Subiecte engleza

1. Basic Education Vocabulary

2. Human anatomy 0
3. Body tissue 0
4. The skeletal-muscular system 0
5. The respiratory system 0
6. Medical terminology (suffixes and prefixes, greek and latin plurals)
7. The cardiovascular system
8. The digestive system
9. The endocrine system 0
10. Highlights from the history of medicine
11. Hippocrates and the Hippocratic oath
12. First aid 0
13. Adverse drug reactions
14. Drug abuse and dependence

2. Human anatomy
The human body is a remarkably complex and efficient machine. It takes in and absorbs oxygen
through the respiratory system. Then the oxygen-enriched blood is distributed through the
cardiovascular system to all tissues. The digestive system converts digestible food to energy and
disposes of the rest. The skeletal-muscular system gives from the body. And covering almost the
entire mass is the skin, the largest organ of the body. Liquids wastes are eliminated through the
urinary system. Closely associated with the urinary system is the reproductive system, by which
human life is carried on to the future generations. The science of the structure of this complicated
“machine” is called anatomy.

3. Body tissues
Groups of cells which are similar in structure and function are called tissues. The four primary
tissue types are epithelium, connective tissue, nervous tissue and muscle – interweave to form
the “fabric” of the body. Tissues are organized into organs such as the heart, the kidneys and the
lungs. Most organs contain several tissue types, and the arrangement of the tissues determines
each organ’s structure and what it is able to do.
Epithelial tissue or epithelium is the lining, covering, and glandular tissue of the body.
Connective tissue connects body parts. It is found everywhere in the body. It is the most
abundant and widely distributed of the tissue types.
Muscle tissues are highly specialized to contract or shorten to produce movement. Because
muscle cells are elongated to provide a long axis for contraction, they are called muscle fibers.
Nervous tissue is made by 2 types of cells: neurons, or nerve cells, that make up the conducting
tissue of nervous system, and neuroglia, the connective tissue cells of the nervous system that
support and protect neurons.

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4. The skeletal-muscular system
The function of skeletal system is to provide a supporting and protecting framework for the
body and its internal organs. It provides attachment for muscles and is the site for production of
red blood cells.
Long bones are those of the limbs and have a shaft with articular surfaces at each end. The
periphery of the shaft being compact bone and the ends and centre of the shaft being spongy
cancellous bone.
Short bones are roughly cuboidal and consist of spongy bone with a thin layer of compact bone
surrounding them. Examples: carpals, tarsals.
Flat bones consist of a thin layer of cancellous bone enclosed on each aspect by a layer of
compact bone (i.e. bone of the skull, scapula, pelvis).
Sesamoid bones are “floating” bones found in tendons over joints but not directly connected with
a joint. (patella)
Most important bones are:
 The spine, which has four main sections (cervical, thoracic, lumbar vertebrae, and sacrum
and coccyx in the pelvis)
 12 pairs of ribs, from the walls of the thorax and permit the movement of respiration. The
lower ribs give protection to the upper abdominal contents.
 Sternum, clavicles, the scapulae
 Upper limb: radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
 Lower limb: femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals
 Pelvis: ilium, ischium, pubis
Joints are the places of union, usually more or less movable (fixed, slightly movable, freely
movable)

There are types of muscles:

 Involuntary – under the control of the autonomic nervous system
 Cardiac muscle – is involuntary but has different automatic methods of control by the
cardiac centre in the brain and an intrinsic stimulating factor
 Voluntary muscle – each muscle is made up of a large number of separate fibres bound
together by a sheath of connective tissue. The whole muscle is enclosed by a sheet of
fibrous tissue= fascia.
Tendons are the fibrous ends of muscles attached directly to bone. A muscle is said to have a
tendon of origin and a tendon of insertion.
The contraction is initiated by stimulation of the motor end plates at which the stimulus from the
central nervous system arrives. Each fiber has its own motor end plate.
All muscle has “tone” which is a state of partial contraction; it is this “tone” which helps to
maintain the appearance of the muscles in their healthy state.

5. The respiratory system

The respiratory system consists of the lungs and the passages. In the course of respiration, air
passes through the following structures: larynx, trachea, and bronchi. The function of the
respiratory system is to provide the body the body with oxygen needed to mentain life, and to get
rid of the carbon dioxide which is produced as a waste product of the body’s metabolism.

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The lungs are asymmetrical cone-shaped organs, located in the thoracic cavity. The right lung is
divided into 3 lobes and the left lung into 2.
Normal breathing consists of active breathing-in (inspiration) followed by passive breathing-out
(expiration).
The function of the lungs is the interchange of gases, carried out by alveoli. Oxygen is taken up
and carbon dioxide is given off. The tissue cells take oxygen from the hemoglobin to enable
oxidation to go on, and the blood receives in exchange the waste product of oxidation, carbon
dioxide.
Pulmonary respiration consists of 4 processes, which are necessary to correct the amount of CO2
and O2:
 Ventilation
 Blood flow through the lungs
 Distribution of air-flow and blood
 Diffusion

7. The cardiovascular system

Heart and circulatory system make up the cardiovascular system. Heart works as a pump that
pushes blood to the organs, tissues and cells. Blood is carried from the heart to the rest of the
body through a complex network of arteries, arterioles and capillaries. Blood is returned to the
heart through venules and veins.
Twenty major artieries make a path through the tissues, where they branch into smaller vessels
called arterioles. Arterioles further branch into capillaries. Once the capillaries deliver oxygen
and nutrients and pick up carbon dioxide and other wastes they move the blood back through
wider vessels called venules. Venules eventually join to form veins, which deliver the blood back
to the heart to pick up oxygen.

9. The endocrine system

Compared to other organs of the body, the organs of the endocrine system are small and
unimpressive. The endocrine organs lack the structure of anatomical continuity typical of most
organ systems.

The chemistry of hormones – Hormones may be defined as chemical substances, secreted by

cells into the extracellular fluids, that regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the body.
Although many different hormones are produced, nearly all of them can be classified chemically
as either amino acid-based molecules (including proteins, peptides and amines) or steroids.

Mechanism of hormone action – In order for a cell to respond to a hormone, specific protein
receptors must be present on its plasma membrane on its interior, to which that hormone can
attach.
The precise changes that follow hormone binding depend on the specific hormone and the target
cell type, but typically one or more of the following occurs:
1. Changes in plasma membfrane permeability or electrical state
2. Synthesis of proteins or certain regulatory molecules (such as enzymes) in the cell
3. Activation or inactivation of enzymes
4. Stimulation of mitosis

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The major Endocrine organs
The major endocrine glands of the body include the pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal,
pineal and thymus glands, the pancreas and the gonads (ovaries and testes).

The pituitary gland – consists of a glandular (anterior) portion and a neural (posterior) portion.
Except fot the growth hormone and prolactin, hormones of the anterior pituitary are all tropic
hormones. They are:
 Prolactin
 Growth hormone
 Adenocorticotropic hormone
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone
 Gonadotropic hormones: follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing
hormone
Releasing and inhibiting hormones made by the hypothalamus regulate release of hormones
made by the anterior pituitary.
The posterior pituitary stores and releases hypothalamic hormones on command. Hormons stored
in posterior pituitary are oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone.
The thyroid gland is located in the anterior throat. Thyroid hormones (thyroxine and
triiodothyronine) are released from the thyroid follicles when blood levels of TSH rise. The
thyroid hormone is the body’s metabolic hormone. It increases the rate at which cells oxidize
glucose and it is necessary for normal growth and development. Lack of iodine leads to goiter.
The parathyroid glands are four small glands located in the posterior aspect of the thyroid gland.
Low blood levels of calcium stimulate the parathyroid glands to release the the parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
The adrenal glands are paired glands perched on the kidneys. Each gland has 2 functional
endocrine portions, the cortex and the medulla. The adrenal cortex produces 3 groups of
hormones:
 Mineralocorticoids
 Glucocorticoids
 Sex hormones
The pancreatic islets are located in the abdomen close to the stomach. The pancreas is both an
exocrine and endocrine gland. The endocrine portion releases insulin and glucagon to the blood.
Insulin is released when blood levels of glucose are high. It increases the rate of glucose uptake
and metabolism by body cells.
The pineal gland – located in the third ventricle of the brain, releases melatonin, which affects
biological rhythms and reproductive behavior.
The thymus gland – located in the upper thorax, functions during youth, but atrophies in old age.
Its hormone, thymosin, is bielived to cause the maturation of T lymphocites, important in body
defense.
The ovaries of the female, located in the pelvic cavity, release 2 hormones, estrogen and
progesterone. Estrogens stimulate maturation of the productive organs and development of
secondary sex characteristics of the female. With progesterone, they cause the menstrual cycle.
The testes of the male begin to produce testosterone at puberty. Testosterone promotes
maturation of the reproductive organs, male secondary sex characteristics and production of
sperm.
The placenta is a remarkable organ, formed temporarily in the uterus of pregnant women.

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12. First aid

An emergency is a situation that requires immediate care to prevent greater harm to the pacient.
Most first-aid procedures are not complicated and can be performed by someone with a
minimum of training.
1. One of the most serious emergencies occurs when an individual has stopped breathing. This
may be the result of asphyxiation, electrocution, drowing, heart attack or some other causes.
After only 4 minutes without oxygen, brain damage is likely. To prevent brain damage or death,
artificial respiration must be started immediately.
2. Before resuscitation is begun, the victim should be placed face-up on a hard, plat surface. The
primary consideration include restoration of breathing and heartbeat. Clothing should be
loosened and foreign matter or vomit cleared from the mouth.
3. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) of a pacient involves 2 procedures: the first is getting
oxygen into the blood by blowing air into the lungs, mouth-to-mouth method being the most
efficient. The second procedure is the application of chest pressure to compress the heart and
force blood into the circulatory system. If one is alone with a victim, breathing and massage must
be alternated. CPR is far more effective if is performed by a team of two.
4. After cardiac arrest, the most critical emergency is severe bleeding (hemorrhaging),
especially from a main artery. Pressure must be placed at the site of bleeding. Care must be taken
to loosen the pressure from time to time, to prevent cangrene.
5. Another common emergency is chocking on food. A procedure known as the Heimlich
maneuver is commonly used to unblock the trachea. The victim is clutched from behind, and the
rescurer presses his hands on the victim’s chest.
8. A condition that accompanies many medical emergencies is shock. When a victim is in chock,
the bodily tissues are not receiving enough oxygen. The victim should be made to lie flat with
the feet raised. No food or drink should be given and the rescurer must wait until help arrives.
9. Severe injuries to the head rank among the most serious emergencies. Warning signs of
damage include unconsciousness, excessive sleepiness, vomiting, headache, bleeding and
confusion. The victim should be moved as little as possible until a physician determines that
there is no injury to the spine.
10. Neck and back injuries are equally serious. A victim with a back injury should be moved as
little as possible to avoid another injuries.
11. A very common but usually less serious emergency is a broken bone. In a simple or closed
fracture, the bone fragments do not pierce the skin. An open fracture can increase the risk of
infection. If a fracture is suspected, it is best not to have the victim test it by putting pressure on
it and the bone must be immobilized until medical help is available.
12. Small lacerations (cuts) and simple hematomas (bruises) are not usually serious, but some
blood clots (also called hematomas) can be very serious. Whenever the skin is broken, the wound
should be cleaned well with soap and water to remove foreign objects and dirt. An infection can
also cause fever.
13. Burns are classified as first, second, or third degree, depending on their severity. A first-
degree burn can be treated with a cooling lotion or cream, but more serious burns require prompt
medical attention to avoid the shock and dehydration.
14. Many household chemicals such as ammonia, bleach and dishwasher detergent furnish the
potential of serious crises. The ingestion of these and other poisonous substances frequently

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creates emergencies, especially among young children. In some cases, the victim should be
forced to vomit. In any cases, a doctor should be contacted. Households with children should
keep that phone number handy in case of such an emergency.