1Submitted by:-

Name – Alok Anand

Btc Roll no. – 17081301013
Mechanical Engg. – IVth ‘A’
Submitted to:-
Ratnesh Kumar Gupta
(Lecturer of Mechanical Department)

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 Index
Page
S.No. Date Experiment Name Remarks
No.
To study the different components of
1. 3
Internal combustion Engine
Draw the valve timing diagram of a diesel
2. 8
engine-single cylinder.
Study the working of a carburetor used in
3. 10
scooter/motor cycle. Study of MPFI.
Study a fuel injection pump, injector by
4. 14
dismantling it.
Study a distributor of a four - cylinder
5. 16
petrol engine.
Locate and draw the cooling circuit of
multi-cylinder engine and study the
6. Construction of the radiator and locate and 19
draw the lubricating circuit of a single
cylinder diesel engine.
To find out IHP, BHP and specific fuel
7. consumption, specific fuel consumption 24
and mechanical efficiency.
Study the construction and working of a
8. 26
reciprocating air compressor.
Study of following Automotive Parts,
9. 29
Front axle and Real axle.
Study of following Automotive systems: -
I. Elements of Transmission systems
10. Differential, Gear Box, Clutch 33
II. Braking System

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 Experiment No. – 1
Object: - To study the different components of Internal combustion Engine.
Apparatus required: - A working model of Internal combustion engine

Theory: - An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine where the combustion of
a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of
the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-
temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component
of the engine. The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force
moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy.

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 Components of Internal Combustion Engine
1. Engine cylinder: - Cylinder is the main body of IC engine. Cylinder is a part in which the intake of
fuel, compression of fuel and burning of fuel take place. The main function of cylinder is to guide the
piston. It is in direct contact with the products of combustion so it must be cooled. For cooling of cylinder
a water jacket (for liquid cooling used in most of cars) or fin (for air cooling used in most of bikes) are
situated at the outer side of cylinder. At the upper end of cylinder, cylinder head and at the bottom end
crank case is bolted. The upper side of cylinder is consists a combustion chamber where fuel burns. To
handle all this pressure and temperature generated by combustion of fuel, cylinder material should have
high compressive strength. So it is made by high grade cast iron. It is made by casting and usually cast
in one piece.

2. Cylinder head: - The top end of the engine cylinder is closed by means of removable cylinder head.
There are two holes or ports at the cylinder head, one for intake of fuel and other for exhaust. Both the
intake and exhaust ports are closed by the two valves known as inlet and exhaust valve. The inlet valve,
exhaust valve, spark plug, injector etc. are bolted on the cylinder head. The main function of cylinder
head is to seal the cylinder block and not to permit entry and exit of gases on cover head valve engine.
Cylinder head is usually made by cast iron or aluminum. It is made by casting or forging and usually in
one piece.

3. Piston: - A piston is fitted to each cylinder as a face to receive gas pressure and transmit the thrust to
the connecting rod. It is a prime mover in the engine. The main function of piston is to give tight seal
to the cylinder through bore and slide freely inside the cylinder. Piston should be light and sufficient
strong to handle gas pressure generated by combustion of fuel. So the piston is made by aluminum
alloy and sometimes it is made by cast iron because light alloy piston expands more than cast iron so
they need more clearances to the bore.

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4. Piston rings: - A piston must be a fairly loose fit in the cylinder so it can move freely inside the
cylinder. If the piston is too tight fit, it would expand as it got hot and might stick tight in the cylinder
and if it is too loose it would leaks the vapor pressure. To provide a good sealing fit and less friction
resistance between the piston and cylinder, pistons are equipped with piston rings. These rings are
fitted in grooves which have been cut in the piston. They are split at one end so they can expand or
slipped over the end of piston. A small two stroke engine has two piston rings to provide good sealing
but a four stroke engine has an extra ring which is known as oil ring. Piston rings are made of cast iron
of fine grain and high elastic material which is not affected by the working heat. Sometimes it is made
by alloy spring steel.
5. Connecting rod: - Connecting rod connects the piston to crankshaft and transmits the motion and
thrust of piston to crankshaft. It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of
crankshaft. There are two end of connecting rod; one is known as big end and other as small end. Big
end is connected to the crankshaft and the small end is connected to the piston by use of piston pin.
The connecting rods are made of nickel, chrome, and chrome vanadium steels. For small engines the
material may be aluminum.

6. Crankshaft: - The crankshaft of an internal combustion engine receives the efforts or thrust supplied
by piston to the connecting rod and converts the reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of
crankshaft. The crankshaft mounts in bearing so it can rotate freely. The shape and size of crankshaft
depends on the number and arrangement of cylinders. It is usually made by steel forging, but some
makers use special types of cast-iron such as spheroidal graphitic or nickel alloy castings which are
cheaper to produce and have good service life.
7. Engine bearing: - Everywhere there is rotary action in the engine, bearings are needed. Bearings are
used to support the moving parts. The crankshaft is supported by bearing. The connecting rod big end
is attached to the crank pin on the crank of the crankshaft by a bearing. A piston pin at the small end is
used to attach the rod to the piston is also rides in bearings. The main function of bearings is to reduce
friction between these moving parts. In an IC engine sliding and rolling types of bearing used. The
sliding type bearing which are sometime called bush is use to attach the connecting rod to the piston
and crankshaft. They are split in order to permit their assembly into the engine. The rolling and ball
bearing is used to support crankshaft so it can rotate freely. The typical bearing half is made of steel or
bronze back to which a lining of relatively soft bearing material is applied.

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8. Crankcase: - The main body of the engine at which the cylinder are attached and which contains the
crankshaft and crankshaft bearing is called crankcase. It serves as the lubricating system too and
sometime it is called oil sump. All the oil for lubrication is placed in it.
9. Valves: - To control the inlet and exhaust of internal combustion engine, valves are used. The
number of valves in an engine depends on the number of cylinders. Two valves are used for each
cylinder one for inlet of air-fuel mixture inside the cylinder and other for exhaust of combustion gases.
The valves are fitted in the port at the cylinder head by use of strong spring. This spring keep them
closed. Both valves usually open inwards.
10. Spark plug: - It is used in spark ignition engine. The main function of a spark plug is to conduct a
high potential from the ignition system into the combustion chamber to ignite the compressed air fuel
mixture. It is fitted on cylinder head. The spark plug consists of a metal shell having two electrodes
which are insulated from each other with an air gap. When high potential current supply to spark plug it
jumping from the supply electrode and produces the necessary spark.

11. Injector: - Injector is usually used in compression ignition engine. It sprays the fuel into combustion
chamber at the end of compression stroke. It is fitted on cylinder head stroke. Fuel injection is a system
for mixing fuel with air in an internal combustion engine. It has become the primary fuel delivery system,
which is used in automotive petrol engines. The primary difference between carburetors and fuel
injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high
pressure, while a carburetor relies on low pressure created by intake air rushing through it to add the fuel
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to the airstream. The fuel injector is only a nozzle and a valve: the power to inject the fuel comes from
a pump or a pressure container farther back in the fuel supply.
12. Manifold: - The main function of manifold is to supply the air fuel mixture and collects the exhaust
gases equally from all cylinder. In an internal combustion engine two manifold are used, one for intake
and other for exhaust. They are usually made by aluminum alloy.
13. Camshaft: - Camshaft is used in IC engine to control the opening and closing of valves at proper
timing. For proper engine output inlet valve should open at the end of exhaust stroke and closed at the
end of intake stroke. So to regulate its timing, a cam is use which is oval in shape and it exerts a
pressure on the valve to open and release to close. It is drive by the timing belt which drives by
crankshaft. It is placed at the top or at the bottom of cylinder.

14. Gudgeon pin or piston pin: - These are hardened steel parallel spindles fitted through the piston
bosses and the small end bushes or eyes to allow the connecting rods to swivel. It connects the piston
to connecting rod. It is made hollow for lightness.

15. Flywheel: - A flywheel is secured on the crankshaft. The main function of flywheel is to rotate the
shaft during preparatory stroke. It also makes crankshaft rotation more uniform. This is all about main
parts of an engine. If you have any query regarding this article ask by commenting. If you like this
article, don’t forget to share it on social network. Subscribe our website for more informative article.

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 Experiment No. – 2
Object: - Draw the valve timing diagram of a diesel engine-single cylinder.
Apparatus required: - Four stroke cycle diesel engine, Measuring tape, Chalk, Piece of paper
Theory and Description: - The diagram which shows the position of crank of four stroke cycle
engine at the beginning and at the end of suction, compression, expansion, and exhaust of the engine
are called as Valve Timing Diagram. The extreme position of the bottom of the cylinder is called
“Bottom Dead Centre” [BDC].IN the case of horizontal engine, this is known as “Outer Dead Centre”
[ODC]. The position of the piston at the top of the cylinder is called “Top Dead Centre” [TDC].In case
of horizontal engine this is known as “Inner Dead Centre” [TDC]. In case of horizontal engine this is
known as “inner dead center “[IDC]. In an ideal engine, the inlet valve opens at TDC and closes at
BDC. The exhaust valve opens at BDC and closes at TDC. The fuel is injected into the cylinder when
the piston is at TDC and at the end of compression stroke but in actual practice it will differ.
Inlet Valve opening and closing
In an actual engine, the inlet valve begins to open 5°C to 20 °C before the piston reaches the TDC
during the end of exhaust stroke. This is necessary to ensure that the valve will be fully open when the
piston reaches the TDC. If the inlet valve is allowed to close at BDC, the cylinder would receive less
amount of air than its capacity and the pressure at the end of suction will be below the atmospheric
pressure. To avoid this the inlet valve is kept open for 25° to 40°after BDC.
Exhaust valve opening and closing
Complete clearing of the burned gases from the cylinder is necessary to take in more air into the
cylinder. To achieve this the exhaust valve is opens at 35° to 45° before BDC and closes at 10° to 20°
after the TCC. It is clear from the diagram, for certain period both inlet valve and exhaust valve
remains in open condition. The crank angles for which the both valves are open are called as
overlapping period. This overlapping is more than the petrol engine.

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Fuel valve opening and closing
The fuel valve opens at 10° to 15 °before TDC and closes at 15° to 20 ° after TDC. This is because
better evaporation and mixing fuel.
Observation and Tabulation:
1. Circumference of the flywheel = X Cm
1 cm = 360/X degree

Position of crank w.r.t. to Distance in Angle in

S.No. Event
TDC or BDC (cm) degree
1. IVO Before TDC

2. IVC After BDC

3. EVO Before BDC

4. EVC After TDC

5. FVO Before TDC

6. FVS After TDC

Procedure:
1. Remove the cylinder head cover and identify the inlet valve, exhaust valve and piston of
particular cylinder.
2. Mark the BDC and TDC position of flywheel
3. This is done by rotating the crank in usual direction of rotation and observe the position of the
fly wheel, when the piston is moving downwards at which the piston begins to move in
opposite direction. I.e. from down to upward direction. Make the mark on the flywheel with
reference to fixed point on the body of the engine. That point is the BDC for that cylinder
.Measure the circumference. That point is TDC and is diametrically opposite to the BDC.
4. Insert the paper in the tappet clearance of both inlet and exhaust valves
5. Slowly rotate the crank until the paper in the tappet clearance of inlet valve is gripped .make
the mark on fly wheel against fixed reference. This position represent the inlet valve open
(IVO). Measure the distance from TDC and tabulate the distance.
6. Rotate the crank further, till the paper is just free to move. Make the marking on the flywheel
against the fixed reference. This position represent the inlet valve close (IVC). Measure the
distance from BDC and tabulate the distance.
7. Rotate the crank further, till the paper in the tappet clearance of exhaust valve is gripped. Make
the marking on the flywheel against fixed reference. This position represents the exhaust valve
open (EVO). Measure the distance from BDC and tabulate.
8. Then convert the measured distances into angle in degrees
Result: The valve timing diagram for the given four stroke Diesel engine was drawn.
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 EXPERIMENT – 3
AIM: - Study the working of a carburetor used in scooter/motor cycle. Study of MPFI.
THEORY & DESCRIPTION- A carburetor is a device that mixes air and fuel for internal
combustion engines in the proper air–fuel ratio for combustion. To carburetor carburet (and thus
carburation or carburetion, respectively) means to mix the air and fuel or to equip (an engine) with a
carburetor for that purpose.
Carburetors have largely been supplanted in the automotive and, to a lesser extent, aviation industries
by fuel injection. They are still common on small engines for lawn mowers, rototillers and other
equipment.
Principle of carburetor- The carburetor works on Bernoulli's principle: the faster air moves,
the lower its static pressure, and higher the dynamic pressure is. The throttle (accelerator) linkage does
not directly control the flow of liquid fuel. Instead, it actuates carburetor mechanisms which meter the
flow of air being carried into the engine. The speed of this flow, and therefore its (static) pressure,
determines the amount of fuel drawn into the airstream. When carburetors are used in aircraft with
piston engines, special features are needed to prevent fuel starvation during inverted flight. Later
engines used an early form of fuel injection known as a pressure carburetor.
Most production carbureted engines, as opposed to fuel-injected, have a single carburetor and a
matching intake manifold that divides and transports the air / fuel mixture to the intake valves, though
some engines (like motorcycle engines) use multiple carburetors on split heads.
Older engines used updraft carburetors, where the air enters from below the carburetor and exits
through the top. This had the advantage of never flooding the engine, as any liquid fuel droplets would
fall out of the carburetor instead of into the intake manifold; it also lent itself to use of an oil bath air
cleaner, where a pool of oil below a mesh element below the carburetor is sucked up into the mesh and
the air is drawn through the oil-covered mesh; this was an effective system in a time when paper air
filters did not exist.

The main disadvantage of basing a carburetor's operation on Principles that, being a fluid dynamic
device, the pressure reduction in a venture tends to be proportional to the square of the intake air speed.
The fuel jets are much smaller and fuel flow is limited mainly by the fuel's viscosity, so that the fuel
flow tends to be proportional to the pressure difference. So jets sized for full power tend to starve the
engine at lower speed and part throttle. Most commonly this has been corrected by using multiple jets.
Fixed-venture - Varying air velocity in the venture controls the fuel flow; the most common type
of carburetor found on cars.

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Variable-venture - The fuel jet opening is varied by the slide (which simultaneously alters air
flow). In "constant depression" carburetors, this is done by a vacuum operated piston connected to a
tapered needle which slides inside the fuel jet. A simpler version exists, most commonly found on
small motorcycles and dirt bikes, where the slide and needle is directly controlled by the throttle
position. The most common variable venture (constant depression) type An interesting variation was
Ford's VV (variable venture) carburetor, which was essentially a fixed venture carburetor with one side
of the venture hinged and movable to give a narrow throat at low rpm and a wider throat at high rpm.

A carburetor basically consists of an open pipe through which the air passes into the inlet manifold of
the engine. The pipe is in the form of a venture: it narrows in section and then widens again, causing
the airflow to increase in speed in the narrowest part. Below the venture is a butterfly valve called the
throttle valve — a rotating disc that can be turned end-on to the airflow, so as to hardly restrict the
flow at all, or can be rotated so that it (almost) completely blocks the flow of air. This valve controls
the flow of air through the carburetor throat and thus the quantity of air/fuel mixture the system will
deliver, thereby regulating engine power and speed. The throttle is connected, usually through a cable
or a mechanical linkage of rods and joints or rarely by pneumatic link, to the accelerator pedal on a car,
a throttle lever in an aircraft or the equivalent control on other vehicles or equipment.
Fuel is introduced into the air stream through small holes at the narrowest part of the venture and at
other places where pressure will be lowered when not running at full throttle. Fuel flow is adjusted by
means of precisely calibrated orifices, referred to as jets, in the fuel path.

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Power valve
For open throttle operation a richer fuel/air mixture will produce more power, prevent resignation
detonation, and keep the engine running cooler. This is usually addressed with a spring-loaded "power
valve", which is held shut by engine vacuum. As the throttle valve opens up, the manifold vacuum
decreases and the spring opens the valve to let more fuel into the main circuit. On two-stroke engines,
the operation of the power valve is the reverse of normal — it is normally "on" and at a set rpm it is
turned "off". It is activated at high rpm to extend the engine's rev range, capitalizing on a two-stroke's
tendency to rev higher momentarily when the mixture is lean.
Accelerator pump
Liquid gasoline, being denser than air, is slower than air to react to a force applied to it. When the
throttle is rapidly opened, airflow through the carburetor increases immediately, faster than the fuel
flow rate can increase. This transient oversupply of air causes a lean mixture, which makes the engine
misfire (or "stumble")—effect opposite to that which was demanded by opening the throttle. This is
remedied by the use of a small piston or diaphragm pump which, when actuated by the throttle linkage,
forces a small amount of gasoline through a jet into the carburetor throat. This extra shot of fuel
counteracts the transient lean condition on throttle tip-in. Most accelerator pumps are adjustable for
volume or duration by some means. Eventually, the seals around the moving parts of the pump wear
such that the pump output is reduced; this reduction of the accelerator pump shot causes stumbling
under acceleration until the seals on the pump are renewed.
The accelerator pump can also be used to prime the engine with fuel prior to a cold start. Excessive
priming, like an improperly adjusted choke, can cause flooding. This is when too much fuel and not
enough air are present to support combustion. For this reason, most carburetors are equipped with an
unloader mechanism: The accelerator is held at wide open throttle while the engine is cranked, the
unloader holds the choke open and admits extra air, and eventually the excess fuel is cleared out and
the engine starts.
Choke
When the engine is cold, fuel vaporizes less readily and tends to condense on the walls of the intake
manifold, starving the cylinders of fuel and making the engine difficult to start; thus, a richer mixture
(more fuel to air) is required to start and run the engine until it warms up. A richer mixture is also
easier to ignite.
To provide the extra fuel, a choke is typically used; this is a device that restricts the flow of air at the
entrance to the carburetor, before the venture. With this restriction in place, extra vacuum is developed
in the carburetor barrel, which pulls extra fuel through the main metering system to supplement the
fuel being pulled from the idle and off-idle circuits. This provides the rich mixture required to sustain
operation at low engine temperatures.
Carburetor use in scooter & other two wheelers - To obtain maximum
Performance of your scooter, the carburetor must supply the correct fuel/air mixture all the way though
the full range of throttle openings. The carburetor determines the fuel/air ratio, though the air filter and
exhaust have some effect too. If the air filter is restrictive for example, it can lower the amount of air
being supplied when the throttle is wide open and so make the mixture leaner than it should be.
What controls how well the scooter runs when the throttle is most of the way open is the carburetor
main jet. This is basically a hole, and the bigger the hole, the more fuel can flow. How big the main jet
need to be depends on the size of the carburetor and how much air is flowing. Since the air is less

12
dense at high elevations and at high temperatures, you may need a smaller hole (less fuel) at 95
degrees in the high desert than you do at sea level and freezing temperatures.
Manufacturers tend to use the smallest possible main jet for two reasons. First, you get slightly
Better mileage. Second, exhaust emissions
(CO and HC [hydrocarbons]) are lower if the
engine runs slightly lean (less fuel in the
fuel/air mixture) than slightly rich (more fuel
in the fuel/air mixture). Nitrogen Oxide
(NOX) exhaust emissions are higher if the
mixture is lean though, so it's a tricky balance.
Since scooters don't usually have catalytic
converters like cars do, running the engine
lean is one way to keep CO and HC exhaust
emissions under control. However, if you go
too lean, the engine may overheat, power will
drop, and emissions will go up. If you go too
rich, the scooter will splutter, and
performance will drop and emissions will
increase. Manufacturers
don't know what temperature you'll be riding
in or what elevation you'll be riding at and so
to stay on the lean side, they often use a jet smaller than the optimum size for performance, just to
make sure that wherever you are, the engine will be running on the lean side at full throttle rather than
the rich side. The ideal condition is to have the correct air/fuel ratio at low speeds, not to run lean or
rich, and under that condition emissions will still be well controlled, and the engine will give good
performance. However, at high speeds and under hard acceleration it's best to run a slightly richer
mixture in order to keep temperatures down and prevent pre-detonation (knocking). Maximum power
is usually developed when the mixture is slightly rich.
When at full throttle my scooter would sometimes hesitate and even speed up slightly when I backed
off from fully open. These are hints that the engine may be a little fuel starved at wide throttle
openings, suggesting the main jet may be a little small and the mixture too lean. I wondered just how
small my main jet was, so I took my carburetor apart and removed the main jet. It was a "107", which
means the diameter of the hole in it was 1.07mm. I decided to increase the size slightly and see if the
scooter performance improved, so I replaced it with a "115" jet. (1.15mm diameter). The scooter
accelerates faster, pulls better up hills and is more responsive to the throttle
The process for changing the main jet size is simple. First remove the carburetor. To do this you'll
probably need to take some parts off the scooter, such as the undersea storage container and possibly
some body panels. Every scooter will be different. Disconnect the fuel line and vacuum lines,
disconnect the auto enricher (choke), disconnect the throttle cable, disconnect the air intake hose and
disconnect the inlet manifold. At the bottom of most carburetors you'll find the float chamber, usually
secured to the carburetor body by four screws. Remove these screws and the float chamber should
separate from the body. If you haven't drained it, it will be full of gas, so be careful.
Result – carburetor used in 2 wheelers and motorcycles has been studied thoroughly.

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 Experiment No. – 4
Object: - Study a fuel injection pump, injector by dismantling it.
THEORY & DESCRIPTION - Microinjection is the use of a glass micropipette to inject a
liquid substance at a microscopic or borderline macroscopic level. The target is often a living cell but
may also include intercellular space. Microinjection is a simple mechanical process usually involving an
inverted microscope with a magnification power of around 200x (though sometimes it is performed using
a dissecting stereo microscope at 40–50x or a traditional compound upright microscope at similar power
to an inverted model).

For processes such as cellular or pronuclear injection the target cell is positioned under the microscope
and two micromanipulators—one holding the pipette and one holding a micro capillary needle usually
between 0.5 and 5 µm in diameter (larger if injecting stem cells into an embryo)—are used to penetrate
the cell membrane and/or the nuclear envelope. In this way the process can be used to introduce a vector
into a single cell. Microinjection can also be used in the cloning of organisms, in the study of cell biology
and viruses, and for treating male sub fertility through interact to plastic sperm injection.

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BASIC TYPES - There are two basic types of microinjection systems. The first is called a constant
flow system and the second is called a pulsed flow system. In a constant flow system, which is relatively
simple and inexpensive though clumsy and outdated, a constant flow of a sample is delivered from a
micropipette and the amount of the sample which is injected is determined by how long the needle
remains in the cell. This system typically requires a regulated pressure source, a capillary holder, and
either a coarse or a fine micromanipulator. A pulsed flow system, however, allows for greater control
and consistency over the amount of sample injected: the most common arrangement for intracytoplasmic
sperm injection includes an Eppendorf "Femtojet" injector coupled with an Eppendorf "Inject Man",
though procedures involving other targets usually take advantage of much less expensive equipment of
similar capability. Because of its increased control over needle placement and movement and in addition
to the increased precision over the volume of substance delivered, the pulsed flow technique usually
results in less damage to the receiving cell than the constant flow technique. However, the Eppendorf
line, at least, has a complex user interface and its particular system components are usually much more
expensive than those necessary to create a constant flow system or than other pulsed flow injection
systems.

PRONUCLEAR INJECTION - Diagram of the intracytoplasmic sperm injection of a

human egg. Micromanipulator on the left holds egg in position while micro injector on the right delivers
a single sperm cell.

Pronuclear injection is a technique used to create transgenic organisms by injecting genetic material into
the nucleus of a fertilized acolyte. This technique is commonly used to study the role of genes using
mouse animal models.

Result- fuel injection pump, injector by dismantling it has been studied thoroughly.

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 EXPERIMENT - 5
OBJECT - Study of distributor of 4 - cylinder petrol engine.
DISTRIBUTOR - A distributor is an enclosed rotating shaft used in spark-ignition internal
combustion engines that have mechanically-timed ignition. The distributor's main function is to route
secondary, or high voltage, current from the ignition coil to the spark plugs in the correct firing order,
and for the correct amount of time. Except in magneto systems, the distributor also houses a
mechanical or inductive breaker switch to open and close the ignition
Coil’s primary circuit.

DESCRIPTION - A distributor consists of a rotating arm or rotor inside the distributor cap, on top
of the distributor shaft, but insulated from it and the body of the vehicle (ground). The distributor shaft
is driven by a gear on the camshaft on most overhead valve engines, and attached directly to a
camshaft on most overhead cam engines. (The distributor shaft may also drive the oil pump.) The
metal part of the rotor contacts the high voltage cable from the ignition coil via a spring-loaded carbon
brush on the underside of the distributor cap. The metal part of the rotor arm passes close to (but does
not touch) the output contacts which connect via high tension leads to the spark plug of each cylinder.
As the rotor spins within the distributor, electric current is able to jump the small gaps created between
the rotor arm and the contacts due to the high voltage created by the ignition coil.
The distributor shaft has a cam that operates the contact breaker (also called points). Opening the
points causes a high induction voltage in the system's ignition coil.
16
The distributor also houses the centrifugal advance unit: a set of hinged weights attached to the
distributor shaft, that cause the breaker points mounting plate to slightly rotate and advance the spark
timing with higher engine revolutions per minute (rpm). In addition, the distributor has a vacuum
advance unit that advances the timing even further as a function of the vacuum in the inlet manifold.
Usually there is also a capacitor attached to the distributor. The capacitor is connected parallel to the
breaker points, to suppress sparking to prevent excessive wear of the points.
Around the 1970s the primary breaker points were largely replaced with a Hall Effect sensor or optical
sensor. As this is a non-contacting device and the ignition coil is controlled by solid state electronics, a
great amount of maintenance in point adjustment and replacement was eliminated. This also eliminates
any problem with breaker follower or cam wear, and by eliminating a side load it extends distributor
shaft bearing life. The remaining secondary (high voltage) circuit stayed essentially the same, using an
ignition coil and a rotary distributor.

DISTRIBUTOR CAP

The distributor cap is the cover that protects the distributor's internal parts and holds the contacts
between internal rotor and the spark plug wires.
The distributor cap has one post for each cylinder, and in points ignition systems there is a central post
for the current from the ignition coil coming into the distributor. There are some exceptions however,
as some engines (many Alfa Romeo cars, some 1980s Nissans) have two spark plugs per cylinder, so
there are two leads coming out of the distributor per cylinder. Another implementation is the wasted
spark system, where a single contact serves two leads, but in that case each lead connects one cylinder.
In General Motors high energy ignition (HEI) systems there is no central post and the ignition coil sits
on top of the distributor. Some Toyota and Honda engines also have their coil within the distributor
cap. On the inside of the cap there is a terminal that corresponds to each post, and the plug terminals
are arranged around the circumference of the cap according to the firing order in order to send the
secondary voltage to the proper spark plug at the right time.
The rotor is attached to the top of the distributor shaft which is driven by the engine's camshaft and
thus synchronized to it. Synchronization to the camshaft is required as the rotor must turn at exactly
half the speed of the main crankshaft in the 4-stroke cycle. Often, the rotor and distributor are attached
17
directly to the end of the one of (or the only) camshaft, at the opposite end to the timing drive belt.
This rotor is pressed against a carbon brush on the center terminal of the distributor cap which
connects to the ignition coil. The rotor is constructed such that the center tab is electrically connected
to its outer edge so the current coming in to the center post travels through the carbon point to the outer
edge of the rotor. As the camshaft rotates, the rotor spins and its outer edge passes each of the internal
plug terminals to fire each spark plug in sequence.
Engines that use a mechanical distributor may fail if they run into deep puddles because any water that
gets onto the distributor can short out the electric current that should go through the spark plugs,
rerouting it directly to the body of the vehicle. This in turn causes the engine to stop as the fuel is not
ignited in the cylinders. This problem can be fixed by removing the distributor's cap and drying the
cap, cam, rotor and the contacts by wiping with tissue paper or a clean rag, by blowing hot air on them,
or using a moisture displacement spray e.g. WD-40 or similar. Oil, dirt or other contaminants can
cause similar problems, so the distributor should be kept clean inside and outside to ensure reliable
operation. Some engines include a rubber O-ring or gasket between the distributor base and cap to help
prevent this problem. The gasket is made of a material like Viton or butyl for a tight seal in extreme
temperatures and chemical environments. This gasket should not be discarded when replacing the cap.
By referencing a firing order diagram and knowing the direction the rotor turns, (which can be seen by
cranking the engine with the cap off) the spark plug wires can be correctly routed. Most distributor
caps are designed so that they cannot be installed in the wrong position. The distributor cap is a prime
example of a component that eventually succumbs to heat and vibration. It is a relatively easy and
inexpensive part to replace if its Bakelite housing does not break or crack first. Carbon deposit
accumulation or erosion of its metal terminals may also cause distributor-cap failure.

Result- distributor of a 4 cylinder petrol engine has been studied thoroughly.

18
 Experiment No. – 6
Object: - Locate and draw the cooling circuit of multi-cylinder engine and study the
Construction of the radiator and locate and draw the lubricating circuit of a single cylinder diesel
engine.

Apparatus required: A working model of IC engine with cooling circuit, radiator and lubricating
circuit

Theory: - In a cooling system for a multi-cylinder engine, a main gallery is provided around outer
peripheral portions of the plurality of cylinder bores upstream a block-side coolant jacket to commonly
surround the cylinder bores, and an upstream coolant gallery is provided between the block-side coolant
jacket and the main coolant gallery to separately surround each of outer peripheries of the cylinder bores.
The upstream coolant gallery and the main coolant gallery is in communication with each other through
a constriction communication passage provided around the outer periphery of each of the cylinder bores,
and the upstream coolant gallery is further in communication with an upstream end of the block-side
coolant jacket. Further, a jacket sidewall is disposed in the cylinder head inside at least one of opposite
outside walls in an axial direction of a crank shaft to define a head-side coolant jacket.
There are two types of cooling systems:
Air cooling circuit: -
In this type of cooling system, the heat, which is conducted to
the outer parts of the engine, is radiated and conducted away by
the stream of air, which is obtained from the atmosphere. In
order to have efficient cooling by means of air, providing fins
around the cylinder and cylinder head increases the contact
area. The fins are metallic ridges, which are formed during the
casting of the cylinder and cylinder head. The amount of heat
carried off by the air-cooling depends upon the following
factors:
(i) The total area of the fin surfaces,
(ii) The velocity and amount of the cooling air and
(iii) The temperature of the fins and of the cooling air.
Air-cooling is mostly tractors of less horsepower, motorcycles,
scooters, small cars and small aircraft engines where the
forward motion of the machine gives good velocity to cool the
engine. Air-cooling is also provided in some small industrial
engines. In this system,

Water cooling circuit: - In water cooling method, the advantage of superior convective and
conductive properties of water is used. Water is circulated continuously through the cylinder with an
annular space known as Water Jacket. To avoid unequal expansion in the cylinder bore and burning of
lube oil, the water jackets are so designed that they will cover the entire length of the piston stroke. For
the cleaning of water jackets in large cylinders, cleaning doors are provided. This method is also
employed in large reciprocating air compressor. Where you have to add the cooling tower in addition
to cool the circulating water. It serves two purposes in the working of an engine:
19
 a) It takes away the excessive heat generated in the engine and saves it from overheating.
b) It keeps the engine at working temperature for efficient and economical working.
This cooling system has four types of systems:
(i) Direct or non-return system,
(ii) Thermo-Syphone system,
(iii) Hopper system and
(iv) Pump/forced circulation system.
Though the present tractor has a forced circulation system, it is still worthwhile to get acquainted with
the other three systems.

NECESSITY OF COOLING SYSTEM

The cooling system is provided in the IC engine for the following reasons:
The temperature of the burning gases in the engine cylinder reaches up to 1500 to 2000°C, which is
above the melting point of the material of the cylinder body and head of the engine. (Platinum, a metal
which has one of the highest melting points, melts at 1750 °C, iron at 1530°C and aluminum at 657°C.)
Therefore, if the heat is not dissipated, it would result in the failure of the cylinder material.
Due to very high temperatures, the film of the lubricating oil will get oxidized, thus producing carbon
deposits on the surface. This will result in piston seizure.
Due to overheating, large temperature differences may lead to a distortion of the engine
components due to the thermal stresses set up. This makes it necessary for, the temperature
variation to be kept to a minimum.
Higher temperatures also lower the volumetric efficiency of the engine.

Radiator
The purpose of the radiator is to cool down the water received from the engine. The radiator consists of
three main parts: (i) upper tank, (ii) lower tank and (iii) tubes. Hot water from the upper tank, which
comes from the engine, flows downwards through the tubes. The heat contained in the hot water is
conducted to the copper fins provided around the tubes. An overflow pipe, connected to the upper1

20
tank, permits excess water or steam to escape. There are three types of radiators :( i) gilled tube
radiator, (ii) tubular radiator (Fig. b), (iii) honey comb or cellular radiator (Fig. c)

Types of Radiator: -
Gilled tube radiator: This is perhaps the oldest type of radiator, although it is still in use. In this,
water flows inside the tubes. Each tube has a large number of annular rings or fins pressed firmly over
its outside surface.
Tubular radiator: The only difference between a gilled tubes radiator and a tubular one is that in this
case there are no separate fins for individual tubes. The radiator vertical tubes pass through thin fine
copper sheets which run horizontally.
Honey comb or cellular radiator: The cellular radiator consists of a large number of individual air
cells which are surrounded by water. In this, the clogging of any passage affects only a small parts of
the cooling surface. However, in the tubular radiator, if one tube becomes clogged, the cooling effect
of the entire tube is lost.

LUBRICATING SYSTEM
I. C. engine is made of many moving parts. Due to continuous movement of two metallic surfaces over
each other, there is wearing moving parts, generation of heat and loss of power in the engine
lubrication of moving parts is essential to prevent all these harmful effects.
PURPOSE OF LUBRICATION
Lubrication produces the following effects: (a) Reducing friction effect (b) Cooling effect (c) Sealing
effect and (d) Cleaning effect.
(a) Reducing frictional effect: The primary purpose of the lubrication is to reduce friction and wear
between two rubbing surfaces. Two rubbing surfaces always produce friction. The continuous friction
produce heat which causes wearing of parts and loss of power. In order to avoid friction, the contact of
two sliding surfaces must be reduced as far as possible. This can be done by proper lubrication only.
Lubrication forms an oil film between two moving surfaces. Lubrication also reduces noise produced
by the movement of two metal surfaces over each other.

21
(b) Cooling effect: The heat, generated by piston, cylinder, and bearings is removed by lubrication to a
great extent. Lubrication creates cooling effect on the engine parts.
(c) Sealing effect: The lubricant enters into the gap between the cylinder liner, piston and piston rings.
Thus, it prevents leakage of gases from the engine cylinder.
(d) Cleaning effect: Lubrication keeps the engine clean by removing dirt or carbon from inside of the
engine along with the oil.
Types of Lubricating system: - There are two types of lubricating system and they are
Splash Lubricating: - In this system, there is an oil
trough, provided below the connecting rod. Oil is
maintained at a uniform level in the oil trough. This is
obtained by maintaining a continuous flow of oil from
the oil sump or reservoir into a splash pan, which has a
depression or a trough like arrangement under each
connecting rod. This pan receives its oil supply from the
oil sump either by means of a gear pump or by gravity.
A dipper is provided at the lower end of the connecting
rod. This dipper dips into to oil trough and splashes oil
out of the pan.
The splashing action of oil maintains a fog or mist of oil that drenches the inner parts of the engine
such as bearings, cylinder walls, pistons, piston pins, timing gears etc. This system is usually used on
single cylinder engine with closes crankcase. For effective functioning of the engine, proper level of
oil maintained in the oil pan. Lubrication depends largely upon the size of oil holes and clearances.
This system is very effective if the oil is clean and undiluted. Its disadvantages are that lubrication is
not very uniform and when the rings are worn, the oil passes the piston into combustion chamber,
causing carbon deposition, blue smoke and spoiling the plugs. There is every possibility that oil may
become very thin through crankcase dilution. The worn metal, dust and carbon may be collected in the
oil chamber and be carried to different parts of the engine, causing wear and tear.
Forced Lubricating: - In this system, the oil is pumped directly lo the crankshaft, connecting rod,
piston pin, timing gears and camshaft of the engine through suitable paths of oil. Usually the oil first
enters the main gallery, which may be a pipe or a channel in the crankcase casting. From this pipe, it
goes to each of the main bearings through holes. From main bearings, it goes to big end bearings of
connecting rod through drilled holes in the crankshaft. From there, it goes to lubricate the walls,
pistons and rings. There is separate oil gallery to lubricate timing gears. Lubricating oil pump is a
positive displacement pump, usually gear type or vane type. The oil also goes to valve stem and rocker
arm shaft under pressure through an oil gallery.
The excess oil comes back from the cylinder head to the crankcase. The pump discharges oil into oil
pipes, oil galleries or ducts, leading different parts of the engine. This system is commonly used on
high speed multi-cylinder engine in tractors, trucks and automobiles.

22
Result: - cooling circuit of a multi cylinder engine, construction of the radiator and lubrication circuit
of a single cylinder diesel engine has been studied thorough.

23
 EXPERIMENT – 7
Object: - To find out B.H.P, I.H.P. and specific fuel consumption and mechanical efficiency.
B.H.P. (Brake horse power) - This is the power output of any engine measured at the engine's
flywheel. (A flywheel is a disc with teeth on it. It's connected to the rear of the engine and its purpose
is for the smooth transfer of power to the transmission from the engine.)
Brake horsepower: BHP= 2πNT/60
Where, N- rpm of crankshaft
T- Torque
I.H.P. (Indicated horse power) - The power developed in the cylinders of an engine as
calculated from the average pressure of the working fluid, the piston area, the stroke, and the number
of working strokes per minute.
Indicated horsepower:
I.H.P = ((PLAN x n) / 2) ÷ 4500
Where, P = Mean effective pressure in kg/cm²,
L = Length of stroke,
A = Area of piston in cm²,

N = RPM of crankshaft,
n = Number of cylinders
Specific fuel consumption - It is the amount of fuel consumed by a vehicle for each unit of
power output.
A vehicle's specific fuel consumption is more or less independent from its nitrogen oxide emissions per
kilometer.
The specific fuel consumption of an engine is the rate of fuel burnt to produce a unit of thrust.
Improvements in fuel efficiency mean that the specific fuel consumption per kilometer driven
decreased by more than 30 percent.

Engine Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC):

Where: SFC = specific fuel consumption [(kg/h)/kW, kg/ (3600 s x kW), kg/ (3600 kJ)]
FC = fuel consumption [kg/h]
BP = brake power [kW]

Mechanical efficiency -Mechanical efficiency measures the effectiveness of a machine in

transforming the energy and power that is input to the device into an output force and movement.
Efficiency is measured as a ratio of the measured performance to the performance of an ideal machine.
Because the power transmission system or mechanism does not generate power, its ideal performance
occurs when the output power equals the input power, that is, when there are no losses. Real devices
dissipate power through friction, [1] part deformation and wear.

24
The ideal transmission or mechanism has an efficiency of 100%, because there is no power loss. Real
devices will have efficiency less than 100% because rigid and friction-less systems do not exist. The
power losses in a transmission or mechanism are eventually dissipated as heat.
For hydropower turbines the efficiency is referred to as hydraulic efficiency.

Engine Mechanical Efficiency (ῂm): where:

ῂm = mechanical efficiency
Bp = engine brake power [kW]
Pi = engine indicated power [kW]
Pf = engine friction power [kW]

Result – IHP and BHP and Specific fuel consumption and mechanical efficiency has been found out.

25
 EXPERIMENT – 8
Object: - Study the working and construction of Reciprocating air compressor.
PRINCIPLE - In reciprocating air compressor, as the piston moves towards the BDC, the air is
sucked into the cylinder from the atmosphere and when it moves towards the TDC, the compression of
the air starts and keeps on going and pressure increases. When the pressure increases up to its design
limit it pushes the discharge valve to open and the compressed air is delivered to the storage tank. It is
a positive-displacement compressor that
 Uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure.
 The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then flows into the compression cylinder
 It gets compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a crankshaft,
 Discharged at higher pressure

RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR - Reciprocating Air Compressor is a positive

displacement air compressor in which air is sucked in a chamber and compressed with the help of a
reciprocating piston. It is called as positive displacement compressor because air is first sucked in a
chamber and then compression is achieved by decreasing area of the chamber. The area is decreased by
a piston which does reciprocating motion.
Main parts of reciprocating air compressor
Piston: It does reciprocating motion in the cylinder and responsible for the compression of the air.
Cylinder: It is a chamber in which air is compressed.

Connection Rod: It connects the piston and crankshaft.

Crankshaft: It is connected to the shaft of electric motor. And transfers its rotary motion to the
piston.
Suction valve: The air is sucked through suction valve when piston moves to BDC.
Discharge valve: The compressed air is discharged through the discharge valve to the storage tank.
Working
The reciprocating compressor is either powered by electric motor, diesel/gas engines.
Working of reciprocating air compressor
As power is on, the electric motor starts rotating and also rotates the crankshaft attached to it. The
piston starts doing to and fro motion inside the cylinder.
As the piston moves downward (towards BDC), the air from the atmosphere enters into the chamber of
the cylinder.
Now the piston after reaching at BDC, starts moving upward (i.e. towards TDC), the compression of
the air starts and its pressure begins to increase.
26
When the pressure inside the cylinder increases above the pressure of the discharge valve, the discharge
valve opens and the compressed air is delivered to an air storage tank from where it is utilized for the
work.

Types of Reciprocating Air Compressor

1. Single Acting
2. Double Acting
3. Single stage air Compressor
4. Double stage air Compressor
1. Single Acting
In single acting reciprocating air compressor only single side of the piston is used for the compression
of the air and other side is connected to the crankcase and not used for the compression.

2. Double Acting
In this type of compressor, both the sides of the piston is used for the compression of the air. When
suction takes place at one side than compression is taking place at other side. Both suction and
compression takes place on each stroke of the piston.

27
3. Single Stage
In single stage reciprocating air compressor the compression of the air takes place in a single cylinder.
In the first stroke, it sucks the air from the atmosphere and in the second stroke it compresses it and
deliver it to the storage tank.
4. Double Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor
In this type of compressor, the compression of the air takes place in two stages i.e. the air is first
compressed to some extent in one cylinder and then it is transferred to the second cylinder for further
compression. Finally, the compressed air is stored in a tank.

This is the brief introduction about reciprocating air compressor – Main parts, working and types. If you
find anything missing or incorrect than comment or mail us. If like this article than don’t forget to like
and share it.

Result – reciprocating air compressor has been studied thoroughly.

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 EXPERIMENT – 9
Object: - TO STUDY THE FOLLOWING AUTOMATIVE PARTS:
(a) Front axle, (b) Rear axle
Apparatus required: - Model of front axle and rear axle.

Theory: -
Front Axle
The front axle is designed to transmit the weight of the automobile from the springs to the front
wheels, turning right or left as required. To prevent interference due to front engine location, and for
providing greater stability and safety at high speeds by lowering the centre of gravity of the road
vehicles, the entire centre portion of the axle is dropped. As shown, front axle includes the axle-beam,
stub-axles with brake assemblies, back-rod and stub-axle arm.
Front axles can be live axles and dead axles. A live front axle contains the differential mechanism
through which the engine power flows towards the front wheels. For steering the front wheels, constant
velocity joints are contained in the axle half shafts. Without affecting the power flow through the half
shafts, these joints help in turning the stub axles around the king-pin.
The front axles are generally dead axles, which does not transmit power. The front wheel hubs rotate
on antifriction bearings of tapered-roller type on the steering spindles, which are an integral part of
steering knuckles. To permit the wheels to be turned by the steering gear, the steering spindle and
steering knuckle assemblies are hinged on the end of axle. The pin that forms the pivot of this hinge is
known as king pin or steering knuckle pin. Generally dead front axles are three types. In the Elliot type
front axles the yoke for king spindle is located on the ends of I-beam. The axle ends are forked to hold
the steering nuckle extension between them. The reverse Elliot front axles have hinged spindle yoke on
spindle itself instead of on the axle. The forked portion is integral with the steering knuckle. This type
is commonly used as this facilitates the mounting of brake backing plate on the forged legs of the
steering knuckle. In the Lemoine type front axle, instead of a yoke type hinge, an L-shaped spindle is
used which is attached to the end of the axle by means of a pivot. It is normally used in tractors.
The axle beam in use is of I or H-section and is manufactured from alloy forged steel for rigidity and
strength. As compared to dead front axles, a totally different type of swiveling mechanism is used on
the live front axle. To connect the wheel hub axles with driving axle shafts, constant velocity joints are
used for the vehicles fitted with the front live axles. Tracta, Rzeppa (or Sheppa) on Bendix constant
velocity or universal joints are normally used.
Front axles are subjected to both bending and shear stresses. In the static condition, the axle may be
considered as a beam supported vertically upward at the ends i.e. at the centre of the wheels and loaded
vertically downward at the centres of the spring pads. The vertical bending moment thus caused is zero
at the point of support and rises linearly to a maximum at the point of loading and then remains
constant.

Thus the maximum bending moment = Wl, Nm where, W = The load on one wheel, N
I = The distance between the centre of wheel and the spring pad, m

29
Under dynamic conditions, the vertical bending moment is increased due to road roughness. But its
estimate is difficult and hence is generally accounted for through a factor of safety. The front axle also
experiences a horizontal bending moment because of resistance to motion and this is of a nature similar
to the vertical one but of very small magnitude and hence can be neglected except in those situations
when it is comparatively large. The resistance to motion also causes a torque in the case of drop type
front axle. Thus the portions projected after the spring pads are subjected to combined bending and
torsion.

Bearing Loads on the Front Axle

The thrust load and the knuckle-pin-bearing load can be expressed in terms of the reaction of wheel on
wheel spindle.
Let, Rw = The reaction of the wheel on the spindle acting vertically through the centre of contact of
tyre on ground. Rt = The load on the thrust bearing Ru = The load on the upper knuckle pin bearing Rl
= The load on lower knuckle pin ‘B’ and ‘C represent the centers of lower and upper knuckle-pin
bearings respectively. ‘A’ is a point on the spindle axis in the centre plane of the wheel.

30
The other loads acting on knuckle-pin bearing are those due to the rolling resistance and road shocks.
These loads are proportional to the static load and hence can be accounted for.
Rear axle:-
Rear axle is the last member of power train. In most of automobiles, real axle is the driving axle. It lies
between the driving wheels and the differential gear and transmit power from the differential to the
driving wheels. It consists of two half shaft connected to the differential gear, one for one wheel. The
inner end of the each half shaft connected to the sun gear of the differential and the outer end to the
wheel. The rear axle and differential gear are completely encloses in a housing which protecting them
from water, dust and injury.
Function of rear axle:
The rear axle mainly performs following two functions.
1. It carries the weight of the vehicle.
2. It rotates and transmits the power from the engine to the wheels.
Classification of rear axle:
1. According to the design of axle:
(A.) Banjo axle:
This type of axle is a single shaft and final drive assembly is carried in a separate casing which is
bolted to the axle housing. The banjo construction is often used for smaller and lighter vehicle.
(B.) Split axle:
In this type of axle split shaft are used with the central housing contain the differential gear and it is
fitted with a tube on each side to carry the half axles and bearing.
2. According to the method of supporting:
(A.) Half floating rear axle:
In this axle the bearing which support the axle, are inside the casing. The axle of the wheel is at the
center of the axle casing. The whole weight of the vehicle is first transmitted to the suspension spring
then to the axle casing, rear axle, wheel and ground.
(B.) Three quarter floating rear axle:
In this axle bearing are on the outer side of casing between the wheel and the axle casing. The wheels
are fitted at the end of the axle by means of a key, bolt or nut. The weight of the vehicle is supported
partly by the axle casing and partly by the axle. The main advantage of this type of axle over the half

31
floating axle is that the major part of the load is taken by the axle casing and not by axle. Axle only
takes care of the rotating and transmits the power.
(C.) Full floating rear axle:
In this type of axle bearing are on the outer side of casing between the wheel and the axle casing. The
axle is not supported by the bearing at entire end and its position is maintained by the way that it is
supported at both ends. The wheels are fitted at the end of the axle by means of a key, bolt or nut. Thus
the entire weight of the vehicle is supported by the wheel and axle casing. The axle is relieved of all
strain caused by the weight of the vehicle on end thrust. It transmits only driving torque.

Result: - The automotive parts front axle and rear axle are thoroughly studied.

32
 EXPERIMENT – 10
Object: - Study of following Automotive systems: -
I. Elements of Transmission systems Differential, Gear Box, Clutch
II. Braking System
Apparatus required: - Working model of differential, gear box, clutch and breaking system.
Theory:-
1.1)-Differential:
The differential is an integral part of all four wheelers. Differential technology was invented centuries
ago and is considered to be one of the most ingenious inventions human thinking has ever produced.
Wheels receive power from the engine via a drive shaft. The wheels that receive power and make the
vehicle move forward are called the drive wheels. The main function of the differential gear is to allow
the drive wheels to turn at different rpms while both receiving power from the engine.
Parts of a Differential
Power from the engine is transferred to the ring gear through a pinion gear. The ring gear is connected
to a spider gear. The spider gear lies at the heart of the differential, and special mention should be
made about its rotation. The spider gear is free to make two kinds of rotations: one along with the ring
gear (rotation) and the second on its own axis (spin).
The spider gear is meshed with 2 side gears. You can see that both the spider and side gears are bevel
gears. Power flow from the drive shaft to the drive wheels follows the following pattern. From the
drive shaft power is transferred to the pinion gear first, and since the pinion and ring gear are meshed,
power flows to the ring gear. As the spider gear is connected with the ring gear, power flows to it.
Finally from the spider gear, power gets transferred to both the side gears.

Differential Operation
The differential manages to rotate the side gears (drive wheels) at different speeds as demanded by
different driving scenarios as:
The vehicle moves straight
In this case, the spider gear rotates along with the ring gear but does not rotate on its own axis. So the
spider gear will push and make both the side gears turn, and both will turn at the same speed. In short,
when the vehicle moves straight, the spider-side gear assembly will move as a single solid unit.
The vehicle takes a right turn
Now consider the case when the vehicle is taking a right turn. The spider gear plays a pivotal role in
this case. Along with the rotation of the ring gear it rotates on its own axis. So, the spider gear is has a
combined rotation. The effect of the combined rotation on the side gear is interesting.
33
When properly meshed, the side gear has to have the same peripheral velocity as the spider gear.
Technically speaking, both gears should have the same pitch line velocity. When the spider gear is
spinning as well as rotating, peripheral velocity on the left side of spider gear is the sum of the
spinning and rotational velocities. But on the right side, it is the difference of the two, since the spin
velocity is in the opposite direction on this side. This fact is clearly depicted in Fig.7. This means the
left side gear will have higher speed compared to the right side gear. This is the way the differential
manages to turn left and right wheels at different speeds.
The vehicle takes a left turn
While taking a left turn, the right wheel should rotate at a higher speed. By comparing with the
previous case, it is clear that, if the spider gear spins in the opposite direction, the right side gear will
have a higher speed.
1.2) GEAR BOX: - The gear box is the second element of the power train in an automobile. It is
used to change the speed and torque of vehicle according to variety of road and load condition. A gear
box changes the engine speed into torque when climbing hills and when the vehicle required.
Sometimes it is known as torque converter. Main functions of a gear box is as follow-
1. Provide the torque needed to move the vehicle under a variety of road and load conditions. It does
this by changing the gear ratio between the engine crankshaft and vehicle drive wheels.
2. Be shifted into reverse so the vehicle can move backward.
3. Be shifted into neutral for starting the engine.

The components of any gear box are-

1. Counter shaft
2. Main shaft
3. Gears
4. Bearings
In a gear box, the counter shaft is mashed to the clutch with a use of a couple of gear. So the counter
shaft is always in running condition. When the counter shaft is brought in contact with the main shaft
by use of meshing gears, the main shaft starts to rotate according to the gear ratio. When want to
change the gear ratio, simply press the clutch pedal which disconnect the counter shaft with engine and
is then connected to the main shaft with counter shaft by another gear ratio by use of the gearshift
lever. In a gear box, the gear teeth and other moving metal must not touch. They must be continuously
separated by a thin film of lubricant. This prevents excessive wear and early failure. Therefore a
gearbox runs partially filled with lubricant oil.
1.3) CLUTCH: -
A clutch is a mechanical device which engages and disengages power transmission especially from
driving shaft to driven shaft. In the simplest application, clutches connect and disconnect two rotating
shafts (drive shafts or line shafts). In these devices, one shaft is typically attached to an engine or other
power unit (the driving member) while the other shaft (the driven member) provides output power for
work. While typically the motions involved are rotary, linear clutches are also possible. In a torque-
controlled drill, for instance, one shaft is driven by a motor and the other drives a drill chuck. The
clutch connects the two shafts so they may be locked together and spin at the same speed (engaged),
locked together but spinning at different speeds (slipping), or unlocked and spinning at different speeds
(disengaged).
Parts in clutch: -
The clutch assembly consists of many small parts but following are the major parts

34
1. Flywheel – The flywheel, mounted on the crankshaft, keeps on running as long as the engine keeps
running. The flywheel is equipped with friction surface OR a friction disc is bolted to outer side of
flywheel.
2. Friction discs – Single OR multiple (as per requirement) discs lined with friction material having
high coefficient of friction are mounted on the driven shaft.
3. Pressure plate – Another friction disc is bolted to pressure plate. The pressure plate is mounted on
the splined hub.
4. Spring & release levers – The spring used are diaphragm springs which moves friction disc back &
forth. The spring is retracted with the help of levers.

Consequently, the master piston has to travel several inches to move the slave pistons the fraction of an
inch it takes to apply the brakes. This arrangement allows great force to be exerted by the brakes, in the
same way that a long-handled lever can easily lift a heavy object a short distance.

Most modern cars are fitted with twin hydraulic circuits, with two master cylinders in tandem, in case
one should fail. Sometimes one circuit works the front brakes and one the rear brakes; or each circuit
works both front brakes and one of the rear brakes; or one circuit works all four brakes and the other
the front ones only.

Under heavy braking, so much weight may come off the rear wheels that they lock, possibly causing a
dangerous skid. For this reason, the rear brakes are deliberately made less powerful than the front.
Most cars now also have a load-sensitive pressure-limiting valve. It closes when heavy braking raises
hydraulic pressure to a level that might cause the rear brakes to lock, and prevents any further
movement of fluid to them. Advanced cars may even have complex anti-lock systems that sense in
various ways how the car is decelerating and whether any wheels are locking.

Such systems apply and release the brakes in rapid succession to stop them locking.

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