Impact of Climate Change on Horticulture Industry

and Technological Countermeasures in Japan

Kunihisa Morinaga
Research manager,
National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO),
Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8605, Japan

Abstract

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that the global mean temperature had risen
for the 20th century at the rate of 0.74ºC per 100 years due to increasing green house gas. Climate change
such as temperature, precipitation and tropical cyclone activity has been strongly related to agricultural
production, water resource, and species diversity. Recent climate change has already affected all agricultural
crops and animal production in Japan. Horticultural crops, vegetables and fruits, having high priority of
quality, had serious effects in Japan, due mainly to high temperature. We have been researching the impact
of climate change on horticultural crops and developing several technological countermeasures and new
varieties and cultivars which have tolerance against high temperature.

Key words: Climate change, global warming, horticulture, countermeasures

Introduction In vegetable production, disorder of eggplants

Global warming is becoming a worldwide concern,
particularly, after the (IPCC) 4th Assessment Report
in 2007. The rise of temperature has been felt much
more clearly after 1990. Effects of global warming
on fruit trees and vegetable production in Japan
have recently appeared. This report, therefore,
covers assessments of global warming impacts
on horticultural crops in the past and future, and
Japan’s countermeasures.
Global warming has already negatively
effected agriculture throughout Japan. In rice
production, stable crops, abnormal grains called
chalky and cracked grains are induced by high
temperature during summer which is the crops’
ripening stages. Tropical and sub-tropical diseases
that had been rarely seen are now common in the
southern part of Japan.
Perennial crops such as fruit trees have faced
very serious damage due to global warming,
throughout a year even in winter season. Qualities
of fruits have clearly changed. For example,
peel coloring disorder, too much enlarging, and
reduction of acid, softening and spoiling rapidly of
fruits have been observed more frequently. On the
contrary, freezing injury and late frost damage have
increased in north Japan which is a colder area. It
is predicted that the favorable regions to cultivate
apples and Satsuma mandarins will gradually move
northward.
such as bad bearing and growth, are also caused by
high temperature. In addition, decrease of yield in
fruits and low fruit quality, and malformed fruits
are serious problems in Japan.
Therefore, some adaptation techniques to
mitigate the effects of global warming have been
developed. Problems and practical approaches
against negative impacts of global warming on
horticultural crops in Japan are reviewed.
Climate change in the World and Japan
IPCC estimated that global mean surface
temperature have risen by 0.74 ºC±0.18 ºC when
estimated by a linear trend over the last 100 years
and the warming rate during last 50 years is almost
double that of the last 100 years (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2).
According to the regional climate report of
IPCC (2007), the entire Asian region is very likely
to warm during the last 100 years. The temperature
is likely to be above the mean in East and South
Asia, and similar to the mean temperature in
Southeast Asia.
In addition, extreme precipitation and winds
are increasing in East, Southeast and South Asia.
Japan Meteorological Agency reported that
the mean temperature in Japan had risen at the
rate of 1.07ºC per 100 years for the 20th century
(Fig. 1). The average summer temperature in Korea
showed that it was 23.5ºC in 1970s and 24.0ºC in

1
 Fig. 1. Global mean temperature and Japan’s mean temperature since 1890s.
(Japan Meteorological Agency, 2010)

Fig. 2. Global mean temperature over the last 150 years

(IPCC, 2007).

2
2000s indicating that there was increase in summer
temperature (2009).
IPCC (2007) also reported that global average
surface air temperature will rise for the 21st century
at 1.8-4.0ºC by the increasing concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Agricultural
production is at risk of experiencing the various
negative effects of global warming.
Recent effects of global warming
on agriculture and
horticultural crops in Japan
To collect information about phenological changes
in horticultural crops such as fruit trees, vegetables
and flower production, and problems caused by the
recent warming in Japan, Sugiura et al. (2006) sent
a questionnaire to prefectural institutes for fruit tree
research. All 47 prefectures in Japan replied that
the recent warming had affected at least one tree
species. This result shows that global warming have
already effected the agriculture industry in Japan
(Fig. 3). The impacts had particularly extended to
horticultural crops such as fruit trees, vegetables
Fig. 4. Skin color disorder of grapes (Yamane 2006) and apples
(Sugiura 2009) due to high temperature.
and flowers.
Tree species are classified into two types by
responses of fruit development to climate changes.
One group is the earlier development type and
the other is the prolonged development type. The
former are tree species in which both flowering and
harvesting periods have accelerated. These include
Japanese pears, peaches and Japanese apricots. The
latter are tree species in which the flowering periods
have accelerated, while harvesting periods have not
accelerated. This type includes apples, Japanese
persimmons, grapes and Satsuma mandarins. Fruit
qualities of the prolonged development type have
clearly changed, for example coloring disorder,
enlargement, and reduction of acid which soften
and spoil the fruits rapidly (Fig. 4). Freezing injury
and late frost damage have increased in north Japan
which is the colder area. It is predicted that the
favorable regions to cultivate apples and Satsuma
mandarins will gradually move northward.
Therefore, some adaptation techniques to global
warming have been developing continuously.
Delay of endodormancy breaking and disorder
of budding did not occur in open field but occured
Fig. 3. A survey on
the effect of global
warming on agricultural
industry in Japan
(Sugiura et al. 2006)
3
only in the laboratory. Budding period and
flowering period have accelerated in almost all tree
species (Table 1. and Fig.5).
Changes of fruit quality such as enlargement
of fruit size, reduction of acid and persimmon
astringency, softening of flesh, rapid spoiling and
increasing of sunscald were observed on a number
of tree species. Fruit skin coloring have been
delayed and disordered in apples, grapes, Japanese
persimmons and Satsuma mandarins (Table 2).
Since citrus greening disease (Huanglongbing,
HLB) was first detected in Iriomote Island 1988 in
Japan, the disease spread throughout the southern
islands of Japan, where Diaphorina citri (citrus
psylla) had been distributed. In 2002, a D. citri
population was found in Yakushima on hedge plants
Table 1. The percentage of indication of phenological changes by recent warming
(Sugiura 2009)
Table 2. The percentage of indication of changes on fruit quality by recent warming
(Sugiura 2009)
4
of Murraya paniculata (Orange jassmine), one of
the host plants. D.citri may be able to survive in
winter season due to global warming in near future
(Fig. 6).
Potential impact of global warming
on fruit trees
Sugiura et al. (2004) showed the impact of global
warming on the production in Japan of apples and
Satsuma mandarins. The annual mean temperature
was used to simulate possible changes in favorable
regions for the cultivation of apples and Satsuma
mandarins. The temperature ranges assumed to
be appropriate for fruit production were 6-14ºC
for apples and 15-18ºC for Satsuma mandarins,
 Fig. 5. Budding disorder of
Japanese pear by recent
warming (Sugiura 2009)

Fig. 6. Distribution map of

citrus greening disease
(HLB), Diaphorina citri
(citrus psylla) and Murraya
paniculata (Orange jassmine)
in Japan (Ashihara 2006)

Fig. 7. Potential impact of global warming on fruit production - The favorable

regions to cultivate apples will gradually move northward in Japan
(Sugiura and Yokozawa 2004)

respectively. of northern Tohoku are predicted to attain the

It was predicted that the favorable regions
to cultivate apples and Satsuma mandarins will
gradually move northward. In the 2060s, the
plains of central Tohoku has been predicted to
be unfavorable for apple cultivation, while most
of Hokkaido will be suitable (Fig. 7). The plains
annual mean temperatures higher than those of the
current main producing districts. By 2060s, the
favorable areas for Satsuma mandarin production
will possibly move from the southern coastal sites
to inland areas of western and southern Japan, the
plains of Kanto and the littoral zones of the Japan

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Sea in the central and western Japan and in southern
Tohoku.
Adaptation techniques of fruit trees
Coloring disorder is one of the most serious
problems in fruits. For apples, technological
counter-measures include a switch to varieties with
excellent coloring properties and techniques to
increase the amount of sunlight through reflective
mulches and other techniques. There are techniques
to enhance the coloration of grapes through
girdling. With the grapevine girdled, sugars
photosynthesized in the leaves accumulate in the
branches and leaves. As a result, the sugar content
increases in the upper part from the girdled portion
at the time of harvesting, which in turn promotes
the synthesis of anthocyanin and enhances the
coloration. Recent studies show that the coloration
can be further enhanced with girdling and the
absence of bagging. Other coloration enhancement
techniques include abscisic acid treatment and
optimization of the number of fruits per tree (Fig.
8).
Fig. 9. Improvement of fruit quality by control of water status using
plastic mulching and drip irrigation (fertigation) in citrus orchard
(Morinaga et al. 2007)
6
For disorder of budding of pears under
greenhouses, it has been found that this is caused
by high temperatures during autumn and winter.
This phenomenon can be prevented by spraying
cyanamide or by starting the heating process after
being exposed to adequate low temperature. Fog
cooling is based on the conversion of sensible heat
to latent heat through the evaporation of water
droplets sprayed over the air inside the greenhouse.
Silver mulch treatment is not a method for
improving temperature, but for improvement of
refracted light condition to fruits. This technique
is practically used, and although control (without
mulch) was not shown, silver mulch could improve
skin coloration.
This plastic mulching with drip irrigation
system has high adaptability against climate
change in both climate conditions of much
rainfall (by plastic mulching) and dry season (by
drip irrigation). This system had been introduced
in major citrus producing areas in western Japan
such as Wakayama, Kagawa and Ehime in recent
years. High fruit quality and productivity has been
maintained in these areas (Fig 9).
Fig. 8.
Improvement
of skin color
in grapes by
girdling and
appropriate fruit
load
(Yamane 2006)
 Fig. 10. Disorders of eggplant fruit
(Kikuchi 2008)
Recent effects of global warming and
adaptation techniques of vegetables
In vegetable crops, disorder of eggplants such as
bad bearing and growth, are also caused by high
temperatures (Fig. 10). In addition, decrease of
yield by fruit drop, low fruit quality, and malformed
fruits are serious problems in Japan. In strawberry
greenhouses, momentary pause of harvest, low
harvest, malformed fruit, low fruit quality are
caused by the exposure of high temperature after
transplant.
Several effective breeding materials of
eggplant such as AE-P strains have been developed.
These materials have parthenocarpy under high
temperature. It is expected that superior varieties
which have high bearing rate under global warming
condition will be bred in the future.
Greenhouse cultivation system of vegetables
has been developed for the past three decades in
Japan. Nowadays, year-round production and
shipping of vegetables have been established.
However, recent air temperature in summer exceeds
the optimal range. Productivity and quality of
several main vegetables such as tomato, strawberry,
spinach under greenhouse condition have decreased
during high temperature period caused by global
warming. Several control techniques such as
ventilation, shading, fog cooling and heat pump
have been researched to improve environmental
condition. Photo-selective films have been tried to
prevent severe sunlight and change spectral quality
in greenhouses. Recently, a new fog cooling method
with twin-fluid nozzle type has been introduced and
tested to keep optimal temperature in greenhouses.
A new modified elevated bed system of
strawberry through culture medium cooling using
vaporization heat has also been developed in
greenhouses. This system has the cooling effect
of culture medium by 3ºC lower than that of the
existing system.
Strategy on global warming
As global warming is considered inevitable, there
is a need to continue studying mitigation measures
(techniques to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
from agriculture, forestry and fisheries) and, as
discussed in this report, adaptation techniques.
MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries) of Japan, therefore, announced the
“Integrated Strategy for Global Warming” in 2007.
The following activities are emphasized in the
“Studies on Global Warming Countermeasures”
with focus on mitigation, adaptation and impact
assessment. As immediate measures of adaptation,
heat-resistant varieties that meet the needs
of growers and techniques that ensure stable
agricultural production are being developed. In
addition, a more accurate assessment is needed
for the nature, degree and period of the impact
of global warming on agriculture. The results of
this assessment will then serve as the basis for
studying adaptation measures including cropping
conversion.
There are short and middle-long term targets
in Japan. The short-term targets consist of: 1)
development of countermeasure techniques for
present disorders and damages such as abnormal
ripening and less coloration; 2) chemical control
of bad sprouting of Japanese pear and peel puffing
of Satsuma mandarins; 3) temperature control in
orchards and greenhouses; and 4) replanting to
present varieties adaptable to high temperature. The
middle-long term targets consist of: 1)clarification
of mechanism of high temperature on growth of
fruit and plants; 2)gene expression analysis under
high temperature such as MdMYBA; 3)analysis of
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relationship between high temperature and quality
etc.; 4)breeding program of new varieties and
techniques which have higher adaptability to global
warming than present status.
Conclusion
The IPCC 4th Assessment Report showed that
contribution of agriculture to the total GHG
emissions in the World is 10-12 %. It is important
to research in order to reduce GHG emissions from
agricultural industry. Japan aims to reduce 25%
CO2 emission by 2025. In addition to mitigation
approaches and techniques, the practical approaches
against present negative impacts of global warming
have been important to maintain agriculture
and food production, and the elucidation of the
mechanisms of effects on high temperature could
also be important to its efficient development. Both
practical and basic studies on horticultural crops
and other crops as well should further be studied to
overcome the problems caused by global warming.
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