The structure is defined

as “ a number of functionaries set to cooperate in prescribed -ways
at certain conjunctures. ” Where the structure has hccome too intricate,
or too rigid, or the idea of function has faded from the minds of
functionaries, we speak of the institution as suffering from formalism.
This clinical entity which we have called formalism is variously desig
nated in sociological literature; Cooley mentions six names for it:
institutionalism, formalism, traditionalism, conventionalism, ritualism,
and bureaucracy. A s Cooley has said, it is difficult to tell when mech
anism is in excess; the hest rule that can be formulated is perhaps
that of Cooley, that mechanism is in excess when it interferes with
growth and adaptation.
The school must always function as an organization of personalities
hound together in a dynamic relation; this is true whether the school
he a live organism or dead matter. But in a living bit of social tissue,
persons transcend offices; they emhody offices hut they engulf them;
they are persons first and offices afterwards. But in dead tissue offices
transcend persons. In live tissue, the man is always too large for
the joh, and he is forever bursting his uniform at the elhows and
shoulders. In dead tissue the man rattles about in the office like a
seed in a gourd. When officers are more concerned with the perquisites
of their offices than with the human values of their job, that is for
malism. *
Every soeial structure and every system of thought must grow
old in time, and every one of them must die. And each of these, in
its senescence, grows formal. One aspect of age in the social organism
is a disorder of communication, an ‘ ‘ excess of the organ of lan
guage” attended hy a lack of real communication, a growth of
verhiage and a failure of that inner contact upon which communica
tion depends. This may occur, and often does, within the life cycle
of individuals, and it then keeps pace with the mental ossification
of men. But this breakdown! of communication is most clearly visible t
when one generation is succeeded by another. It is easy to communi
cate duties, and it is easy to find men to do duties, but it is difficult
to communicate a mission. So that it often happens that what is
passed on to the newer generation is not a living insight into func
tion, but dead information ahout duties,
A fading of the distinction between means and ends is one of the
things that marks formalism. The general tendency in human process
is for ends to turn into means, and this prohahly favors a healthy
A PRINOIPAL REASON WHY INSTITUTIONS DO NOT FUNCTION 443
growth of personality and of society. Our achievements range them

selves on different levels, and we readjust our standards as we pass
from one level to another. But there is an opposite tendency which
transforms means into ends; means are at first sub-wholes in greater
wholes, hut the greater whole fades out and leaves nothing hut the
part. Then the part is the whole. Man is a stupid child that can under
stand all the parts of his lesson but cannot understand the whole.
This happens in teaching whenever a teacher overemphasizes the in
trinsic value of his subject. It happens when learning is for school.
It happens when learning is dry and dissected into facts. It happens
when children are means and knowledge is an end.
Formalism, as Cooley has noted, is psychically cheap, and that is
why an overburdened teacher turns to it. The necessities of the teach
ing situation may compel even the teacher who has a higher concep
tion of education to turn to routine methods of instruction. The
teacher must do something in the classroom, and routine teaching is
the easiest thing to do. He must, ordinarily, teach something definite,
and from this comes the tendency of the teacher to huild up courses
from definite hut prohahly unimportant facts. And the teacher must
have some standards, in any system, and it is therefore not difficult
for him to magnify to the size of the whole that part of his joh which
consists of keeping lazy students from getting credits too easily. When
this easiest w'ay has been transmuted into a self-justifying moral
order, formalism has taken possession of the school.
A different, kind of social degeneration, characterized also hy a
maladaptation of mechanism and function, arises as a result of pri
mary group attitudes among the functionaries of a social system. The
institutional group hecomes a more or less self-sufficient in-group, and
conducts the institution for its own benefit rather than its social
function. It is very difficult to tell when this kind of institutionalism
becomes a vice, for in some of its forms it may he very usefnl in
that it furnishes morale for the discharge of social functions. The
esprit de corps of the Canadian Mounted Police must in part arise
from the fact that the memhers of the force are bound together by
ties of personal acquaintance. But a hureaucracy that has no crises
to meet docs not find the acquaintance of its memhers with each other
an unmixed profit, and there is a point heyond which it is clear loss.
The typical large school is overridden with this sort of institu
tionalism. The members of the faculty think of themselves as forming
a closed group whose interests are sacrosanct,; students must take
just what the faculty chooses to give them and ask for nothing more;
all memhers of the faculty unite in condemning any attempt to sub
ject the school to control or regulation from the outside. A different
institutionalism grows up among the lesser sort of help, who develop
in-group attitudes and a group consciousness from which both faculty
and students are excluded. An incident illustrating the bureaucratic
attitudes that spring up among the hired help of a university was
furnished by a professor in a midwestern university.
I was in the periodical room of the university library. A woman approached
the attendant with a special request.
“I ’d like to take this back number of Harper’s with me for a while,” sha
stated.
“I am very sorry,” said the attendant, "but that is not permitted.”
There was some discussion. Finally the attendant asked f.he woman her
official status in the university. It developed that she was a clerk in a nearby
administrative office.
"Oh, take the magazine along. We let the people in the administrative
offices have whatever they want. But I thought for a while you were some
faculty member 1”
It is difficult to helieve that the purpose of the university was better

served hy giving the clerical help free access to such material than
it would have been hy making it easily availahle to the faculty.
Institutionalism of this sort in the school is analogous to graft in
politics. It springs from the same root. The official, whom society
and the law supposes to be actuated by considerations of public
service and official duty (secondary group norms), is actually gov
erned by considerations arising from his own little group of friends
and acquaintances. Friendship flourishes while official duty suffers.
That is why the grafting politician is so hard to oust, for he really
is a good fellow, as the saying goes, “ if you know him.” The insti
tutionalized teacher is in exactly the same situation. The morality
of his own primary group takes precedence over that of the secondary
group which his group is supposed to serve. The difference between
the teacher and the politician is in the nature of the public trust
which they handle. The politician handles money. The teacher handles
children. The politician steals money. The teacher steals personality
values.
This kind of institutionalism is also very common in the schools;
these cancerous primary groups flourish in dead tissue where an
understanding of function no longer exists. The school is especially
I
A PRINCIPAL REASON WHY INSTITUTIONS DO NOT FUNCTION 445
liable to institutionalism o£ this sort hecause of the presence o f a

large element of dominance and subordination in the relation of
"• teacher and student. The fact of domination shuts both teacher and
student off from real communication with, each other. Students as
well as teachers have put up walls, as many a teacher has learned
who has tried to form a real and vital contact with his students. I f
the teacher cannot establish contact with his students on a common
human level, or if he does not dare, because of the enmity between
students and teachers in general, then the teacher is thrown back
upon formalism in his classroom and upon the primary groups of
the teaching profession for friendship and sanction for his own
attitudes and behavior. The isolation of teachers in the community
also throws teachers upon each other for society, and this also makes
for teaching for teachers.
It does not seem unreasonable to conclude, on the basis of the
evidence which has been presented throughout this study, that the
schools are a barren ground for the cultivation of personality. Some
personal interchange there is in the schools, hut it is of a limited
sort and is largely vitiated hy the limitations placed upon it. For
the ordinary student in the ordinary school, and for any hut the
most exceptional teacher in the ordinary school, there is lacking
any opportunity for that full, unforced, and unfettered self-ex
pression from which personal development proceeds. It is necessary
to consider the personalities of all who are involved in the social
situations of the school, for it is not possible to develop the person
alities of students favorahly without giving like opportunities to
teachers, and it is not possihle to liberate students from present in
hibitions without also liberating teachers.
We have stated in a previous chapter that the school is a social
organism, that it is an artificial social order built on the despotic
principle and is in a state of perilous equilibrium. In the light of
I our study of formalism these statements take on a new interrelation.
* The school is an organism some of whose tissues are dead; it is this
dead tissue which we sense as artificial; it is the deadness of tho
tissue which makes necessary despotic government within the dead
parts. It is this deadness of certain relationships, this artificiality of
1 the conventional order and the despotism that goes with it— it is
this which constantly creates the rebellion which the teacher must
forever put down. The formal, artificial social order of the school docs
not furnish a proper milieu for the development of normal person-
ality; that is why students are rebellious: they want to live. Cooley
has written, “ In the same way a school whose discipline is merely
formal, not engaging the interest and good-will of the scholar, is
pretty certain to turn out unruly hoys and girls, because whatever
is most personal and vital to them becomes accustomed to assert itself
in opposition to the system.”
A ll this is very far from the discipline o f personal leadership.
Real leadership is unconscious and informal; it is deeply personal
in that it flows out of the man rather than the office. It is domination
which the dominant one himself cannot prevent, which he quite pos
sibly did not plan, domination that arises from a mind more complex
than the minds of the followers and a hand readier and holder than
theirs. This is a hind of disciplined cooperation into which hoth leader
and follower can enter fu lly; it is that which is lacking in the schools.
Formal leadership, the leadership of the person who must he a leader
becp.use of the position he holds, and who, because of his position, is
forced to he a purely formal leader, takes the place in the schools
o f natural leadership.
There is need for a natural social order in the schools. That does
not mean a chaotic social order, or an uncontrolled social order, but
rather a social order which students and teachers work out for them
selves in the developing situation, an order which is intrinsic in the
personalities of those involved, a social order resulting from the spon
taneous, inevitable, and whole-hearted interaction of personalities.
It is the function of the schools to help the individual organize his
life out of the social materials which are presented to him. This
process is now dominated hy groups outside the school and is hut
little influenced hy the school. I f the school is to hecome really im
portant in the lives of its students, it must allow them to be as free
in school as they are outside it.
PROJECTS
1. Give instances of the failure of social machinery in the school to dis
charge its proper function hy reason of primary group attitudes among
functionaries.
2. Trace successive cycles of senescence and rejuvenation in a particular
school.
3. Show by discussion of a particular case the relation between formalism
in a teacher’s methods and his hardening into the occupational type.
4. Record hits of teacher folk talk which reflect a belief that schools ara
principally for teachers.
A PRINCIPAL REASON WHY INSTITUTIONS DO NOT FUNCTION 44.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1) Cooley, C. H., Social Organization.
(2) H art, J. K., A Social Interpretation of' Education, Chapter SI.
(3) Rosa, E. A., Principles of Sociology.
(4) T homas, W. I., Suggestions of Modern Science Concerning Education.
(With Jennings, H. S., W atson, J. B., and Meyeh, Adolph.)
C hapter XXV
RECOMMENDATIONS
I t is easier to diagnose social ills than it is to cure them. And it is

easier far to criticize institutions than to suggest remedies for the
evils that are in them. It is also possible to he much more scientific
while criticizing, for criticism may rest upon established facts, whereas
remedies are largely unknown and untried. Yet our task of social re
construction in the schools is great and it presses.
It is here proposed that education should he directed at the develop
ment of wholesome personality in children hy causing them to pass
through a series of interlocking social situations each of which elicits
certain unforced achievements and constellates certain attitudes cor
responding in complexity and range of adaptation to the age and
cultural levels of the particular child.
That is only a formula. A formula does not solve a prohlem, hut
it indicates the lines along which a solution might he worked out.
Let us see what this formula means.
All education comes from the child’s experience of social situations.
Personality is forged in adaptation to those situations which the child
passes through, on the way to adulthood. The real influence of the
school rests upon the fact that it confronts the child with social situa
tions of a certain sort and compels adaptation to them. That is why
the social machinery of the schools so rarely works according to
p la n ; the meaning of the various mechanical devices that are incor
porated into the system depends upon the place of those devices in
the total situation which confronts the group of children. What is
needful is insight into the nature of the total situation of the school;
without it the plans of the elders must always go awry. This insight
must come in large part from the study of the educative process
as a function of the interaction, of personalities. The practice has
heen to select certain ends of education and then to devise systems
of education and schooling to attain them. This must always fail,
unless it comes out of a study of the. social process of education, for
not only must means he ill adapted when chosen without knowledge
of causal mechanisms, but even ends must be fallacious unless in-
448
RECOMMENDATIONS 449
ductivcly arrived a t ; it is senseless to speak of the ends of education

unless one knows what education is.
Present-day practice in the schools is still largely based upon the
notion that education must proceed by the inculcation of specific
hahits. This is education that works from without, and that is why
it does not work. For we do not now helieve that habit is the funda
mental motor of human life. Rather do we see human behavior as
ensuing from an intricate and subtle, self-directed, self-regulated
process of dynamic interchange between the individual and the situa
tion with which he is confronted The tension points which develop
in this system of interchange are the springs of action. Thus no hahit
has meaning or leads to hehavior except as it is connected with a
general dynamic set of the organism, and this general attitudinal
set is a function of the interchange between the individual and the
environment.
Behavior is to he thought of as a reaction of the entire organism
flowing out of the relation between that organism and the total situa
tion which confronts it. Beginning with the simple situations pre
sented by the perceptual world of childhood, to which adjustment
is direct and uncomplicated, there is an interlocking succession of
ever more and more complicated situations, and, to these latter,
adaptation must be mediated hy ever more roundahout and compli
cated hehavior. There is little place for specific habits, in the older
sense, in such a system, except as they serve as tools at the service
of the other personality trends or represent refinements and adapta
tions of generalized tendencies to respond.
This is a doctrine that accords well with the findings of common
sense, which has often ohserved with wliat difficulty habits which
do not seem to fit in with the major trends of personal organization
arc formed, and with what ease they are broken. A habit cannot he
imposed from without; it must have a basis in the interlocking sys
tem of attitudes already established. The newer doctrine, too, fur
nishes the basis for a different attitude concerning the transfer of
training. Educators have with reluctance given up the idea that
the useful elements in one sort of training are carried over into other
situations. But tests of the supposed transfer of specific hahits have
shown that there is in fact no transfer. A strongly developed hahit
of neatness in English papers does not perceptihly increase the
neatness of papers in mathematics. But if we think of the develop
ment of personality as a successively more complicated adjustment
based upon the attainment of new levels of insight or the emergence
of new perceptual configurations or the perfection of new behavior

patterns, we see that some transfer is possible. Human beings are
not hundles of specific habits, and any attempt to treat them as such
is so artificial that it must always fail to give adequate control of
their behavior. Naturally there is little or no transfer of specific
habits that have been imposed from without, hecause those habits
are easily split off in a new situation, and are in fact cast away at
the earliest possible opportunity as so much surplus baggage. But
if we think of processes of personal development first and of specific
habits only as they arise from these processes, if we think of educa
tion as the development of insight and understanding based upon
the formation of new configurations, the growth of general ideas and
the amassing of facts as part of them, if we think of developing life
as attaining successive levels of complication corresponding to ever
more complicated insight, then we see that transfer is natural and
inevitable. A child can he the same child after you have taught
him neatness, diligence, and the habit of shining his shoes, hut he
can never more be the same when he no longer considers it a moral
problem whether he should bite sister or not. Whatever makes a man
more complex must make him respond more complexly to any situa
tion.
We must, then, organize education so that the child will work
out attitudes adapted to the life situations he'is likely to encounter
in his culture group. This education of the attitudes can proceed
only when the child is brought to face actual situations. The situations
which enter into education must be graded and progressive, so that
the older "the child is and the longer he has been in school the greater
will be the correspondence of his social situation with the situations
of adult life. Two means suggest themselves for giving this sort of
training.
(1) The school may attempt to reproduce the pattern situations of
life itself. As far as this is possible, it seems the most satisfactory
method, and the method responsible for such successes in the develop
ment. of personality as present-day systems of schooling have had.1
3 Unplanned, direct training of this sort, is also responsible for many o f the
failures o f the present-day school systems. The most significant training which
any school gives is training of this kind. Even in. the most formalized school the
child forma his attitudes in conformity with the actual world about him rather
than with the theoretical and formal world. The regrettable thing is that the
social world of the ordinary school is o f little value, often of negative value,
as a preparation for life. It is interesting that a conservative criminologist has
remarked that the best we can say for education (schooling) is that there
is no certain proof that education increases crime.
RECOMMENDATIONS 451
This is the method of ‘ ‘ activities, ’ ’ and when the ordinary school gets
hold of personalities it usually does so through participation in activi
ties. Increasing participation in activities measures, in the case of
many individuals, the gradual catching up of the individual in the
social process of the school. The hoy entering high school or prep
school has all his time and all his self at his disposal. He enters a
few activities in his first year, takes interest in a few things, signs
away the right to some of his time, assumes a few duties; he is en
meshed a little in the social process. B y the time he is a senior his
leisure time, very likely, has disappeared, and his life is entirely con
trolled from without, parcelled out to various groups and “ activi
ties” which have a claim upon him. The extent to which individuals
become involved in them is a measure of the success of activities.
There is, as has hcen pointed out by certain writers, an opposite
danger, that of over-organization. Apparently there are considerable
differences in persons as to the amount of outside regulation which
they can endure without suffering ill effects.
However, the number of social situations which the school and its
activities can imitate is limited. Nor is it possible for the school ever
to reproduce complicated situations, or those of any great range.
Direct education, then, must he subject to some supplementation.
(2) A second method is that of mediating existent or prospective
social situations to the child at second hand. I f the approach to
this sort of exercise is exclusively intelleet.ualistic, it will have little
value for the student, although it may prove edifying for the teacher.
If, however, the approach is such as to enlist the spontaneous par
ticipation of the student, there may he something to he gained through
the use of the technique. Apparently this is the only sort of training
which the schools can hope to give for the more complicated condi
tions of life. A difficulty of a practical sort is that teachers in gen
eral do not have that whole and unbiased view of life which would
make such training worth while. If, after some experimentation with
J this technique, we find that it is valueless, the schools may have
to limit themselves to the imparting of a few basic skills and a limited
amount of training in meeting the hasic and relatively simple social
situations which underlie modern life, leaving the task of adaptation
to the more complicated conditions of life to be met in the child’s
off hours or after he leaves the school. It may be that we shall need
two schools, one for learning facts and skills and another for dis
cussion of the adjustment of the individual to the community.1 Train
ing of the latter sort would very likely follow the former.
1Cf. Hart, J. K., Light from the North.
Whatever the method that is used, the school must lead the child
to work out the solution of each situation for himself in his own way,
for education is in any case an internal achievement. This relative
freedom for the child should lead ultimately to a new conception of
the nature of school discipline. It will do away with much of the
present structure of regimen and reglementation. The school must
stop trying to become a machine and strive to realize its destiny as a
social organism.
It would hardly be correct to say that children would be free under
such a system. They would be living in a natural social order, and
would be subjected to the painless leadership of such a situation,
but they would not be free, for this sort of leadership that we have
in mind is the most compelling of all, and partly because it is gladly
borne, Children would be relatively free of obvious and external
restraint. The pressure which they should feel is the pressure of
the social situation. (It is this soft but overwhelming pressure, not
habit, that keeps adults moving in their accustomed grooves.) It is
the pressure of one’s own needs in the social situation in which he
lives. This kind of pressure, in the group o f children, makes for ad
vancement to the next grade in the scries of stair-stepped primary
groups. It is a pressure that is very powerful among children, and if
it could he canalized in such a way as to make for achievement along
accepted lines no school teacher would ever need to worry about dis
cipline. It is a kind of pressure to which the highest type of mind
responds as readily as the lowest. But this is not the same thing as
the pressure of tcacbcrish domination and subordination.
Education through social situations can produce favorable results
only in a natural social order. The attempt to construct such a social
system, or to assemble the materials for it and put them into contact
with each other so that they might erect themselves into a social
order, would require us to abandon the present type of institution
alized dominance and subordination in the schools. Dominance there
would be, but of an unforced and informal character, resulting from
informal, non-institutionalized, ' ‘ natural” leadership. It needs to be
emphasized that such results cannot be obtained by patching up exist
ing schools with a new piece of mechanism, or hy tearing down the
old mechanized social order simply in order to erect a new one upon
it. Education through graded situations cannot work as a new bit
of machinery. It must result from the interaction of personalities
according to a different pattern.
The reformation of education becomes a problem of the teaching
Re c o m m e n d a t io n s 453
personnel. Teachers must be obtained who are capable of non-institu-

tional leadership, who have no need of barriers between themselves
and their students, and they must be left free to do with the social
order of the schools as they will. They will m odify it fast enough
if we can get the right persons— not that the good teacher neces
sarily mates the good school, for that he does not, but the good
teacher, free, could not possibly make the same sort of bad school.
Teachers must be found who are much more strong and independent
than teachers are now. I f virile teachers are present, they can make
any system of education work; no system can succeed that does not
bring students into contact with strong and inspiring minds, and
any system can succeed that does.1 This is the crux of the problem of
educational reform. We can accomplish little by having teachers do
something different, for they cannot do anything different without
being something different, and it is the being something different
that matters.
All this is very easy to see and very easy to say. It has been said
before, and so often that it savors of platitude. The i>ertinent ques
tion is how to get the strong and worth-while personalities to take
up teaching; partly, too, it is a question of offering teachers oppor
tunities to develop into strong and worth-while personalities. The
answer ordinarily given for this problem is that teachers must he
paid better salaries; the better salaries will attract larger numbers
of high-grade individuals. No doubt better salaries for teachers are
indicated, but it is questionable whether the mere fact of higher
salaries would attract a much higher type of personality to the
profession.
It seems to the writer that the low state of the profession is partly
due to irrelevant competition, It seems that a start should he made
by removing from teachers all restrictions not directly pertinent to
their teaching function. It is these restrictions upon conduct which
frighten away those honest and forthright persons of whom the
teaching profession has need. Requirements not relevant to the
teacher’s function must always be ultimately deleterious, because they
lead to irrelevant competition. And from this pointless competition,
persons of strong character are very likely to prefer to remain aloof.
The strong are not likely to carry it off over the weak in competition
1 The moral o f aur previous analysis of the 3oeiaI interaction o f the school
seems to be similar. Even in the strictest school, the most desirable personal in
terchange is set up by the most forceful and positive characters. But this inter
change would be even more valuable i f the social framework in which it takes
place were less rigid.
which has as its point the things they do not d o ; that is why mauy
competent and desirable personalities decide not to take up teaching,
and this is why many weaker persons take refuge in teaching as a
means of escaping the competition of the strong.
It is submitted that the personnel of the teaching profession will
not show a satisfactory improvement unless these restrictions upon
the teacher are removed. We shall return to them in a different con
nection. We must notice briefly certain other devices hy which it
seems possible to attract a few vigorous and competent persons into
the profession, thereby effecting a corresponding improvement in
teaching on the personal side. Formerly a large number of able per
sons passed through teaching on their way to other professions. Lat
terly these persons have been excluded, largely by reason of the
standards of professional training that have been established. One
wonders whether the vigor of these stepping-stone teachers did not
more than compensate for their faulty knowledge of the technique
of teaching. I f a way could he found to admit them without letting
in a flood of true incompetents, some of these persons would furnish
able, if temporary, recruits to the ranks of the teachers. Unques
tionably, too, it is a mistake to exclude married women from teach
ing. It seems certain that married women are on the average morn
wholesome and normal than tlicir unmarried sisters, and the schools
lose by excluding them.
One wonders what could be done in the schools! by way of fur
thering contact between students and stimulating and vigorous per
sons who arc not teachers. The cause of education as personality de
velopment would be greatly furthered if students could be brought
into intimate contact, if possible daily contact, with the leaders of the
outside world, the leaders of business and society, of sport, and of the
intellect, One can imagine a great draft system like compulsory mili
tary service, but unlike it in that inclusion in the draft is a special
honor, that reaches out and drags in the great men and the great
women of the community and forces them to do their bit with the
young. The army of teachers, under such a system, would be only a
skeleton army, and would be filled in by replacements from the com
munity. Nothing would be gained by having these persons from the
outside come to the school to make speeches— nothing is more futile
than that; they must come into close and repeated contact with
the youngsters of the community. Perhaps the easiest beginning for
such informal supplementation of the schools would be by having
persons particularly interested and specially qualified take charge of
BEC0 MTME2 TDATIONS 455
special extra-curricular activities of school children. I f a certain

amount of the work of instructing the young could be taken care of
by the community itself, this might afford a way out for the tax-
ridden rural sections, enabling them at once to raise salaries and to
reduce taxes. This is no plea for dabblers. What we have in mind
is that it is necessary to provide a channel for personal interchange
between children and the outstanding men and women of the com
munity, and that possibly the school can reorganize its curriculum
in such a way as to bring this about.
Perhaps, however, we arc finally committed to the policy of having
all our teaching done by professionals. Let us suppose that we are
ahle to recruit vigorous persons for service in the schools. The ques
tion then arises, “ How shall we keep them vigorous?”
It is obvious that the teacher must he free in his teaching, and
that some, sort of code must govern hoth his use of that freedom
and attempts by members of the community to interfere with it.
It is certain that any advanced thinker will get away from the opinion
of the generality of men, and some way needs to he found to insure
the teacher freedom in his official utterances. Tet it is obviously un
ethical for the teacher to use his classroom technique as a vehicle
for spreading the doctrines of some tangential group to which he
belongs (although the teacher has a perfect right to belong to tangen
tial groups). And it would he too much to expect any community
to support a school which spread doctrines too far at variance with
the opinion of the community. The education that liherates from
community opinion must proceed indirectly and imperceptibly or
it cannot proceed at all. It would be possible, however, to work out
a code of academic freedom which protected the teacher in the dis
charge of his teaching functions, hut likewise prevented abuse of
that freedom.
Certainly teachers must be free outside the school. Teachers must
be received as normal and in no way exceptional members of the
community -, they must neither gain nor lose status hy heing teachers.
But one does not know how such an ideal state might be brought
about by any means short of such a concerted revolt of all teachers
everywhere as is not likely to occur. But if every teacher should for
a period of ten years insist upon heing treated not as a teacher but
as a human heing, the iron stereotype might be broken. I f teachers
began tomorrow to argue it out and fight it out with their communi
ties, if they insisted upon their right to play golf on the Sahbath, to
smoke on the streets, to curse the garage man and kick life-insurance
salesm en th ro u gh th e fr o n t door, i f th ey in v a ria b ly m e t th e statement

" T h a t ’s no w a y fo r a teacher to a c t ” w ith a cacoph onou s je e r, then
the social p o sition o f the p ro fession m ig h t he ch an ged in a v e r y few
years. B u t these th in g s arc n ot lik ely to take place.
Y e t there is no sensible reason fo r ask in g teach ers to fu r n ish the
co m m u n ity w ith exam p les o f the v ir tu e s o f restrain t. Th e negative
virtu es ca n n ot he im p osed u p on the y o u n g th ro u gh the te a c h e r ’s ex
am ple. Th e p ictu re is too u n lo v e ly , an d the reaction is u su a lly just
the op p osite to th e one desired. V ic e , o f w h ich m a n y m ore exam ples
are presen t, is m uch m ore p lea sin g , an d its ex em p la rs h ave more
p restige th an have the p ro fession a l p ra ctition ers o f v irtu e. B u t if
teachers h a d a w h o lly p ositive m o r a lity , a m orality7 o f social idealism
an d o f d eeds ra th er th a n o f inh ibition s, th a t m o ra lity w o u ld 'b e imi
ta te d because th at k in d o f m o ra lity is con tagious.
S om e w o rd s m ig h t he d irected at teachers them selves relative to
th eir rela tio n to th e co m m u n ity . B e fo r e teachers can com e into con
ta c t w ith the co m m u n ity in w hich th ey live th ey m u st fo rsak e that
ra th e r n ain h y -p a m b y in tellectu a lism so com m on in th e profession,
a n in tellectu a lism n o t se lf-a c tiv e o r creative a n d based n ot so much
u p o n w isdom th a t one does h ave as u p on ign oran ce th a t one does
not have. T h e y m u st lim it their p a r tic ip a tio n i n the sh op -talk of
teacher cliqu es, a n d seek the v ita l co n tac ts th at th e la r g e r com m unity
offers. I n these con tacts th ey must, c o n sisten tly stru g g le a ga in st the
effort t o tr e a t th e m as teach ers rath er th an as persons. T eachers need,
n ev erth eless, to c u ltiv a te a qu iet a n d u n assertive in d ivid u alism , and
to fo llo w th e ir ow n lig h ts w h erever th e y m ay lead , p a y in g little
a tte n tio n to th e co n ven tion a l restrictions u p o n the a ttitu d es o f their
p ro fe ssio n . B u t as p ro fession a ls, teach ers n e e d to c o m p ro m ise; they
need to co rrect tlieir in tellectu a listic an d d e p a rtm e n ta l hias with
the th o u g h t th a t the fa te o f n ation s does n o t d ep en d u p on h ow much
a rith m e tic J o h n n y J o n es le a rn s, w ith the th o u g h t th a t J o h n n y Jones
can lea rn o n ly so m u c h arith m etic anyh ow a n d th a t in a y e a r or
so be w ill p r o b a b ly fo r g e t w h a t he does learn .
Som e fu r th e r su g g estio n s o f the m o st p ra c tic a l so r t a n d requiring
little ch an ge o f the social stru ctu re o f e x istin g schools rem ain to
be m ad e. T h e first o f these p erta in s to the establish m en t o f personnel
w ork w ith stu d en ts. B u re a u s o f a d ju stm e n t sh o u ld be p ro v id e d and
sh o u ld be p resid ed over b y co m p eten t p sy ch o lo g ists or psychiatrists.
T h is p erso n n el w o rk sh ou ld fo llo w the m od el o f social w ork rather
th a n of person n el w ork in in d u stry , an d sh o u ld look to w a r d the
m e n ta l a n d social a d ju stm e n t o f stu den ts. I t w o u ld d o w ell to avoid
BE COMMENDATIONS 457
over-concern a b o u t a b n orm alities o f h eh avior, ;in d to loo k ra th er

tow ard tbe so lu tion o f n orm al p rob lem s o f developm en t. P erso n n el
c w ork o f th is s o rt w ou ld th u s be a v alu ah le a d ju n c t to ch aracter ed u ca
tion. T b e p s y ch o a n a ly tic tech n iq u e, o r other devices fo r p r o b in g into
p erso n a lity , w ou ld best be used, u n til o p in io n as to the benefits o f
child a n alysis becom es m o re settled, v e ry sp a r in g ly , a n d o n ly b y
exp erts, an d o n ly u p o n ch ildren defin itely m a la d ju ste d .1 T h e p sy ch o
a n a lytic p ro ced u re sh ou ld, how ever, fin d a considerable use as a
m ean s o f u n co v e rin g tb e basic drives of th e p e rso n a lity and of
baaing fu r th e r p e rso n a lity d evelop m en t (se cu red b y su g g e stio n or
a n a lytic m e ch an ism s) upon these basic drives. Th e tech n iq u es at
i p resen t ad vo ca ted b y e x p e rt ch aracter train ers consist m a in ly of
exh ortation a n d autosu ggestion . I t seem s v e r y o b viou s th a t a n a t
tem p t to rem o d el ch aracter th ro u gh sy ste m s o f tr a it-r a tin g an d u n -
g u ided se lf-c u ltiv a tio n m u st prod u ce a v e r y b rittle sort o f o rg a n iza
tion . C om p lete case stu d ies of every ch ild in the school system
sh ou ld be m ade, an d th is in fo rm a tio n , su m m a rized an d w ith confi
d en tia l d eta ils om itted, sh ou ld be m ade a vailab le fo r all th e c h ild ’s
teachers. These ease stu d ies sh ou ld be p r e p a r e d b y sp ecialists, h u t
id e a lly ev ery teacher in a sy stem w here p erso n n el w o rk b a d an y
real v a lu e w o u ld be som eth in g o f a p ra c tic in g p sy ch olo g ist. It is
possihle th at a p ersonn el b u r e a u , established as a fu r th e r b it o f
social m a ch in ery, cou ld, i f it d id n o t its e lf becom e too fo rm a lize d ,
p o p u la rize a m o n g teachers th e tech n iq ue o f con trol th ro u g h u n d e r
sta n d in g , an d th a t it cou ld th ereby m a te r ia lly affect the entire social
org a n ization o f th e school.
A secon d su ggestion o f m a jo r im p ortan ce con cern s p sy ch ia tric w ork
w ith teachers. M o s t o f the p ro gra m s fo r the reh ab ilitation o f the
schools fo u n d e r u p o n the rock of teach er resistance. F o r the m ost
p a r t, we con sid er th is resistance w e ll p laced . Th e com m on-sense
u n d e r sta n d in g w h ich teach ers h av e o f th e ir p rob lem s b ites deeper
into re a lity th an do the m a u n d e rin g s o f m o st th eorists. T eachers w ill
do w ell to in sist th a t any p r o g r a m o f edu cation al re fo rm sh all sta r t
w ith th em , th a t it shall he based u p on , an d sh all in c lu d e, th eir co m
m on -sen se in sigh t. B u t there are n u m ero u s teachers whose p ersonal
p ro b le m s affect th eir teach in g. T h is is o n ly n a tu r a l, fo r the presen t
order is rooted in the p ersonalities w h ich teachers of tbe p re se n t d a y
, have w ork ed ou t in ad ap ta tio n to it, and teachers arc u n w illin g and
u nable to change. A n d person n el w ork w ith teachers, b y en a b lin g
1 For a Bound and well-taken criticism o f 4'mass inquisition into psychopathic

traits, ’ ’ pee ThomaB, W . I., The Child in America, pp. 16S-5-
su ch teach ers to str u g g le m ore su cc e ssfu lly a g a in st tb eir ow n in te

r io r dem on s, m ig b t b r in g ahout ra d ica l ch an ges in th e social w o rld
o f school. T h a t som e so rt o f p sy ch ia tric service m ig b t p ro fita b ly be
fu r n ish e d teachers seem s a v e r y obvious p o in t, a n d one th a t i t sb o u ld
n o t be n ecessa ry to lab or lon g. O n ly the n o rm a l, h a p p y , a n d w ell-
p o ised tea ch er is capable o f disciplin e th a t is pain less a n d con struc
tiv e . P e r h a p s th e stro n g est a rg u m en t in fa v o r o f p sy ch ia tric w ork
w ith teachers is th at u n a d ju ste d teach ers p a ss on th eir p erso n a lity
p ro b le m s to th eir stu den ts. T h e teacher w ith a stro n g in fe r io r ity com
p le x sp rea d s in fe r io r ity com p lexes abou t h er in b er classroom . Th e
teach er whose a ttitu d e tow ard se x is n ot w holesom e en g en d e rs a sim ila r
m a la d ju stm e n t in h er students. I f th e p sy ch o lo g ist can h elp the teacher
to organize h e r life in a m ore sa tisfa cto ry a n d stable fash ion — and
th is is ju s t w h a t person n el w o rk w ith teachers sh ou ld a tte m p t to do—
th e beneficial effects upon stu d en ts w ill becom e im m e d ia te ly apparent,
The refo rm a tio n of the schools m u st b eg in w ith teachers, an d no
p ro g ra m th at does not include the person al reh ab ilitation o f teachers
can ever overcom e the passive resistance o f the old order.
A m ore su perficial so rt o f personn el w ork, a im in g n o t a t tb e re
a d ju stm e n t o f the te a c h e r ’s p erso n a lity h u t at fittin g th at p erso n a lity
in to its p r o p e r p lace, m ig b t also p ro ve o f con siderable v alu e. There
are ce rta in places in th e system w h ere certain teachers belon g, and
th e h a p p y c o n ju n c tio n o f the m a n an d tbe jo b does n ot a lw a y s take
p la c e w ith o u t g u id a n c e ; it w o u ld be p a r t o f tbe personnel p rogram
o f th e school to p u t teachers in th e r ig h t p la c e.1 A n o th e r task would
be to fu r n is h a so cial p ro gra m , in sid e a n d o u tsid e the school, that
w o u ld g ive the teach ers as a b o d y such w holesom e c o m m u n ity con
tacts as w o u ld keep them h a p p y and fu r th e r th e ir person al grow th.
T h is k in d o f personnel w ork m ig h t also co n triv e to g iv e teachers a
sense o f sec u rity in th eir position s. It m ig h t, fu rth e r, en d ea vo r to
sm ooth ou t su ch differen ces as arise hetw een teach ers a n d a d m in istra
tiv e officers, differen ces which occasion m u c h loss o f teach in g talent.
I t w ou ld also b e a leg itim a te fu n c tio n o f a b u rea u o f p erson n el to
a ccu m u la te in fo rm a tio n con cern in g p e rso n a lity typ es m o st lik e ly to
succeed in tea ch in g a n d those m ore a p t to f a i l — w h ich w o u ld be o f
im m ense v a lu e fo r a d m in istrators.
1 Thin function, o f a personnel bureau might well be correlated with a larger

orgaui.Kat.iou of the teaching profession, one which would take care of rating
and placing teachers, thereby eliminating the problems of recommendation and
that, o f placement. (This would replace the troublesome and expensive process of
placement through agencies.) This larger organization o f teaching, i f perfected,
might give teachers a much more secure tenure of their offices.
KECOMMENDATXONS 459
A final suggestion concerns the training of teachers. The teacher’s

training should he move to the point of the task that faces the teacher
when he leaves training school. The teacher’s most important task
is to deal with tbe dynamic social situation of the classroom. And it
should be bis objective to deal with that situation in such a way as
to further the development of the personality values of the children
who with the teacher make up that situation. A central point of the
teacher’s training, then, should be the attempt to give him insight
into the nature of the social reality which is the school. This is wbat
teachers usually learn in the hard school of experience, and by those
rules of thumb which experience gives, and this is another reason
for the conservatism of educational practice. Prospective teachers learn
all the new educational theories while they are in school, but they
must learn how to teach from horny-banded men who have heen
teaching a long time. But if theory is ever really to be translated
into practice, theorists must learn to follow it through the social
dynamics of the school room. Only so can experience he fruitful iu
the understanding that will make possihlc a change of things that
are. It is to this task that we have tried to make a small beginning.
SUGGESTED READINGS
(1 ) Charters, W. W., and W aples, D., The Commonwealth Study of
Teacher Training.
(2) C ounts , G eorge S., The American Hoad to Culture, Chapter XI.
(3 ) P orter, M. P., The Teacher in the New School.
(4) Ross, E. A., Principles of Sociqlogy.
(5) W ashburne, C., and S tearns, M. M., Better Schools.
INDEX
Academic requirements, 355 Bagley, W. C., 57, 128, 243, 301;

Academic standards, Devotion of quoted, 302, ff., 304, 305, 306;
teachers to, 357 quoted, 307; 308, 313; quoted,
Accommodation, 15 432; 433
Accommodations within the Bchool, 17 Balance, Seeking-avoiding, 250, 390
“ Activities,” 111, ff. Barrows, E. M., Quoted, 80; 81
Evaluation of, 118 Behavior, Mainspring o f, 449
Idea o f merit in, 121 Bennett, Arnold, 426
Adams, Henry, 382; quoted, 431 Blumonthal, Albert, 61, 62, 142, 179
Adler, Alfred, 136, 324 Boy Seouts, 185
Admonition, 307 Buffer phrases, 283
Adolescence, 139, ft. “ Builders,” 99
Adolescent universe, Teacher must Jive Bully, Teacher as, 270
in, 59, if. Burgess, E. W., 15, 63, 120, 121, 169,
Adult, Understanding, 251 178, 257, 322
Age-level cultures, 104, ff. Burnham, Wm. H., Quoted, 394
Age o f teacher, 212
Alumni, Influence of, 83, ff. Careers, 413
Prep-school, 84, ff. Caricature, Teacher as, 269
Americanization, 17 Cather, Willa, 157
Anger, Ineffectual, 206 Ceremonies, 120, ff.
Appeal, 207 Challenge, 208
Effectiveness o f, 208 Chaperonagc, 149
Arlen, Michael, 187 Character-building, 310
Assimilation, 16 Cheating in examinations, 360
Assimilation o f teachers to community, Childhood, Mental world of, 104, ff.
Chimes, 42, 282
44
‘ ‘ Chiselling, ’ ' 363
Assimilation, School as medium of, 17
Technique of, 364
Athletics,
Ciceronos for young teachers, 430
As a cultural pattern, 112, ff.
Class, As crowd and audience, 160
Control through, 115, ff.
As primary group, 185
Influence of, 116
Classes, Kinds of, 162
Theory of, 115, ff. Classroom manner, 221
Attitudes, 318, ff. Cliques, Teacher, 56
Attitude courses, 369 Clow, P. C., Quoted, 356; 357
Attitude toward students, 222 Coaches, Problems presented by, 114
Toward subject matter, 225 Code, Schoolboy, 182
Audience, The, 160 Collective representations, 120, ff.
Authority, 9, 10, 196 Command, 198
Authority role, 386 Voice o f, 199
Autocratic principle in school, 8 Commencement season, 130
Ayres, Leonard P., 19, 20 Commitment ceremony, 123
461
462 INDEX
Communication, Cultural factors hin Darrow, Clarence, 157

dering, 100 Defence reactions, 154
Commuuity conflict, Teacher at focal Definition o f situation, 292
point of, 55, if. Elements in, 294
Complaints, Handling, 74, IT. In school, 297
Complexity of personality, 236 Interactions of, 309
Compulsions, 146 Leadership proeoeds from, 191
Conceptions of sex, 141 Punishment as, 200
Conciliation, 351 Techniques for, 312
Conduct unhecomiug in a teacher, 45 Democratic theory, 22
Congenial group, 180 Dependent personality, 227
Conflict, 15 Despotism, School a despotism in per
Conflict groups and schools, 18 ilous equilibrium, 10
Conflict, O f adult and child, Basis of, Devices by which teachers hold jobs, 66
107 Dewey, John, 26
O f cultures, 39 Dexter, E. G., 318
O f individual and group, 323 Diffuse sexuality, 139
Philosophy of, 352 Diffusion, Cultural, 18
Teacher-pupil, 105 Dignity, 387
Container and contained, 237 Discipline, 162, 197, 310
Control, By praise, 251 Newer ideal of, 308
Levels of, 12 Techniques for maintaining, 108
Struggle over, 93, IT. Disorder, 306
Through athletics, 115, 3 . Epidemic, 173
Theory of, 115, 3. Disrepute, Images of, 252, ff.
Conventions, Teachers ’, 423 Dissatisfaction of teachers with com
Conversion, 363, 400 munity, 41
Cooley, C. H., 176, 442, 446 Dreams, 401
Courage, Institutional, 223 DreBB o f teacher, 220
Courses, 355 Drill, 411
Courtship, 142 Durkherm, Emile, 387
Courtship group, Suh-adolescent, 181 Duty o f executive to defend teachers,
Craze and fad, 173 77
Creativeness, Decline of, 391
Cribhing, 360 Easy mark, 253
Crisis, 349 Ecology, Human, 161
Crowd-mindedness, 173 Of classroom, 161
Crowd, The, 160 Education, Opportunities for, 23
Culture conflicts, 39 Eggleston, Edward, Quoted, 410; 411
In the school, 104 Ego, Deflation of, 336
Cultural diffusion, Teacher as agent of, Demands of teacher, 272
40 Egotist, Teacher as, 272
School as a center of, 103 Elimination in schools, 20
Cultural lag, 18 Emblems, Presentation o f, 127
Cultural process, 15 Enthusiasm, 390
Culture patterns, 111, ff. Epidemics, Psychic, 171
Culture, Separate culture o f the Epithets, 336
schools, 13 Examinations, 369
Curiosity, 156 Examination complexes, 371
INDEX 463
Executive mentality, 425 Orappling hooks, 289

It ole, 325 Griffith, G. R., 161
Techniques, 426 Orim smile, 230
Experience pattern o f teacher, 392 Group allegiance, Desire for, 153
Experience, What teachers gets from, 1 Group, The congenial, 180
Extroversion and introversion, 412 Groups, Succession of, 177
Groups within the school, 12
Eacial expression of teacher, 230
Faculty hazing, 183 Hall, G. Stanley, 394
Morality, 108 "H andshaking,” 363
Quarrel, 430 " H a n g o u ts ,” 81, ff.
Fad and craze, 173 Hart, Hornell, 21
Fagging, 184 Hart, J. K., 451
Failure helt, Teaching regarded aB a, Hazing, 110, 182
61 Faculty, 183
Family, 178 Helson, Harry, 295
Faris, Ellsworth, 136, 137, 155, 156, Herrick, Rohert, 282
158, 320, 349 Home-town teachers, 64, ff.
Favoritism, 37 Homosexuality, 147
Fear, 155, 395 Honesty, 315
Fellowships, In relation to social mo Honor system, 362
bility, 24, 25 Human ecology, 161
Feuds, 339, 3.
Avoidance of, 343 Ideal, Oultural or social, 248
Fictions, 323 Idealism for young, 34
Fights, Sehoolhny, 179, 182 Ideals, Teacher as carrier of, 43
Finality, Gesture of, 288 Identification mechanisms, 325, 334
FirBt day o f school, 301 Negative, 336
Flirtatious teachers, 268 Images o f disrepute, 252, ff.
Folklore, 111 Images, Prestige-carrying, 247, ff.
Folkways of students, 110 Impassive expression, 230
Foolish questions, 286 Impersonality, Hahit of, 397
" F o r m ,” 113 Improvisation, 411
Formalism, 442 Incompetent teacher, Disrepute o f, 258
Formality as accommodation, 195 Infantilism, 227
Freedom, 452 Inferiority complex, 153
Fringes of school, 80, ff. Inflexibility of teacher, 384
Influence as mode o f defining situa
Games as cultural patterns, 113 tion, 313
As disguised war, 113, ff. Influence o f school upon community,
Gang, Contribution of, 180 39
Gestures, Conversation of, 352 Initiation, 182
Good-natured teachers, 253, 3. Insight, Attempt to give, V, V I
Good-natured teacher, Life-history of, Insight courses, 370
254 Effect upon social process, 352
Goodsell, W ., 36 Institutional, 224
Grade system, Rebellion against, 365 Instinct, 134
Grading, Hahit of, 393 Institution, School as, 193
Orades, Disputes concerning, 360 Institutions, 441
464 INDEX
Institutional courage, 223 Matrons, 83

Insight, 224 Maugham, Somerset, 258, 390; quoted,
Institutionalism, 33 , 58, 442 391
Institutions subsidiary to school, 11 McGill, K ., 301, 415, 416
Intelligence, As basis of selection, 20, Mead, G. H., 116, 195
23 Mead, Margaret, 140
Overemphasis of, 24 Mechanisms of ceremonies, 120
Interaction o f personalities in class Men and women teachers, Differing
room, 333 techniques o f, 209
Invention, 18 Mental functions as attitudes, 319
Involution o f teacher, 437 Merit in activities, 121
Irrelevant competition in teaching, 453 Method of this work, 1, 2, f£.
Military ceremonies, 128
James, Wm., 437 Milling process, 169
Janitor, Position in the school, 80, ff. Minehan, T., 43
Jimg, C. 0., 237, 238 Mischief, 182
Mob, 163
Koffka, K ., 105
Mob behavior, Cultural pattern for,
Kohler, W., 295
169
Kriner, H. L,, 217
Mob, Teacher as leader of, 164
Krueger, E. T., Quoted, 137
Technique o f handling, 169, ff.
Latency period, 139 Moral requirements of teaching, 44
Laughter of teacher, 229 Morale ceremonies, 128
Laxity o f schools, As conditioning Motivation, 319
social disorganization, 26 Motivation of students, 156
Leadership, Institutional, 189 Movement o f teacher in classroom, 243
Personal, 189 Mowrer, E, It., 36
Specialized, 185
Learner’s attitude, 394 Newcomer, The, 62, 182
Life-history o f good-natured teacher, New experience, Wish for, 136
254 Nincompoop, Image of, 257
O f superintendent, 99, ff. Non-social attitudes, 318
life-organization, 414
Lippmann, W., 415 Objections, Use of, 286
Love object. Teacher as, 252 Obstinacy o f teachers, 241
Loyalty, 424, 428 Occupational types, 375
Lying to children, 100 Occupational type, Determinants of,
Lynda, The, 38; quoted, 50; 117 376
Officer, Image of, 249
Management, 203 “ Opening exorcises," 122
Manner of teacher, 221 Organized cheering, 125
Manners o f teacher, 221
Mannerisms of teacher, 22 Parent substitute, 248
Martin, Everett Dean, 21 Parent-teacher antagonism, Analysis
Martinet, Teacher as, 259 of, 68, ff.
Martyrdom ceremonies, 129 Attitudes illustrated, 69
Mask, Teacher, 164 Parents, Technique o f handling, 74, ff.
“ Masterful in activity," 244 Park, R. E., 15, 63, 120, 121, 163, 169,
Materials o f this study, 3 189, 257, 322; quoted, 414
INDEX 465
Participation, Wish for, L I Range o f personality, 234

Patriarch, Image of, 250 Reckless, W. C,, quoted, 137
Penalties, Adjustment to, 197 Recognition, Wish for, 136
Pep-meetings, 124 In the school, 150, fi.
Personality, 322 Recruiting for teams, 123, 127
Personality changes in beginning Reduction o f personality, 431
teachers, 433 Reflex behavior in school, 134
Personality patterns, 178 Requirements, Academic, 355
Persuasion, Technique of, 283 Response, Wish for, 135
Peters, C. C., 163; quoted, 169, i f . ; 217 In the school, 137, fi.
“ Petting,” 142 Responsibility for education, 243
Phantasies, 407 Restaurant-keepers, 81, ff.
Physical characteristics o f teachers, Restrictions, Adjustment to, 420
218 Reuter, E. B., 36
Place o f students in community, 35, 30 Rhythm o f teaching, 394
Play group, 178 Rice, Stuart, 416, 418
Policemen, Campus, S3 Ritual, 313
Policy, Change of, 427 Rivalry between teacher and student,
Political order o f school, 8 213
Popular teacher, Succeeding a, 95 Rivalry in enforcement o f status quo,
Population o f school, 7 429
Position of teachers in community, 40 Rivalry of teachers, 428, 429
“ Prefect psychology,” 187 Roles, 318, fi., 321
Preparation ceremonies, 129 Acceptability of, 323
Prerogative, Disputes concerning, 430 Alternation of, 326, 385
Prestige, 191, 247, ff. Conscious or unconscious, 324
Primary groups, 176 Elaboration of, 324
Primary group, Attempt to organize, Executive, 325
185 Typical, 177
Attitudes, 321 Rooms, Problem of, 51
Attitudes among functionaries, 443 What hinges upon choice o f room,
Norms, 444 51, ff.
Primary groups, Stairstepped, 179 Rules, 196, 309
Problems o f this -work, 2 Rumor, 173
Profession, Making teaching a, 64 Runner, J., 36
Project method, V I
Property, Respect for, 315 Sayles, Mary Buell, 334
Prophylactics against teacher mind, Scholastic ceremonies, 129
433 School as repository o f ideals, 33
Psychiatric work with students, 456 School board, Function of, 93
With teachers, 457 Technique of handling, 95
Punishment, 200, 312 School, Characteristics of, 6
Value of, 200 Definition of, 6
“ Puppy-love,” Attitude o f teacher Private boarding, 7
toward, 148 Private day, 7
Purification ceremonies, 130 Public, 7
Selective function of, 20, 21, 25
Quarrels, Faculty, 430 School songs, 126
Questions, 286 School spirit ceremonies, 130
466 INDEX
School stores, 81, ff. Social selection in schools, 20

Schools, Various sorts contrasted, 7 Social standing o f teachers, 58 f
Security, Wish for, 136, 395 Social world o f children, Teacher ’
Seeking-avoiding halance, 250, 390 volved in, 212
Segmental wishes, 136 Society o f teachers, 430
Selective function o f school, 20, 21, 25 Sorokin, Pitirim, 19, 20; quoted, 21
In relation to internal structure, 26, 23, 25, 26, 27
27 Special culture o f young, Analysis ol
Selective pattern of teaching, 377 104
Self-feeling, Plow of, 193 Special teachers, relation to community
Separate culture o f school, 103 ff. 64
Sex antagonism, 144 Spencer, Herbert, 322
Sex attitudes, 315 Spinsterhood, 408
Sex attraction between students and Spousors o f school, 85, ff.
teachers, 144 Sportsmanship, 314
Curiosity, 139 Code of, 114
Interplay in the school, 150 Stability o f teacher, 238
L ife o f teachers, 143 Statement as mode o f defining situa
Wishes, 138 tion, 312
Shock, Bifurcated adjustment to, 399 Status o f parents in relation to chil
Shop-talk, 431 dren's status, 36
Simmel, Georg, 193, 339, 351 Status quo, Kivalry in enforcement oi
Situation as education, 448 429
Situational molding o f teacher, 381 Status, Struggle over, 152
Smile, Grim, 230 Stereotype, Attempt to eseape, 420
Synthetic, 232 Teacher, 49, 58, 415
Wan, 232 Stranger, Teacher as, 56, 62
Smith, W. R , 28 Strike, School, 167, ff.
Social affaire, 149 Struck, E. T., 217
Social attitudes, 320 Student morality, 110
Social background o f teacher, 216 Student tradition, 109
Social clubs, 117 Study hall, Disorderly, 164, ff.
Social distance, 279, £f. Subjects, Effect upon personality, 41!
Techniques for maintaining, 280 Subordination, 193
Social distinctions in school, 37 Subordination, Superordination and
Social images, 247, if. 190
Social interaction, School a closed sys Subordination to a principle, 202
tem of, 6 Success, Standards of, 41
Social mobility, 19, 371 Suggestion, Indirect, 203
Defined, 19 Sumner, W. G., 441
Social organization, arrangement for Superintendent, Authority of, 93
wish satisfaction, 134 Life-history of, 99, ff.
Social organism, The school as, 6 Superordination and subordination
Social process, 15 190
Complication by insight, 352 Survivals, 105
In newer schools, 311 Suspended configurations, Use of, 151
Teacher-directed, 287 Synthetic smile, 232
Social relationships, 12
Schema of, 12 Taboos, Anger transmits, 206
INDEX 467
akeoffs, 172 Thrasher, F. M., 104, 180

llkative teachers, 262 Testing devices determining vertical
j&rkington, Booth, 181 mobility o f teachers, 27, ff.
1» skmaster, Teacher as, 383 Theory and practice, Gap between, 192
I'eacher as agent of cultural diffusion, Tradition, ,182
40 Classes of, 108
,,'eaeherage, 56, £f. Transfer of training, 449
fpeacher discontent, Partial analysis of, Transition from categorical to sympa
thetic contacts, 61
40, £f.
Traumatic learning, 398
Teacher dreams, 401
Teacher group, Influence of, 389 Tutoring, Attitude o f teacher toward,
Teacher, Judged by teachers, 29 69
feacher mask, 230 Tyrant, Teacher as, 259
Morality, 428
Unanimity ceremonies, 130
Teacher pride, 152
Unification o f group through athletics,
■'‘ Teacher’ s helpers,” 154
Teacher Stereotype, 49, 58, 415 115, ff.
Unpopular teacher, Succeeding an, 99
■1 Characteristics of, 418
Types of, 419 Uses of this work, 3
’’ eacher tradition, 108
tleacher, Traits o f, 212, ff. Van Druten, Carl, Quoted, 422; 423;
!.Teacher type, Supposed characteristics 430
Vertical mobility, 19
j of, 381
Factors limiting, 20
'Teachers, Varieties of, 410
Vertical mobility o f teachers, 27
Vertical mobility of, 27
Testing devices determining, 27, ff.
^Teaching as a status, 28
IXeaeking ethics, 429 Social fitness, 27
Teaching experience, Value of, 1 Social acceptability, 28
Factors determining rate o f adi
Teaching personnel, Improvement of,
vancement, 29
453
Teaching positions, Distribution of, 63 Visiting teacher, 334
Temper, 205 Voiee, Didactic, 229
S Tempo o f personality, 234 Voice of strain, 228
i Tenure, Insecurity of, 61 Voice o f teacher, 226
,, Techniques for maintaining discipline,
198 Wan smile, 232
Techniques for maintaining social dis Ward, Beater, F., 6
tance, 280 Warners, 396
'Techniques o f “ chiselling,” 364 Weaklings, 267
O f defining situation, 312 IVe-feeling in schools, 13
Wiekman, E. K ., Quoted, 339; 364
O f drill, 411
O f executives, 426 Wilder, Thornton, 398
, O f identification mechanisms, 334 Wishes, The four, 135
Wish satisfaction, Social organization
O f improvisation, 411
O f persuasion, 285 and, 134
t O f teacher participation, 186 W it and humor, 349
O f teaching, 410
Thomas, W. 1., 135, 156, 292; quoted, Young, Kimball, 161, 163, 180
Younger teachers, Discontent of, 422
293; 456

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2001 2896 -

Publication aa a Science Edition paperback

First Science Editions printing, 19G5

O ite of the qualities of a classic hook is that it continues to do for the

this n etw ork , a n d the in d iv id u a l rela tio n s a n d roles o f th e people w ith in

W hat th is h o o t tells is w h a t every teacher kn ow s, th a t the w o r ld o f

phenomena as liy the study of numerical symbols abstracted from

P A R T TWO. THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY

U" V. TEACHERS IN THE COM M UNITY......................................................

SOME IN TERPRETATIONS OF L IF E IN THE SCHOOL

monies 129; Scholastic ceremonies 129; Preparation ceremonies 129;

PAR T FOUR. THE TEACHER-PUPIL RELATIONSHIP

o f tlio personality as a whole 233; Tempo 234; Range of mental personal­

X X . FOCAL POINTS OF STUDENT-TEACHER ANTAGONISM ....... 339

PART FIVE. W H AT TEACHING DOES TO TEACHERS

( 398; Teacher dreams as showing underlying tensions 401; Discipline

segment o f his personality 420; Attempt to break through stereotype 42] ;

PAR T SIX. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A ssim ilation is a process o f interpenetration, and fu sion in w hich persons

I t w ill h elp u s to g rasp the m e a n in g o f th e school as a social insti.

O p p o sin g gro u p s w o rk ou t v ariou s com p ro m ises h y v irtu e o f w h ich

T h e com m on experien ces o f a g ro u p o f p eo p le liv in g togeth er undet

N o w flie existence o f c u ltu ra l la g is ascrib able to a n u m b e r o f

723 in the second grade.

189 in the first grade of high school.

Death and the increase of the population would account fo r a ratio

It is clear enough that the native qualities and abilities of students

T h e best eviden ce th a t classes are r e a lly m ore or less open in th e

scholarships, a n d o th er stu d en t a id s. N e a r ly e v e ry sch o larsh ip is g ov -

ohviou s th a t th e r ig id ity o r la x ity o f th e te stin g m ech an ism s whicl

To summarize; by increasing tbe rapidity o f production o f university

S o r o k in 's fa c t s are n n q u estion ah le. H i s con clu sion s fro m th e fa ct

schools, n o ta h ly the state u n iversities, fe e l such a p ressu re o f stu d en ts

(1 ) S u ch as determ in e fitn ess or u n fitn ess f o r the w ork o f tea ch in g .

(1 ) T h e p r in c ip a l testin g m ech an ism s h y w h ich fitness fo r a tea ch ­

school, in tro d u c in g him to the fa c u lty , or sen d in g the in d iv id u a l to

sidered inefficient. The ahility to discipline is the usual test. Thj

(4 ) L e w is , E. E., Personnel P roblem s o f the Teaching Staff, Chapter*

THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY: GENERAL

O n e w ho th in k s abou t the r e la tio n o f th e sch ool to the co m m u n ity

preven t the dem oralization o f the y o u n g ; as to th at w e h ave p re fe rre d

they m a y g et th em selves r e a d y f o r liv in g in it. A c t u a lly it can n ot

distinction to be a Congressman; in a private school it is not usually

this has heen furnished by the rapid spread of the toothbrush in

This incident leads naturally to a consideration of community school

su llen a n d u n h a p p y hecause o f the u n w illin g ch ild re n who en tered it,

with those specialists w ho d em an d n o t m e re ly th a t th ey sh all p a ss

I promise to take a vital interest in all phases of Sunday-school work,

m o n ey o f the teacher are u n re m ittin g . T h e teach er m u st be availabl ■

. ^ e s e dem an d s are o ften resen ted, a n d w ith reason . B u t an in teres

. T h e m o ra l req u irem en ts th at go w ith school tea ch in g are extrem elj

does not a lw ay s con stitu te a v a lid g ro u n d f o r d ism issin g a teach er

head o f a n adolescent g ir l w ho is a teach er a n d w h o neverth eless be­

1. Recount a dispute hetween school authorities and community leaders

4. Secure statements from a group of teachers on the question, “When is it

Analyze the membership of a high-school social cluh. How much heat,

^ T ^ i t politic for a teacher to engage in church work? Support you

TEACHERS IN THE COMMUNITY

E w o u g h lias teen said to mark out the general position of the

I was list,fining to a group telling jokes customarily heard in a harher

The ohjective side of the isolation of teachers in the community

In smalLer communities the teacher’s difficulty in finding a place

value in terms of a community conflict. The attempt of the superb,

o f tlio personality as a whole 233; Tempo 234; Range of mental personal

(1 ) T h e p r in c ip a l testin g m ech an ism s h y w h ich fitness fo r a tea ch

head o f a n adolescent g ir l w ho is a teach er a n d w h o neverth eless be

The tendency of teachers to associate with teachers has its advan

The keepers o f school stores an d th ose cu sto m a ry “ h a n g -o u t s " fr e

is u n p oetie, h u t e x p lic it o u th is p o in t .) B u t th ere is in trin sic, irra

been elaborated in m ore d etail tb a n a n y oth er cu ltu re p a tte rn . C o m

show . M a n y o f these fu r n ish an excellen t o p p o r tu n ity fo r the expres

subserve en ds acceptable to th e fa c u lty th an there w ou ld be i f a ctiv i

such p e rfo rm a n c e s can n ot p a rticip a te because o f tbe co n stan t inter