FORENSIC - INTRODUCTION
The French police officer Alphonse Bertillon was the first to apply the anthropological
I. FORENSIC
 Denotes anything belonging to the court of law or used in court or legal proceedings or
something fitted for legal or public argumentations
 Forensic science is the application of science to criminal and civil laws, mainly—on the criminal
side—during criminal investigation, as governed by the legal standards of admissible evidence
and criminal procedure.
 The word forensic comes from the Latin term forensis, meaning "of or before the forum".
II. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve criminal cases is
attributed to the book of Xi Yuan Lu (translated as Washing Away of Wrongs), written in China
by Song Ci (宋慈, 1186–1249) in 1248, who was a director of justice, jail and supervision,
during the Song dynasty.
In one of Song Ci's accounts (Washing Away of Wrongs), the case of a person murdered with a
sickle was solved by an investigator who instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location.
(He realized it was a sickle by testing various blades on an animal carcass and comparing the
wound.) Flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of
this, the murderer confessed. For example, the book also described how to distinguish
between a drowning (water in the lungs) and strangulation (broken neck cartilage), along with
other evidence from examining corpses on determining if a death was caused by murder,
suicide or an accident.
TOXICOLOGY
A method for detecting arsenious oxide, simple arsenic, in corpses was devised in 1773 by the
Swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele. His work was expanded, in 1806, by German chemist
Valentin Ross, who learned to detect the poison in the walls of a victim's stomach.
James Marsh was the first to apply this new science to the art of forensics. He was called by
the prosecution in a murder trial to give evidence as a chemist in 1832. The defendant, John
Bodle, was accused of poisoning his grandfather with arsenic-laced coffee. Marsh performed
the standard test by mixing a suspected sample with hydrogen sulfide and hydrochloric acid.
While he was able to detect arsenic as yellow arsenic trisulfide, when it was shown to the jury
it had deteriorated, allowing the suspect to be acquitted due to reasonable doubt.
BALLISTICS
Henry Goddard at Scotland Yard pioneered the use of bullet comparison in 1835. He noticed a
flaw in the bullet that killed the victim and was able to trace this back to the mold that was
used in the manufacturing process.
ANTHROPOMETRY
technique of anthropometry to law enforcement, thereby creating an identification system
based on physical measurements. Before that time, criminals could only be identified by name
or photograph. Dissatisfied with the ad hoc methods used to identify captured criminals in
France in the 1870s, he began his work on developing a reliable system of anthropometrics for
human classification.
FINGERPRINTS
Sir William Herschel was one of the first to advocate the use of fingerprinting in the
identification of criminal suspects. While working for the Indian Civil Service, he began to use
thumbprints on documents as a security measure to prevent the then-rampant repudiation of
signatures in 1858.
In 1880, Dr. Henry Faulds, a Scottish surgeon in a Tokyo hospital, published his first paper on
the subject in the scientific journal Nature, discussing the usefulness of fingerprints for
identification and proposing a method to record them with printing ink. He established their
first classification and was also the first to identify fingerprints left on a vial.[34] Returning to
the UK in 1886, he offered the concept to the Metropolitan Police in London, but it was
dismissed at that time.
Juan Vucetich, an Argentine chief police officer, created the first method of recording the
fingerprints of individuals on file. In 1892, after studying Galton's pattern types, Vucetich set
up the world's first fingerprint bureau. In that same year, Francisca Rojas of Necochea was
found in a house with neck injuries whilst her two sons were found dead with their throats cut.
Rojas accused a neighbour, but despite brutal interrogation, this neighbour would not confess
to the crimes. Inspector Alvarez, a colleague of Vucetich, went to the scene and found a bloody
thumb mark on a door. When it was compared with Rojas' prints, it was found to be identical
with her right thumb. She then confessed to the murder of her sons.
Haque and Bose were Indian fingerprint experts who have been credited with the primary
development of a fingerprint classification system eventually named after their supervisor, Sir
Edward Richard Henry. The Henry Classification System, co-devised by Haque and Bose, was
accepted in England and Wales when the first United Kingdom Fingerprint Bureau was
founded in Scotland Yard, the Metropolitan Police headquarters, London, in 1901. Sir Edward
Richard Henry subsequently achieved improvements in dactyloscopy.
UHLENHUTH TEST
The Uhlenhuth test, or the antigen–antibody precipitin test for species, was invented by Paul
Uhlenhuth in 1901 and could distinguish human blood from animal blood, based on the
discovery that the blood of different species had one or more characteristic proteins. The test
represented a major breakthrough and came to have tremendous importance in forensic
science. The test was further refined for forensic use by the Swiss chemist Maurice Müller in
the 1960s.
1|Page
DNA acute study of a crime scene yielded small clues as to the precise sequence of events. He made
great use of trace evidence such as shoe and tire impressions, as well as fingerprints, ballistics
Forensic DNA analysis was first used in 1984. It was developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys, who and handwriting analysis, now known as questioned document examination.
realized that variation in the genetic code could be used to identify individuals and to tell
individuals apart from one another. The first application of DNA profiles was used by Jefferys III. IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE
in a double murder mystery in the small English town of Narborough, Leicestershire, in 1985. A
15-year-old school girl by the name of Lynda Mann was raped and murdered in Carlton Hayes The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping
psychiatric hospital. The police did not find a suspect but were able to obtain a semen sample. punishment. Criminal investigations and trials relied on forced confessions and witness
testimony.
MATURATION
Forensic science is the marriage of natural science principles and the law. In this union,
By the turn of the 20th century, the science of forensics had become largely established in the forensic professionals use their scientific backgrounds to help law enforcement personnel solve
sphere of criminal investigation. Scientific and surgical investigation was widely employed by crimes. Forensic science plays a vital role in the criminal justice system by providing
the Metropolitan Police during their pursuit of the mysterious Jack the Ripper, who had killed a scientifically based information through the analysis of physical evidence.
number of prostitutes in the 1880s. This case is a watershed in the application of forensic
science. Large teams of policemen conducted house-to-house inquiries throughout 1. Crime-solving contributions
Whitechapel. Forensic material was collected and examined. Suspects were identified, traced
and either examined more closely or eliminated from the inquiry. Police work follows the same Forensic science contributes to solving crimes through investigative activities like determining
pattern today. Over 2000 people were interviewed, "upwards of 300" people were the cause of death, identifying suspects, finding missing persons and profiling criminals.
investigated, and 80 people were detained.
2. Determining Cause of Death
---At the end of October, Robert Anderson asked police surgeon Thomas Bond to give his
opinion on the extent of the murderer's surgical skill and knowledge.[49] The opinion offered Forensic pathologists determine someone's cause of death by performing autopsies. During
by Bond on the character of the "Whitechapel murderer" is the earliest surviving offender these procedures, they examine fluids and tissues from a body to find out the cause of death
profile.[50] Bond's assessment was based on his own examination of the most extensively and the manner of death (for example, natural causes or homicide).
mutilated victim and the post mortem notes from the four previous canonical murders.[51] In
his opinion the killer must have been a man of solitary habits, subject to "periodical attacks of 3. Identifying Suspects
homicidal and erotic mania", with the character of the mutilations possibly indicating
Forensic scientists can identify suspects by analyzing evidence found at the scene of a crime---
"satyriasis". Bond also stated that "the homicidal impulse may have developed from a
such as fibers, hairs, blood and fingerprints. These methods are also used to exonerate the
revengeful or brooding condition of the mind, or that religious mania may have been the
innocent.
original disease but I do not think either hypothesis is likely".
4. Finding Missing Persons
Handbook for Coroners, police officials, military policemen was written by the Austrian
criminal jurist Hans Gross in 1893, and is generally acknowledged as the birth of the field of
Forensic artists can help find people who have been missing for long periods of time through
criminalistics. The work combined in one system fields of knowledge that had not been
the process of image modification. In this technique, a photograph is aged to illustrate what
previously integrated, such as psychology and physical science, and which could be
someone may look like years after last being seen. This is also a tool that is used to find
successfully used against crime. Gross adapted some fields to the needs of criminal
criminals who have eluded justice.
investigation, such as crime scene photography. He went on to found the Institute of
Criminalistics in 1912, as part of the University of Graz' Law School. This Institute was followed 5. Profiling Criminals
by many similar institutes all over the world.
Forensic psychologists use profiling to help find suspects. By analyzing a crime scene, they are
Dr. Edmond Locard, became known as the "Sherlock Holmes of France". He formulated the
able to determine a criminal's patterns and personality in an effort to narrow the suspect pool.
basic principle of forensic science: "Every contact leaves a trace", which became known as
Locard's exchange principle.

Symbolic of the new found prestige of forensics and the use of reasoning in detective work was
the popularity of the fictional character Sherlock Holmes, written by Arthur Conan Doyle in the
late 19th century. He remains a great inspiration for forensic science, especially for the way his
2|Page
IV. FIELDS OF STUDIES/SUBDIVISION OF FORENSIC SCIENCE 6. FORENSIC ENGINEERING
 Forensic engineers can be valuable in cases where something has gone wrong with a
1. FORENSIC PATHOLOGY mechanical or structural entity or in cases of automobile crashes
 Forensic pathologists determine the cause and manner of death in cases where someone  Failure analysis is one of the major contributions that forensic engineers make to the
dies under suspicious circumstances justice system
 Cause of death – event that directly causes death  The majority of the work of forensic engineers is in the investigation of traffic crashes
 Stroke, drug overdose, auto crash, poisioning, etc.  Accident reconstruction is used to determine speeds, directions of impact, and who was
 Manner of death – the type of death (four only) driving the vehicle at the time of impact
 Homicide, natural, accidental, and suicide
 Autopsy (or postmortem examination) is used to make these determinations V. FORENSIC SCIENTISTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
 Pathologists work for medical examiners or coroners (varies by state)  Forensic scientists have two main duties:
-- To analyze evidence
2. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY -- To testify in court
 Forensic anthropologists work with skeletal remains  Skilled in Physical and Natural Science
 If human, they determine from what part of the body the bone originated  The forensic scientist must be skilled in applying the principles and techniques of the
 If they have the correct bones: physical and natural sciences in order to identify the many types of evidence that may be
 Gender, age, racial characteristics, and even socioeconomic status can be determined recovered during crime investigations.
 If there is an injury to a skeleton or major bones, the cause of the injury or death can be  Expert Witness
determined  An expert witness possesses a particular skill or has knowledge in a trade or profession
 It is also possible to build a face onto a skull using clay and pegs of various sizes that will aid the court in determining the truth.
 Facial reconstruction helps find missing persons  Specially Trained Technicians
 Training in Proper Recognition, Collection, and Preservation of Evidence is required so
3. FORENSIC ENTOMOLOGY that the forensic pathologist, as the medical examiner or coroner, can determine the
 Flies (usually blowflies) are usually the first to arrive at a crime scene cause of death via an autopsy.
 Flies and other insects lay their eggs in decaying flesh
 Different insects do this at different times
 Other insects such as beetles and wasps will attack and feed off the insects and eggs
 This parade of visitors takes place at surprisingly consistent time intervals
 Forensic entomologists can estimate the postmortem interval (how long ago death
Fire Investigation
occurred)
Fire investigation involves the examination of all fire-related incidents once firefighters have
 If a person has been poisoned or has overdosed, flies and other insects will ingest this as extinguished the fire. The practice is similar to the examination of crime scenes in that the
well scene must be preserved and evidence collected and analyzed, but with numerous additional
difficulties and dangers. The investigation will include closely surveying the damaged scene to
4. FORENSIC PSYCHIATRY establish the origin of the fire and eventually establishing the cause.
 The study of human behavior and legal proceedings in both civil and criminal cases
 In civil and criminal cases, competency often needs to be determined Nature & Chemistry of Fire
 In criminal trials, the evaluation of behavior disorders is often required in order to establish • In order for a fire to occur, three vital components must be present:
the psychological profile of a suspect. – a fuel source,
– an oxidant (O ) and
5. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY 2

 Odontology is a fancy name for dentistry – sufficient amount of energy in the form of heat.
 Bite marks on a victim or other object can be matched to a suspect • Additional vital component
 Forensic odontologists can also help identify remains from disasters such as plane crashes – a self-sustaining chemical chain reaction
 Postmortem dental records are taken and matched to x-rays taken before death
Types of Fires by Robert Meier
 It is also possible to distinguish causes of facial injuries
• The first is natural, this type of fire happens due to natural causes, such as lightning.
 Falling down the stairs vs. being struck by an object
3|Page
• The second type is accidental, this type of fire occurs when a fire was not meant to be set. An
example of this would be a log rolling out of a fireplace.
• The third is incendiary fire. This type of fire is intentionally set to cause harm.
• The last type of fire is undetermined, which means that the cause is unknown.
How Does Heat Travel?
• conduction in solids
• convection of fluids (liquids or gases), and
• radiation through anything that will allow radiation to pass.
First Responder
– The Fire Investigation Series of Coffee Break Training, created by the US Fire
Administration (USFA) says that, “First responders are responsible for protecting lives and
property from fire and other potential harm.”
– It also says that first responders are in the best position to document the scene because they
have the opportunity to see the scene right after the fire or the explosion occurs.
Four tasks that a first responder can perform to help with the investigation.

Flames First: Observation

• The colour of flames can vary depending on the materials involved in the combustion. The The first task is observation. Observation requires the first responder to take note of everything at
colour of a flame is basically determined by the wavelength of light emitted, which varies the scene. Some observations that a first responder should take note of include:
depending on the material. • Conditions in the area/room of origin
• Victims found
Smouldering • Witness behaviors
• is a form of flameless combustion which occurs at the surface of the material in cellulosic • Rescuer actions
substances that can form a solid char. The presence of a smouldering fire is characterised by
extremely localised burning and the production of thick, tarry smoke. Second: Recognition
Recognition requires the first responder to be able to recognize what at the scene may be
Fire Scene Investigation useful in the investigation as evidence.
• A fire investigator looks at the fire remains, and obtains information to reconstruct the
sequence of events leading up to the fire. Third: Preserve
• As fires can be caused by or involve many ignition sources and fuels, fire investigators need to Preservation requires the responder to use techniques such as overhaul to minimize damage of
know not only the science of fire behavior, but also to have a working understanding of many the scene. Overhauling is described by Fire Engineering as, opening walls, ceilings, voids, and
different areas of study including construction, electricity, human behavior, and mechanical partitions to check for fire extension. To minimize damage the USFA recommends that first
devices. responders do the following:
• Avoiding excessive overhaul that may damage evidence or obscure fire patterns.
Example • Refraining from moving switches or plugs located on utilities and appliances.
• If there is a gas appliance at the origin of the fire, an investigator should know enough about
appliances to either include or exclude it as a possible cause of the fire. Fourth: Notification
Notification requires a first responder to report to the incident commander and investigators
anything that they observed and to ask questions if anything is unclear or doesn’t seem to
• Fire investigators sometimes work with forensic engineers, such as forensic electrical make sense.
engineers when examining electrical appliances, household wiring, etc. When arsonists attack,
there is very rarely much evidence left at the scene. However, arsonists usually use accelerants
to speed up a blaze.
• Forensic scientists use technologies to heat samples taken from the scene causing any residue
to separate.
• This sample is then analyzed to determine the chemical structure.
• Scientists also use other tests such as using liquid nitrogen gas to trap residue which are then
analysed using gas chromatography.

4|Page