Riemannian Geometry, Cartan’s theory

1 Differential forms, exterior operator and

wedge and symmetric products
• Let ω1 , ω2 be two 1-forms on M , then, for every two smooth tangent
vector fields X, Y on M ,
ω1 ∧ ω2 (X, Y ) = ω1 (X)ω2 (Y ) − ω1 (Y )ω2 (X).

• Let ω1 , ω2 be two 1-forms on M , then the symmetric product of ω1 , ω2 ,

denoted by ω1 ω2 (denoted by juxtaposition with no product symbel),
is
1
ω1 ω2 = (ω1 ⊗ ω2 + ω2 ⊗ ω1 ).
2
• Let ω be a one-form on M , then, for every two smooth tangent vector
fields X, Y on M ,
dω(X, Y ) = X(Y (ω)) − Y (X(ω)) − ω([X, Y ]).

Proof: Without loss of generality, we can just consider ω = f dg. Hence

dω = df ∧ dg. Then the identity is easily verified.
• Let ω1 be a r-form, then
d(ω1 ∧ ω2 ) = dω1 ∧ ω2 + (−1)r ω1 ∧ dω2 .

2 Affine Connections for arbitrary frame fields

From Problem 4-5 and problem 7-2 on the textbook: Let 5 be a linear
connection (a connection on T (M )). Let {Ei } be a local frame on open
subset U ⊂ M . Let {φi } be the dual co-frame. Write
m
j
X
5X Ei = ωi (X)Ej .
j=1

ωij are called connection forms. The matrix ω = (ωij ) is called the con-
nection matrix of 5 with respect to the local frame {Ei }.

1
• Define a matrix of 2-forms Ω = (Ωji by
m
1 X
Ωji = j
Rikl φk ∧ φl ,
2 k,l=1

where
j
R(Ek , El )Ei = Rikl Ej .

• Structure equations:
The first structure equation
m
dφi = φj ∧ ωji + τ i ;
X

j=1

where {τ 1 , . . . , τ n } are the torsion 2-forms, defined by the torsion ten-

sor τ and the frame {Ei } by

τ (X, Y ) = τ i (X, Y )Ei

where
τ (X, Y ) = 5X Y − 5Y X − [X, Y ].
The first structure equation appeared in Problem 4-5 on the textbook).

The second structure equation

m m
1 X
dωij = ωih ∧ ωhj + Rj φk ∧ φl
X

h=1 2 k,l=1 ikl

where
j
R(Ek , El )Ei = Rikl Ej .
The second structure equation appeared in Problem 7-2 on the text-
book). The second structre equation can also be written as
m
Ωji = dωij − ωih ∧ ωhj ,
X

h=1

or simple
Ω = dω − ω ∧ ω.

2
Proof: We first prove the first structure equation.
m
i
φj ∧ ωji )(Ek , El ) = Ek (φi (El )) − El (φi (Ek )) − φi ([Ek , El ])
X
(dφ −
j=1
m
[φj (Ek )ωji (El ) − φj (El )ωji (Ek )]
X
−
j=1

= ωl (Ek ) − ωki (El ) − ω i ([Ek , El ])

i

= Γilk − Γikl − φi ([ek , el ])

= φi (5Ek El − 5El Ek − [Ek , El ])
= φi (τ (Ek , El )).
Hence, the first identity has been proven.

We now prove the second indentity.

m
(dωij ωih ∧ ωhj )(Ek , El ) = Ek (ωij (El )) − El (ωij (Ek ))
X
−
h=1
m
−ωij ([Ek , El ]) − [ωih (Ek )ωhj (El ) − ωih (El )ωhj (Ek )]
X

h=1
m
= Ek (Γjil ) − El (Γjik ) − ωih ([Ek , El ])Γjih
X

h=1
m
[Γhik Γjhl − Γhil Γjhk ].
X
−
h=1

On the other hand,

R(Ek , El )Ei = 5Ek 5El Ei − 5El 5Ek Ei − 5[Ek ,El ] Ei
m m
[5Ek (Γjil Ej ) − 5El (Γjik Ej ) − φh ([Ek , El ])Γjih ]Ej
X X
=
j=1 h=1
m m
[5Ek (Γjil ) − 5El (Γjik ) + (Γhil Γjhk − Γhik Γjhl − φh ([Ek , El ])Γjih )]Ej
X X
=
j=1 h=1

Hence we have
m m
[(dωij − ωih ∧ ωhj )(Ek , El )]Ej .
X X
R(Ek , El )Ei =
j=1 h=1

3
 Thus
m
j
= ω j (R(Ek , El )ei ) = (dωij − ωih ∧ ωhj )(Ek , El ).
X
Rikl
h=1

The second identity is thus proved.

• Bianchi indentity:

dΩ = ω ∧ Ω − Ω ∧ ω,
m m
dΩji = ωih ∧ Ωjh − Ωhi ∧ ωhj ,
X X

k=1 h=1

or simply we can write

dΩ = ω ∧ Ω − Ω ∧ ω.

The proof of Bianchi indentity is as follows: from the second structure

equation,
Ω = dω − ω ∧ ω,
Hence
dΩ = −dω ∧ ω + ω ∧ dω
= −(Ω + ω ∧ ω) ∧ ω + ω(Ω + ω ∧ ω = −Ω ∧ ω + ω ∧ Ω.

• Cartan’s theory Let M be a Riemannian manifold with Riemannian

metric ds2 . Let {ωi , 1 ≤ i ≤ m} be a set of 1-forms on U which are
linearly independent at every point in U , and such that

ds2 = ω12 + · · · + ωn2 .

Then there exists a unique set of m2 1-forms {ωij } with ωij = −ωji ,
called the connection forms, such that
m
X
dωi = ωj ∧ ωij ;
j=1

m
X 1
dωij = ωkj ∧ ωik + Rijkl ωk ∧ ωl .
k=1 2

4
 The tensor Rijkl is called the curvature tensor of the Riemannian metric
ds2 .
Note that these structure euqations are often used together with the
Bianchi indentity:
dΩ = ω ∧ Ω − Ω ∧ ω.

3 Calculating the sectional curvature

Recall that
R(X, Y, X, Y )
Kp (E) = − .
G(X, Y, X, Y )
Let e1 , . . . , em be an orthonormal(with respect to the Riemannian metric)
local frame field for T (M ) on U with e1 , e2 ∈ E. Let ω 1 , . . . , ω m be its dual
(they are one-forms). Then G = m i i
i=1 ω ⊗ ω . So G(e1 , e2 , e1 , e2 ) = 1. Thus
P

Kp (E) = −R(e1 , e2 , e1 , e2 ).
where R(e1 , e2 , e1 , e2 ) = G(R(e1 , e2 )e1 , e2 ). Write
m
ω j (R(e1 , e2 )e1 )ej .
X
R(e1 , e2 )e1 =
j=1

Then G(R(e1 , e2 )e1 , e2 ) = ω 2 (R(e1 , e2 )e1 ). Hence

Kp (E) = −ω 2 (R(e1 , e2 )e1 ).
Recall the (second) structure equation (taking i = 1, j = 2):
m m
1 X
dω12 = ω1h ∧ ωh2 + ω 2 (R(ek , el )e1 )ω k ∧ ω l .
X

h=1 2 k,l=1

This means the sectional curvature Kp (E) can calculated by calculating the
connection forms ωjk , calculating dω12 and using the (second) structure equa-
tion.

Example: On Rm , define
m
4
dxi ⊗ dxi ,
X
G= Pm i 2 2
(1 + c i=1 (x ) ) i=1

5
where c > 0 is a constant. Calculate its sectional curvature.

Solution: Let A = 1 + c m i 2 i j
i=1 (x ) , then gij = G(∂/∂x , ∂/∂x ) = 0 if i 6= j
P
2 i
and gii = A . So let ei = (A/2)∂/∂x . Then {e1 , . . . , em } are the orthonormal
basis (with respect to this Riemannina metric). Let {ω 1 , . . . , ω m } be its dual
basis. So have ω i = A2 dxi . We can write
m
ωi ⊗ ωi.
X
G=
i=1

Let E ⊂ Tp Rm be a subspace of dimension two, without loss of generality,

we assume that e1 , e2 ∈ E. From above, to calculate the sectional curvature,
we only need to calculate ω 2 (R(e1 , e2 )e1 ). To do this, we use the structure
eqautions,
m m
1 X
dω12 = ω1h ∧ ωh2 + ω 2 (R(ek , el )e1 )ω k ∧ ω l .
X

h=1 2 k,l=1

We first find the connection forms ωij (using the fundamental theorem of
Riemannian geometry). In fact,

dxi 4c X j i
dω i = 2 x dx ∧ dxj = c xj ω i ∧ ω j .
X
2
∧ dA = 2
A A j j

On the other hand, by structure equation

dω i = ω j ∧ ωji , ωji + ωij = 0.

X

To find ωji , write (since ω i , 1 ≤ i ≤ m, is a basis)

m
ωji Ai,j k
X
= k ω .
k=1

From ωji + ωij = 0, We know that ωii = 0 and we know that Ai,j j,i
k = −Ak ,
ai,i
k = 0. Hence

m m
dω i = ω j ∧ωji = ω j ∧( Ai,j k
Ai,j j k
(Ai,j i,k j k
X X X X X
k ω ) = k ω ∧ω = k −Aj )ω ∧ω .
j j k=1 k,j=1 j<k

6
From abovem dω i = c xj ω i ∧ ω j . Hence
P
j

xj ω i ∧ ω j = (Ai,j i,k j k
X X
c k − Aj )ω ∧ ω .
j j<k

This means that, by looking at the terms before xi ∧xk for k > i, Ai,i i,k
k −Ai =
cxk , since Ai,i
k = 0, we have Ai
i,k
= −cxk . By looking at the terms before
xi ∧ xj for j < i, we have Ai − Ai,i
i,j j i,j j
j = cx . Hence Ai = cx for j < i.
For any k, j 6= i, by comparing both sides of the equation, we have Ai,j
k = 0.
Hence we get the connection forms
ωji = c(xi ω j − xj ω i ).
In particular,
ω12 = c(x2 ω 1 − x1 ω 2 ).
To calculate the curvature, we use the second structure equation. To do so,
m
we need to calculate dω12 − ω1h ∧ ωh2 . In fact,
X

h=1
m
dω12 − ω1h ∧ ωh2 = c(dx2 ∧ ω 1 + x2 dω 1 − dx1 ∧ ω 2 − x1 dω 2 )
X

h=1
m
−c2 (xh ω 1 − x1 ω h ) ∧ (x2 ω h − xh ω 2 )
X

h=1
m m
!
2 1 2 k 1 k 1 k 2 k
X X
= c Aω ∧ ω + c x x ω ∧ω −c x x ω ∧ω
k=1 k=1
m
−c2 (x2 xh ω 1 ∧ ω h + x1 xh ω h ∧ ω 2 + (xh )2 ω 2 ∧ ω 1 )
X

h=1
m
!
2 k 2
ω 2 ∧ ω 1 = −cω 1 ∧ ω 2
X
= Ac − c (x )
k=1

From the structure equation, we have

m m
1 X
dω12 − ω1h ∧ ωh2 = ω 2 (R(ek , el )e1 )ω k ∧ ω l .
X

h=1 2 k,l=1

Hence m
1 X
−cω 1 ∧ ω 2 = ω 2 (R(ek , el )e1 )ω k ∧ ω l .
2 k,l=1

7
Which means that ω 2 (R(e1 , e2 )e1 ) = −c. we have

Kp (E) = −ω 2 (R(e1 , e2 )e1 ) = c.

Hence its sectional curavture is constant.

Remark: An alternative way to find the connection forms ωjk is to use the
uniqueness of existence of Roemannina connection, as follows:

dxi 4c X j i
dω i = 2 x dx ∧dxj = c xj ω i ∧ω j = ω j ∧c(xi ω j −xj ω i ).
X X
2
∧dA = 2
A A j j j

If we let ωji = c((xi ω j − xj ω i ), then

dω i = ω j ∧ ωji , ωji + ωij = 0.

By the uniqueness of the existence of Roemannina connection, we have (ωji )

is the connection matrix of the L-C connection 5 with respect to the frame
ω i . Hence ωji = c((xi ω j − xj ω i ) are the connection forms.

HW: Let U ⊂ Rn−1 be an open set. Let η2 , . . . , ηn be smooth one forms

on U such that
(ds1 )2 = η22 + · · · + ηn2
defines a Riemannian metric on U . Let θ2 , . . . , θn be local coordinates of U .
Let f (r, θ) be a positive function on R+ × U . Define a Riemannian metric
n
ds2 = dr2 + f 2 (r, θ) ηi2
X

i=2

on R+ × U , where R+ is the set of positive real numbers. Remark: example

of this setting appears in the Euclidean metric under polar coordinates. For
example, in R2 , the Euclidean metric can be written as ds2 = dr2 + r2 dθ2 (of
course the curvature in this case is zero). Calculate the curvature tensors as
follows:

Step 1: Let ω1 = dr, ωk = f (r, θ)ηk , k > 1. Then

ds2 = ω12 + · · · ωn2 .

8
Let e1 , . . . , en be the dual basis of ω1 , . . . , ωn , and let etakl be the connection
forms of (ds1 )2 (which is the metric on U ). Define

ω1l = −e1 (log f )ωl

and
ωkl = ηkl − ek (log f )ωl + el (log f )ωk
for k, l > 1. Do the following proofs:
(1) Prove that dωi = −ωij ∧ ωj
(2) Show that

ek (∂f /∂r)
dω1l + ω1k ∧ ωkl = − ωk ∧ ωl ,
f

using the fact that e1 = ∂/∂r.

Use (2) to show that

em (∂f /∂r) en (∂f /∂r)

R1lmn = −δln + −δlm .
f f
∂
In particular, the Ricci curvature at ∂r
direction is

1 ∂2f
R11 = R1l1l = −(n − 1) .
f ∂r2