B V Raju Institute of Technology

Vishnupur, Narsapur, Medak District

(Autonomous)
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Anthologize by
Ayesha Naureen M.Tech (Ph.D)
Assistant Professor
CSE Dept
BVRIT

AY: 2019-2020

SEM-I

III B.Tech
B. V. Raju Institute of Technology
III Year B.Tech. CSE I Sem
INTERNET OF THINGS
(Professional Elective I)

Pre-requisites: Engineering Workshop and IT Worshop

Objectives: The Students will learn the following:
1. Understand how we make our surroundings smart with the help of internet
2. Understand basic technologies and concepts behind smart world
3. Understand the architecture and hardware technologies of Internet of Things (IoT)
4. Understand practical examples for IoT

Unit I: (12 Lectures)

Introduction to Internet of Things: Introduction: Definition of IoT, Fundamental
Characteristics of IoT, Design Considerations for IoT Applications
Basic layered architecture for IoT: Device Layer, Network Layer, Service and
Application Support Layer, Application Layer

Unit II: (12 Lectures)

Key enabling Technologies: Platforms: Hardware, SoC, Sensors, Cloud Computing and IoT,
Bluetooth, BT-LE, iBeacon, Raspberry Pi, Arduino
Protocols: Identification and Tracking Technologies: RFID, NFC, Zigbee and GPS
Communication Technologies: Wireless Networks, WSN, 3G, LTE, IPv6

Unit III: (10 Lectures)

Services and attributes for IoT: Big-Data Analytics and Visualization, Dependability,
Security, Localization, Maintainability

Unit IV: (11 Lectures)

Internet of Things in Practice: IoT For Smart Cities, IoT for Traffic Management
and Transportation, Iot in the Home, Iot in Retail, IoT in Healthcare, IoT in Sports

Unit V: (11 Lectures)

Challenges and Future Trends: Research challenges: Technical Challenges, Standardization,
Information Security and Privacy Protection, Research Trends

Outcomes: Upon the successful completion of the course, the student will be able:
1. Understand the architecture of Internet of Things and connected world
2. Understand how to use various hardware, communication and sensing technologies to build
IoT applications
3. Understand real time IoT applications that make our world super smart
4. Understand challenges and future trends in IoT
5. Apply key enabling technologies in practical day-to-day applications
6. Analyze how our surroundings can be made smarter with the help of Internet

Textbooks:
1. Internet of Things – From Research and Innovation to Market Deployment, Ovidiu Vermesan,
Peter Friess, River Publishers, 2014
2. Internet of Things – Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated
Ecosystems, Ovidiu Vermesan, Peter Friess, River Publishers, 2013

References:
1. The Internet of Things: Key Applications and Protocols, Olivier Hersent, David
Boswarthick, Omar Elloumi, Wiley, 2012
2. Building the Hyperconnected Society, Ovidiu Vermesan, Peter Friess, River Publishers, 2015
3. M2M Communications: A Systems Approach, By David Boswarthick, Omar Elloumi,
Olivier Hersent, Wiley, 2012
4. Designing the Internet of Things, Adrian McEwen, Hakim Cassimally, Wiley, 2014
 Unit 1

Introduction:

The term Internet of Things was first coined by Kevin Ashton in the year 1999.
He described IoT as a “Network connecting objects in the physical world to the Internet”.
The Internet of Things can also be called as the smart object network, the web of objects,
the web of things, and cooperating objects.
It is a network of things, that are embedded with sensors and actuators, which can sense the
changes in the environment, communicate the information using the internet/cloud and
respond to those changes.
A Sensor is a device that can sense the change in the environment (or) that can read inputs
from the physical world.
An actuator is a device that can trigger an action.
Technical definition of smart objects, “A smart object is an item equipped with a form of
sensor or actuator, a tiny microprocessor, a communication device, and a power source. The
sensor or actuator gives the smart object the ability to interact with the physical world. The
microprocessor enables the smart object to transform the data captured from the sensors,
albeit at a limited speed and at limited complexity. The communication device enables the
smart object to communicate its sensor readings to the outside world and receive input from
other smart objects. The power source provides the electrical energy for the smart object to
do its work”.
A virtual object is a digital representation, semantically enriched, of a real world object
(human or lifeless, static or mobile, solid or intangible), which is able to acquire, analyse
and interpret information about its context, to augument the potentialities of associated
services for the benefits of the quality of the life of humans as final consumer of the real
world data. Examples: virtual button, virtual receptionist in theatre.

Differences between IoT and Existing Technologies:

Embedded Systems: An embedded system is a computer embedded in something other than

a computer. Under this definition, any system that has a microprocessor is an embedded
system with the exception of PCs, laptops, and other equipment readily identified as a
computer. Thus this definition of an embedded system would include smart objects.
Real Time Systems(RTS): A real-time system is a system that always responds to external
input, or a timer, in a pre-specified amount of time. The software for these devices needs to
be strict about its timing, and operating systems that provide this strict timing are called Real-
Time Operating Systems (RTOS).

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN): Wireless sensor networks have evolved from the idea
that small wireless sensors can be used to collect information from the physical environment
in a large number of situations ranging from wild fire tracking and animal observation to
agriculture management and industrial monitoring. Each sensor wirelessly transmits
information toward a base station. Sensors help each other to relay the information to the
base station. In wireless sensor networks envisioned sensor networks to be composed of so-
called smart dust. Smart dust would be composed of large numbers of tiny electronic systems
with sensing, computation, and communication abilities. It would be spread over an area
where a phenomenon, such as humidity or temperature, was to be measured.

Mobile Computing(MC): Mobile computing is the field of wireless communication and

carry-around computers, such as laptop computers. In some ways the mobile computing field
spun out of work initialized within the ubiquitous computing area. Mobile Ad hoc NETworks
(MANETs). MANET research focuses on networking mechanisms for wireless computers
where no network infrastructure exists. In such situations, routing protocols and other
network mechanisms must quickly establish an ad hoc network.

Pervasive/Ubiqutous Computing: It falls under H2M interaction* . It is a way to describe

computing everywhere. Where everything is a computer and you can talk to device and they
answer. You can see computer screen overlaid in the real world.

Internet of Things: IoT falls under M2M interaction*. IoT is a subclass of ubiquitous
computing. We can achive pervasive computing through IoT. In IoT, Things, all over the
environment, are connected to internet/cloud and deployed by sensors and
actuators(Embedded systems). These smart objects can sense, communicate among
themselves - network of sensors(WSN)(MC). Only quality that makes IoT stand alone from
all other technologies is IoT can take a decision based on the sensed data and act accordingly.

* There are 3 types of interactions: H2H, H2M, M2M. (H-

Human and M-Machine).

H2H- Humans interacting with Humans

H2M- Humans interacting with Machines

M2M- Machines interacting with Machines

Definition:

According to European Research Cluster on the Internet of Things (IERC), IOT is

defined as “A dynamic global network infrastructure with self-configuring capabilities based on
standard and interoperable communication protocols where physical and virtual “things” have
identities, physical attributes, and virtual personalities and use intelligent interfaces, and are
seamlessly integrated into the information network.”

According to Global Standards Initiative on IoT (IoT-GSI), IoT is defined as “A

global infrastructure for information society, enabling advanced services by interconnecting
things based on existing and evolving interoperable information and communication
technologies”.

Phases of IoT:

IoT represents a convergence of several domains and can be perceived as an umbrella term.

Data acquisition Sensors collect information from the physical

environment around them
Communicate
The data and events generated are sent through the
Aggregate network to the desired destination

Analyze Data collected are aggregated by devices itself or by

processor
Act
Sophisticated analytics the aggregated data can be
used to generate basic patterns, control and optimize
processes

Where suitable actions are performed based on the

information gathered

Fundamental Characteristics:

The IoT is a complex system with a number of characteristics.

Its characteristics vary from one domain to another.
Some of the general and key characteristics identified during the research study are as
follows:

Interconnectivity: With regard to the IoT, anything can be interconnected with the
global information and communication infrastructure.
Dynamic changes: The state of devices change dynamically, e.g., sleeping and waking
up, connected and/or disconnected as well as the context of devices including location
and speed. Moreover, the number of devices can change dynamically.
Things-related services: The IoT is capable of providing thing-related services within
the constraints of things, such as privacy protection and semantic consistency between
physical things and their associated virtual things. In order to provide thing-related
services within the constraints of things, both the technologies in physical world and
information world will change.
Enormous scale: The number of devices that need to be managed and that communicate
with each other will be at least an order of magnitude larger than the devices connected to
the current Internet. The ratio of communication triggered by devices as compared to
communication triggered by humans will noticeably shift towards device-triggered
communication. Even more critical will be the management of the data generated and
their interpretation for application purposes. This relates to semantics of data, as well as
efficient data handling.
Heterogeneity: The devices in the IoT are heterogeneous as based on different hardware
platforms and networks. They can interact with other devices or service platforms
through different networks.
Security: IoT devices are naturally vulnerable to security threats. As we gain
efficiencies, novel experiences, and other benefits from the IoT, it would be a mistake to
forget about security concerns associated with it. There is a high level of transparency
and privacy issues with IoT. It is important to secure the endpoints, the networks, and the
data that is transferred across all of it means creating a security paradigm.
Sensing: IoT wouldn’t be possible without sensors which will detect or measure any
changes in the environment to generate data that can report on their status or even interact
with the environment. Sensing technologies provide the means to create capabilities that
reflect a true awareness of the physical world and the people in it. The sensing
information is simply the analogue input from the physical world, but it can provide the
rich understanding of our complex world.
Design Considerations of IoT application

What is the end goal of the application?

Does it need to provide real-time data for information, planning or safety/security

purposes? Or perhaps the intent is automation and control?
Understanding the end-use scenario will enable you to determine the required power and
performance levels.

What are the size requirements?

Today’s consumers seem to want everything to be as small as possible, but at what cost?
Take wearables for example, Performance is often limited in these miniature form
factors, which are really only capable of supporting small bursts of data.
If small size and high-performance is mandated, a long-lasting battery will be needed to
extend power consumption demands, which can quickly make the overall solution larger
and more costly.
Outfitting a large space in a building can be equally as difficult since you will have to
determine just how many components will be needed to ensure sufficient signal
transmission throughout a facility.

What are the communication range requirements of the application?

In an indoor or urban area, with WiFi readily available, range can be measured in feet or
yards.
But in an outdoor or rural area, the range needed for a signal to reach the nearest
server/wireless gateway could be miles, requiring a cellular or GPS interface.
If it’s a long transmission distance, higher power and higher frequencies will be needed.
If it’s a remote location that can’t be accessed frequently, battery life will be an
important.
Interference with physical obstacles or other RF devices can also affect operational
distance.

What is the power source?

Transmitter power is a very critical matter in the design of an application since it affects
both the range of the communication and the battery life.
The longer the range, the more power is required. The more power required, the shorter
the battery life.
If the device will be powered by batteries alone, then all design decisions must consider
how to preserve power.
Many networking technologies will not be a good fit with battery power. Frequency of
communication has an influence on power selection, too.
 What environmental considerations need to be addressed?

One of the many benefits of wireless systems is that they can often go where human
beings cannot, include harsh and/or hazardous environments.
However, it’s important to verify what types of wireless systems are able to operate in
specific situations (hot, cold, wet, dry) and even extreme conditions.
For example, an application that needs to be implemented in a medical freezer, or one
used in a server farm that emits a great amount of heat, will likely require more frequent
monitoring and possibly built-in emergency alerts.

Does your product need to communicate with other products?

If so, then you need to make sure they are interoperable.
This goes beyond compliance with organizations such as IEEE, ISO and others, as even
these well-known standards are sometimes open to interpretation in more than one way.
For example, say there are two different manufacturers of media access controllers
(MACs). Both are compliant with the 802.11b standard, but one doesn’t include all the
functionality required for a specific operation by the end user. Even though both MACs
are compliant with the same standard, they may not be compliant with one another or
with the user’s application.
The only way to ensure interoperability is via an interoperability testing and certification
process.

What about security?

Even if your application isn’t targeted for use by the military, financial industry or health
organizations, security of information is, and always will be, a major design
consideration.
Bottom line, you need to design-in as many layers of encryption protocols as feasible;
SSL and passwords at the very minimum.

(OR)

When designing your first IoT device, there are 10 things to keep in mind:

1. Cost: “Smart” or IoT products help consumers and manufacturers alike, but they cost more.
Both Ethernet and wireless technologies have come down below $10, so consider networking
in your next product.
2. Network: The network technology you chose for your IoT product has distance and
gateway/router issues. If you need to get to the Internet then you need Ethernet/Wi-Fi; if you
are self-contained in a room or building then ZigBee, Z-Wave, and Bluetooth are available.
Remember all wireless technologies need FCC certification.

3. Features: With an IoT connected product, companies can now add features to their products
that were not possible or imagined. These features can get you direct access to the customer
for updates, maintenance, and new revenue opportunities.

4. User interface: How the user interfaces with a product is important. Are you going to use
buttons, LEDs, or a display on the product? Also what web and app interfaces are you going
to provide?

5. Power: One of the first decisions should be the power source. If the device will be powered
by batteries then all design decisions must consider how to preserve power. Many
networking technologies will not be a good fit with battery power. Frequency of
communication does have an influence on power selection, too.

6. Size: Size matters. Consider how the network will impact the size of the device. Connectors
and antennas required by some networks will add to the size.

7. Antenna: All wireless networks use an antenna, internal or external to the product. The trend
is to move the antenna inside the enclosure if it is plastic. All metal enclosures would require
external antennas.

8. Cloud: Cloud applications provide products a user interface to the product and the data.
There are private and public clouds. Most clouds have a standard API for developing your
application.

9. Interoperability: Does your product need to communicate with other vendors’ products? If
so, then you need to adopt a standard set of protocols, such as Apple’s HomeKit, to
communicate with other products.

10. Security: Security is becoming a major issue, so you need to design in as many layers of
security as feasible. SSL and password are the minimum.
UNIT -2
IoT Architecture

According to ITU-T:

• The Internet of Things layered architecture is illustrated as supposed by the ITU-T

(International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunication Standardization Sector)
and is composed of four layers:

1. Application Layer: This is the First or Top Layer, which contains the
application user interface. The application layer is responsible for delivering
application specific services to the user. It defines various applications in
which the Internet of Things can be deployed, for example, smart homes,
smart cities, and smart health.

2. Service and Application Support Layer: This layer provides the required
services and support for various Applications.
 3. Network Layer: which contains the networking and transport capabilities.
This layer also performs the following functions; Gateway – Routing &
Addressing – Network Capabilities – Transport Capabilities – Error detection
& Correction. Also, it takes care of message routing, publishing and
subscribing.

4. Device Layer: This contains the gateways and the hardware and sensors and
RFID tags and others.
Along the four layers, the security and management capabilities and
functions are distributed.

According to IERC:

European Research Cluster on the Internet of Things (IERC) gives a detailed

IOT Layered architecture, illustrating the functions included in every layer.
The IERC is very active in the involvement in ITU-T Study Group 13, which presents
the work of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) on standards for next
generation networks (NGN) and future networks.
1. The application layer: There is the application user interface. This layer is at the top of
the architecture and is responsible for delivery of various applications to different users in
IoT. The applications can be from different industry segments such as: manufacturing,
logistics, retail, environment, public safety, healthcare, food and drug etc. With the
increasing maturity of RFID technology, numerous applications are evolving which will
be under the umbrella of IoT.

2. The service support and application support layer: All decisions related to the
monitoring, storage, organization and visualization of the received information, including
resolving virtual entities created, are made
a. IOT Business Process Management functions; which includes Business Process
Modeling and Business Process Execution
b. Service Organization functions; which includes Service Composition and Service
Orchestration,
c. Virtual Entity functions; which includes VE Resolution, VE service and VE &
IOT service monitoring, and finally, IOT service resolution and IOT service
functions.

3. The network and communication layer: there exists the network and communication
capabilities, such as; Gateway, Routing and addressing, Energy Optimization, QoS
(Quality of Service), Flow Control and Reliability, and error detection and correction.
Network Capabiliti, Transport Capabilities. Also, it takes care of message routing,
publishing and subscribing. With demand needed to serve a wider range of IOT services
and applications such as high speed transactional services, context-aware applications,
etc, multiple networks with various technologies and access protocols are needed to work
with each other in
a heterogeneous configuration. These networks can be in the form of a private, public or
hybrid models and are built to support the communication requirements for latency,
bandwidth or security.

4. The Device layer: This includes sensors, other hardware such as; embedded systems,
RFID tags and readers and others. The sensors enable the interconnection of the physical
and digital worlds allowing real-time information to be collected and processed. The
miniaturization of hardware has enabled powerful sensors to be produced in much
smaller forms which are integrated into objects in the physical world. There are various
types of sensors for different purposes. The sensors have the capacity to take
measurements such as temperature, air quality, movement and electricity.
 In some cases, they may also have a degree of memory, enabling them to record a
certain number of measurements. A sensor can measure the physical property and convert
it into signal that can be understood by an instrument. Sensors are grouped according to
their unique purpose such as environmental sensors, body sensors, home appliance
sensors and vehicle telemetric sensors, etc. Many of these hardware elements provide
identification and information storage (e.g. RFID tags), information collection (e.g.
sensors), and information processing (e.g. embedded edge processors).

5. In the left side, the Management Capabilities, such as; QoS Manager and Device
Manager are distributed along the service support and application support layer and the
network and communication layer.

6. In the right side, the Security Management functions, such as; Authorization, Key
Exchange and Management, Trust and Reputation, Identity Management and
Authentication, exists in the service support and application support layer and the
network and communication layer.

Unit -3
Key Enabling technologies

Hardware: There are four building blocks of hardware for IoT.

1. Thing:
A thing can be converted into a smart thing by embedding intelligence into the
object using a sensor or an actuator.
It is an asset that you want to control or monitor.
Two behavioral properties of a smart object:
1. Interacting with physical world and
2. Communication
In many IoT products, thing is fully integrated into smart object.
Smart things can be built in two ways:
Your company can decide to build brand new devices that are smart from
beginning. or
You can turn existing things into smart objects (Brownfield opportunity)
2. Data Acquisition Module:
Focuses on acquiring physical signals from things and converting them into
digital signals.
This is the hardware component that includes all the sensors acquiring real world
signals such as temperature, motion, light, vibration etc. The type and number of
sensors you need depend on your application.
This includes signal conditioning, ADC, scaling, interpretation.
Considerations:
What physical signals do I need to measure? (Type of sensor)
How many sensors of each type do I need? (Number of sensors)
How fast should I measure the real world signal? (Sampling rate)
How much accuracy di I need in my measurement? (Sensor resolution)
3. Data Processing Module:
 Processor is that processes the data, performs local analytics, takes decision to
keep the data locally or to send it to the cloud, stores data locally and performs
other computing operations.
Considerations:
Processing Power:
How many sensors do you need to read?
Need to perform real time control?
Does your application need to perform analytics at the edge?
Have enough processing power to support software upgrades?
What are size constraints of a device?
Local Storage Amount:
The amount of local storage you need depends on your data
retention policy.
Once you define how much data you need to acquire and how much
will send to cloud and then you calculate how much local storage you
will need as temporary storage for doing calculations or to serve as a
buffer in case loose the connection to the cloud.
Communication Module:
. It is circuitry that enables communication with your cloud platform.
The module may include ports such as USB, Serial, CAN, Modbus, WiFi,
LoRA, ZigBee, etc.
Communication module could be same device as other internal components of a
device or it could be a separate device that specifically for communication
(Gateway architecture).

SoC:
* A system on a chip or system on chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit (also
known
as an "IC" or "chip") that integrates all components of a computer or other electronic
systems.
A System on A Chip: typically uses 70 to 140 mm2 of silicon.
A SoC is a complete system on a chip. A `system' includes a microprocessor, memory
and peripherals.
SoC usually includes
Programmable processor(s)
Memory
Accelerating function units
Input/output interfaces
Software
Re-usable intellectual property blocks (HW + SW)
Buses
11. Multiprocessor/Multicore SoC is possible by interconnecting processors and using a
variety of mechanisms, including shared memories and message-passing hardware
entities such as specialized channels and mailboxes.
12. SoCs are found in every consumer product, from modems, mobile phones, DVD players,
televisions and iPods.
 13. Types of SoCs:
SoCs built around a microcontroller,
• SoCs built around a microprocessor
3. Specialized SoCs designed for specific applications.
5. A separate category may be Programmable SoC (PSoC), where some of the
internal elements are not predefined and can be programmable.

Advantages of an SoC:
SoC consumes less power. Usually 90% of power consumption is in data and bus
address cabling. Since all the components are on the same chip and internally connected, and
their size is also very small, the power consumption is hugely
decreased.
5. A smaller size means it is lightweight and of small size.
7. Overall, the cost of a SoC is small due to advancements in VLSI technology. As
mentioned in the first point, cabling is not much required and so the cost of
cabling is conserved.
o A SoC provides greater design security at hardware and firmware levels. o
A SoC provides faster execution due to high speed processor and memory.

Disadvantages of a SoC:
o Initial cost of design and development is very high. If the number of SoCs is
small, the cost per SoC will be very high.
o Even a single transistor or system damage may prove to be very costly as the
complete board has to be replaced, and its servicing is very expensive.
o Integrating all systems on single chip increases complexity.
o It is not suitable for power-intensive applications.

Sensors:
Transducer: A device which converts one form of energy to another. Two types: o
Sensors: A device which gets input from the physical world. And converts
physical form to electrical form (ADC).
o Actuators: A device which trigger an action. And converts electrical to physical
form (DAC).
Instrument society of America defines sensor as “device which provides a usable output
in response to a specified measurements”.
Criteria to choose a Sensor: There are certain features which have to be considered
when we choose a sensor. They are as given below:
o Accuracy
o Environmental condition - usually has limits for temperature/ humidity o
Range - Measurement limit of sensor
o Calibration - Essential for most of the measuring devices as the readings changes
with time
o Resolution - Smallest increment detected by the sensor o
Cost
o Repeatability - The reading that varies is repeatedly measured under the same
environment
Sensor Features:
o It is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., A temperature sensor senses
the ambient temperature of a room.)
o It is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application
(e.g., A temperature sensor does not bother about light or pressure.)
o It does not influence the measured property (e.g., measuring the temperature
does not reduce or increase the temperature).
Sensor Resolution
o The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity
that it is measuring.
o The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the smallest resolution
the digital output it is capable of processing.
o The more is the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is its precision.
o A sensor’s accuracy does not depend upon its resolution.

Classification of Sensors: Following are the few criteria to classify sensors:

1. Primary Input quantity (Measurand)
2. Transduction principles (Using physical and chemical effects)
3. Material and Technology
4. Property
5. Application
6. Power
7. Contact

Transduction principle: Transduction principle is the fundamental criteria which are

followed for an efficient approach. Usually, material and technology criteria are chosen
by the development engineering group.
Classification based on property:
o Temperature - Thermistors, thermocouples, RTD’s, IC and many more.
 o Pressure - Fibre optic, vacuum, elastic liquid based manometers, LVDT,
electronic.
o Flow - Electromagnetic, differential pressure, positional displacement, thermal
mass, etc.
o Level Sensors - Differential pressure, ultrasonic radio frequency, radar, thermal
displacement, etc.
o Proximity and displacement - LVDT, photoelectric, capacitive, magnetic,
ultrasonic.
o Biosensors – MEMS, Resonant mirror, electrochemical, surface Plasmon
resonance, Light addressable potentio-metric.
o Image - Charge coupled devices, CMOS
o Gas and chemical - Semiconductor, Infrared, Conductance, Electrochemical.
o Acceleration - Gyroscopes, Accelerometers.
o Others - Moisture, humidity sensor, Speed sensor, mass, Tilt sensor, force,
viscosity. Surface Plasmon resonance and Light addressable potentio-metric
from the Bio-sensors group are the new optical technology based sensors.
Classification based on Application:
o Industrial: Process control, measurement and automation
o Non-industrial: Aircraft, Medical products, Automobiles, Consumer
electronics, other type of sensors.
Sensors classified based on power:
o Active Sensor - Sensors that require power supply are called as Active Sensors.
Example: LiDAR (Light detection and ranging), photoconductive cell.
o Passive Sensor - Sensors that do not require power supply are called as Passive
Sensors.
Example: Radiometers, film photography.
Examples:
1. Temperature Sensors
This device collects information about temperature from a source and converts into a
form that is understandable by other device or person.
The best illustration of a temperature sensor is mercury in glass thermometer.
The mercury in the glass expands and contracts depending on the alterations in
temperature.
The outside temperature is the source element for the temperature measurement.
The position of the mercury is observed by the viewer to measure the temperature.
There are two basic types of temperature sensors:
o Contact Sensors – This type of sensor requires direct physical contact with the
object or media that is being sensed. They supervise the temperature of solids,
liquids and gases over a wide range of temperatures.
o Noncontact Sensors – This type of sensor does not require any physical contact
with the object or media that is being sensed. They supervise non-reflective
solids and liquids but are not useful for gases due to natural transparency. These
sensors use Plank’s Law to measure temperature. This law deals with the heat
radiated from the source of heat to measure the temperature.
1. Thermocouple:
They are made of two wires (each of different homogeneous alloy or metal) which form
a measuring junction by joining at one end. This measuring junction is open to the
elements being measured. The other end of the wire is terminated to a measuring device
where a reference junction is formed. The current flows through the circuit since the
temperature of the two junctions are different. The resulted milli voltage is measured to
determine the temperature at the junction.
 2. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD):
These are types of thermal resistors that are fabricated to
alter the electrical resistance with the alteration in
temperature. They are very expensive than any other
temperature detection devices.

3. Thermistors:
Thermistors are another kind of thermal resistor where a
large change in resistance is proportional to small change
in temperature.
4. ICs:
ICs - These silicon temperature sensors differ significantly from the above
mentioned types in a couple of important ways. The first is operating
temperature range. A temperature sensor IC can operate over the nominal
IC temperature range of -55°C to +150°C. The second major difference is
functionality.
A silicon temperature sensor is an integrated circuit, and can therefore
include extensive signal processing circuitry within the same package as
the sensor. There is no need to add compensation circuits for temperature
sensor ICs.
LM 35
temperature
sensor

2. IR Sensor
This device emits and/or detects infrared radiation to sense a particular phase in the
environment. Generally, thermal radiation is emitted by all the objects in the infrared
spectrum. The infrared sensor detects this type of radiation which is not visible to
human eye.
Advantages
o Easy for interfacing
o Readily available in market
o Singular casing (Transmitter + Receiver)
o Objects detection with high reflect parameter
Disadvantages
o Disturbed by noises in the surrounding such as radiations, ambient light etc.
o Low detecting distance
o Sensitive to color and quality
o Sensitive to background
o Dead zone
 The basic idea is to make use of IR LEDs to send the infrared waves to the object.
Another IR diode of the same type is to be used to detect the reflected wave from the
object.
When IR receiver is subjected to infrared light, a voltage difference is produced across
the leads. Less voltage which is produced can be hardly detected and hence operational
amplifiers (Op-amps) are used to detect the low voltages accurately.
Measuring the distance of the object from the receiver sensor: The electrical property of
IR sensor components can be used to measure the distance of an object. The fact when IR
receiver is subjected to light, a potential difference is produced across the leads.

Cloud Computing and IoT:

Virtualization:
‘Virtual object’ is a digital representation of real world object.
Virtualization is a computer architecture by which multiple virtual machines (VM)
are multiplexed in the same hardware machine.
It is the process of creating a virtual environment on an existing system to run desired
program without interfering with any other services
The purpose of a VM is to enhance resource sharing by many users and improve
computer performance in terms of resource utilization and application flexibility.
The reincarnation of VMs presents a great opportunity for parallel, cluster, grid, cloud
and distributed computing.
Virtualization technology benefits the computer and IT industries by enabling users to
share expensive hardware resources by multiplexing VMs on same set of hardware
hosts.
The idea is to separate the hardware from software to yield better system efficiency.
Types of virtualization:
Hardware Virtualization
Software Virtualization
Memory Virtualization
Data Virtualization
Network Virtualization
Desktop Virtualization
Server Virtualization
Application Virtualization
Hypervisor:
A traditional computer runs with a host OS tailored for its hardware architecture
After virtualization, different user applications managed by their own OS (guest
OS) can run same hardware, independent of the host OS.
This is often done by using Hypervisor or Virtual Machine Monitor (VMM).
Cloud Computing:

Cloud Computing is a model for delivery of computing requirements “as-a-

service” to the end users on demand, typically over the internet and on a pay-as-you-go
basis.

Introduction:
A fundamental concept behind cloud computing is that the location of the service,
and many of the details such as the hardware or operating system on which it is
running, are largely irrelevant to the user.
Cloud computing as a term has been around since the early 2000s, but the concept
of computing-as-a-service has been around for much, much longer -- as far back as
the 1960s, when computer bureaus would allow companies to rent time on a
mainframe, rather than have to buy one themselves.

Working of Cloud computing:

Rather than owning their own computing infrastructure or data centers, companies
can rent access to anything from applications to storage from a cloud service
provider.
One benefit of using cloud computing services is that firms can avoid the upfront
cost and complexity of owning and maintaining their own IT infrastructure, and
instead simply pay for what they use, when they use it.
In turn, providers of cloud computing services can benefit from significant
economies of scale by delivering the same services to a wide range of customers.
Types of Services provided by cloud / Service models:
Cloud computing is based on service models. These are categorized into three basic
service models which are -
o Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS):
This model allows users to use virtualized IT resources for computing,
storage and networking. Simply, the service is performed by rented cloud
infrastructure.
The user can deploy and run his applications over his chosen
OS environment.
The user does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure,
but has control over the OS, storage, deployed applications and possibly
select networking components.
This IaaS model encompasses storage as a service, instances as a service and
communication as a service.
Examples: Storage, RAM, CPU Cycles, Networking requirements etc.

o Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS):
This is able to develop, deploy and manage the execution of applications
using resources on cloud platform with proper software environment.
Such a platform includes operating system and runtime library support.
The platform cloud is an integrated computer system consisting of both
hardware and software infrastructure.
The user application can be developed on this virtualized cloud platform.
User does not manage the underlying cloud infrastructure.
The cloud provider supports user application development and testing on a
well-defined service platform.
This PaaS model enables a collaborated software development platform for
users from different parts of the world.
Examples: OS, SDKs, Platforms like .net, Java, Python etc.

o Software-as-a-Service (SaaS):
This refers to browser-initiated application software over thousands of
cloud customers.
Services and tools offered by PaaS are utilized in construction of
applications and management of their deployment on resources offered by
IaaS providers.
Whereas SaaS model provides software applications as a service.
As a result, there is no need to user to buy software licensing.
Examples: Google Gmail and Google Docs, Microsoft SharePoint, CRM
software from salesforce. com
Types of Clouds / Deployment models:
Public Cloud:
o Public cloud is the classic cloud computing model, where users can access a large
pool of computing power over the internet (whether that is IaaS, PaaS, or SaaS).
o One of the significant benefits here is the ability to rapidly scale a service.
o The cloud computing suppliers have vast amounts of computing power, which
they share out between a large numbers of customers -- the 'multi-tenant'
architecture.
o The public cloud allows systems and services to be easily accessible to the
general public. Public cloud may be less secure because of its openness.
 o Examples of public cloud are Thingspeak for IoT, Amazon Web Services,
Google cloud, IBM Blue cloud, Microsoft Azure, Aneka etc.
Private Cloud:
o The private cloud allows systems and services to be accessible within an
organization. It is more secured because of its private nature.
o Companies can control exactly where their data is being held and can build the
infrastructure in a way they want - largely for IaaS or PaaS projects - to give
developers access to a pool of computing power that scales on-demand without
putting security at risk.
Community Cloud:
o The community cloud allows systems and services to be accessible by a group of
organizations.
Hybrid Cloud:
o The hybrid cloud is a mixture of public and private cloud, in which the critical
activities are performed using private cloud while the non-critical activities are
performed using public cloud.
o Some data in the public cloud, some projects in private cloud, multiple vendors
and different levels of cloud usage.
o According to research by TechRepublic, the main reasons for choosing hybrid
cloud include disaster recovery planning and the desire to avoid hardware costs
when expanding their existing data center.

Advantages of Cloud computing:

The exact benefits will vary according to the type of cloud service being used but,
fundamentally, using cloud services means companies not having to buy or maintain
their own computing infrastructure.
This minimizes maintenance of infrastructure. All maintenance is taken care by
service provider.
Cloud services may be able to deliver a more secure and efficient service to end
users.
Cloud computing makes scaling much easy.

Role of Cloud in IoT:

The IoT is generating an unprecedented
amount of data, which in turn puts a
tremendous strain on the Internet
infrastructure.
The Internet of Things and cloud
computing are different, but each will
have their own job in tackling this new
world of data.
Convergence of these two technologies,
increases efficiency in our everyday task.
These two technologies have
 complimentary relationship.
IoT generates massive amounts of data and cloud computing provides a pathway for the
data to travel to its destination and analytics of that data.
Amazon Web Services, one of several IoT cloud platforms at work today, points out six
advantages and benefits of cloud computing:
o Variable expense allows you to only pay for the computing resources you use, and
not more.
o Providers such as AWS can achieve greater economies of scale, which reduce costs
for customers.
o You no longer need to guess your infrastructure capacity needs.
o Cloud computing increases speed and agility in making resources available to
developers.
o You can save money on operating data centers.
o You can deploy your applications worldwide in a matter of minutes.
Some of the more popular IoT cloud platforms on the market include Thingspeak, Amazon
Web Services (AWS), GE Predix, Google Cloud IoT, Microsoft Azure IoT Suite, IBM
Watson, and Salesforce IoT Cloud.

Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a standardized protocol for sending and receiving data. Standard is
IEEE 802.15.1.
It is named after a Danish king, King Harald Bluetooth.
It’s a secure protocol, and it’s perfect for short-range, low-power, low-cost, wireless
transmissions between electronic devices.
It is developed by Bluetooth SIG, which includes Nokia, IBM, Intel, Toshiba, and
Ericsson etc.
The Bluetooth protocol operates at 2.4GHz in ISM frequency band where RF protocols
like ZigBee and WiFi also exist. (ISM- Industrial, Scientific and Medical Radio band)

Bluetooth Working:
Bluetooth networks (commonly referred to as piconets) use a master/slave model to
control when and where devices can send data.
In a piconet, a single master device can be connected to up to seven different slave
devices. Any slave device in the piconet can only be connected to a single master.
Slave
Slave Slave

Master
Slave Slave

Slave Slave

One master per piconet but a master in one piconet can participate as a slave in a
different piconet.
Slaves are time division multiplexed into more than one piconet.
Piconets not time or frequency synchronized.
The master coordinates communication throughout the piconet.
It can send data to any of its slaves and request data from them as well. Slaves are only
allowed to transmit to and receive from their master. They can’t talk to other slaves in
the piconet.
Connection process:
Inquiry: If two Bluetooth devices know absolutely nothing about each other, one must
run an inquiry to try to discover the other. One device sends out the inquiry request, and
any device listening for such a request will respond with its address, and possibly its
name and other information.
Paging (Connecting): Paging is the process of forming a connection between two
Bluetooth devices. Before this connection can be initiated, each device needs to know
the address of the other (found in the inquiry process).
Connection: After a device has completed the paging process, it enters the connection
state. While connected, a device can either be actively participating or it can be put into
a low power sleep mode.
Modes:
o Active Mode – This is the regular connected mode, where the device is actively
transmitting or receiving data.
o Sniff Mode – This is a power-saving mode, where the device is less active.
It’ll sleep and only listen for transmissions at a set interval (e.g. every 100ms).
o Hold Mode – Hold mode is a temporary, power-saving mode where a device
sleeps for a defined period and then returns back to active mode when that
interval has passed. The master can command a slave device to hold.
o Park Mode – Park is the deepest of sleep modes. A master can command a slave
to “park”, and that slave will become inactive until the master tells it to wake
back up.
Bluetooth Profiles:
Bluetooth profiles are additional protocols that build upon the basic Bluetooth standard
to more clearly define what kind of data a Bluetooth module is transmitting.
While Bluetooth specifications define how the technology works, profiles define how it’s
used.
A hands-free Bluetooth headset, for example, would use headset profile (HSP), while a
Nintendo Wii Controller would implement the human interface device (HID) profile.
For two Bluetooth devices to be compatible, they must support the same profiles.
Few commonly used profiles:
Serial Port Profile (SPP) - SPP is great for sending bursts of data between
two devices.
Human Interface Device (HID) - HID is the go-to profile for Bluetooth-enabled
user-input devices like mice, keyboards, and joysticks.
Hands-Free Profile (HFP) and Headset Profile (HSP) - HFP is used in the
hands-free audio systems built into cars. HSP to allow for common phone
interactions (accepting/rejecting calls, hanging up, etc.)
Advanced Audio Distribution Profile (A2DP) - defines how audio can be
transmitted from one Bluetooth device to another.
A2DP is a one-way street, but the audio quality has the potential to be much higher.
A2DP is well-suited to wireless audio transmissions between an MP3 player and a
Bluetooth-enabled stereo.
A/V Remote Control Profile (AVRCP) - allows for remote controlling of a
Bluetooth device.
It’s usually implemented alongside A2DP to allow the remote speaker to tell the
audio-sending device to fast-forward, rewind, etc.

Bluetooth Address:
Every single Bluetooth device has a unique 48-bit address (BD_ADDR).
This will usually be presented in the form of a 12-digit hexadecimal value.
The most-significant half (24 bits) of the address is an organization unique identifier
(OUI).
The lower 24-bits are the more unique part of the address of the device.
Power Classes:
The transmit power, and therefore range, of a Bluetooth module is defined by its power
class. There are three defined classes of power:

Class Max Output Power Max Output Power Max Range

(dBm) (mW)

Class 1 20 dBm 100 mW 100 m

Class 2 4 dBm 2.5 mW 10 m

Class 3 0 dBm 1 mW 10 cm

Bluetooth Versions:
Bluetooth v1.2: The v1.x releases laid the groundwork for the protocols and
specifications future versions would build upon. Bluetooth v1.2 was the latest and most
stable 1.x version.
Bluetooth v2.1 + EDR: The 2.x versions of Bluetooth introduced enhanced data
rate (EDR), which increased the data rate potential up to 3 Mbps (closer to 2.1
Mbps in practice). Bluetooth v2.1, released in 2007, introduced secure simple
pairing (SSP), which overhauled the pairing process.
Bluetooth v3.0 + HS (High Speed): Bluetooth v3.0’s optimum speed is 24 Mbps.
Bluetooth v4.0 and Bluetooth Low Energy: Bluetooth 4.0 split the Bluetooth
specification into three categories: classic, high-speed, and low energy. Classic and high
speed call-back to Bluetooth versions v2.1+EDR and v3.0+HS respectively. The real
standout of Bluetooth v4.0 is Bluetooth low energy (BLE).

Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE):

BLE is also called as “Bluetooth smart”, a light weight protocol.
It sacrifices range (50m instead of 100m) and data throughput (0.27 Mbps instead of
0.7-2.1 Mbps) for a significant savings in power consumption.
BLE is aimed at peripheral devices which operate on batteries, and don’t require high
data rates, or constant data transmission. Smart watches, like the MetaWatch, are a
good example of this application.
BLE actually has a completely different lineage and was started by Nokia as an in-
house project called 'Wibree' before being adopted by the Bluetooth SIG.
Devices are two types:
o Peripheral devices are small, low power, resource constrained devices that can
connect to a much more powerful central device. Peripheral devices are things
like a heart rate monitor, a BLE enabled proximity tag, etc.
o Central devices are usually the mobile phone or tablet that you connect to with
far more processing power and memory.
Two types of profiles:
GAP: GAP is an acronym for the Generic Access Profile, and it controls connections
and advertising in Bluetooth. GAP is what makes your device visible to the outside
world, and determines how two devices can (or can't) interact with each other.
o There are two ways to send advertising out with GAP. The Advertising Data
payload and the Scan Response payload.
o A peripheral will set a specific advertising interval, and every time this interval
passes, it will retransmit its main advertising packet. A longer delays saves power
but feels less responsive if the device only advertises itself once every 2 seconds
instead of every 20ms.
o If a listening device is interested in the scan response payload (and it is available
on the peripheral) it can optionally request the scan response payload, and the
peripheral will respond with the additional data.

o Bluetooth Low Energy peripheral to send data one-way to any devices in

listening range, as shown in the illustration below. This is known as
Broadcasting in Bluetooth Low Energy.
GATT: GATT is an acronym for the Generic Attribute Profile, and it defines the way
that two Bluetooth Low Energy devices transfer data back and forth using concepts
called Services and Characteristics.
o It makes use of a generic data protocol called the Attribute Protocol (ATT),
which is used to store Services, Characteristics and related data in a simple
lookup table using 16-bit IDs for each entry in the table.
o The most important thing to keep in mind with GATT and connections is that
connections are exclusive. What is meant by that is that a BLE peripheral can
only be connected to one central device (a mobile pho ne, etc.) at a time!
o GATT transactions in BLE are based on high-level, nested objects called
Profiles, services and Characteristics.
o Contain specific chunks of data called characteristics.
o A service can have one or more characteristics, and each service distinguishes
itself from other services by means of a unique numeric ID called a UUID,
which can be either 16-bit (for officially adopted BLE Services) or 128-bit (for
custom services).
o The lowest level concept in GATT transactions is the characteristic,
which encapsulates a single data point.
iBeacon:
Beacon has one single purpose in its life i.e., sending a single and say ‘I am here’.
They don’t contain data on them.
They don’t connect to internet. Uses BLE for communication.
They are platform independent.
Beacon is a physical device with antenna and BLE stack that can send packets.
Beacons are pioneered by Apple – iBeacon is a protocol developed by Apple and
introduced at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference in 2013.
iBeacon is the layout of that packet (other s/w available like eddy stone, ALT etc.).
iBeacon: The term iBeacon and Beacon are often used interchangeably. iBeacon is the
name for Apple’s technology standard, which allows Mobile Apps (running on both iOS
and Android devices) to listen for signals from beacons in the physical world and react
accordingly.
In essence, iBeacon technology allows Mobile Apps to understand their position on a
micro-local scale, and deliver hyper-contextual content to users based on location. The
underlying communication technology is Bluetooth Low Energy.

Functions of iBeacon:

1. Monitoring: Region monitoring is limited to 20 regions. It has different delegates to

notify the listening app (and user) of entry/exit in the region.
2. Ranging: This enables users to detect movement in-and-out of range of the beacons. The
distance between transmitting iBeacon and receiving device is categorized into 3
distinct ranges:
o Immediate: Within a few centimeters
o Near: Within a couple of meters
o Far: Greater than 10 meters away
An iBeacon broadcast has the ability to approximate when a user has entered, exited, or
lingered in region.

How does iBeacon use BLE communication?

Beacons allow mobile apps to listen for its signals.

So, mobile can understand its position in micro level (better than GPS) and act
accordingly.
Technical Details:

With iBeacon, Apple standardized the format for BLE advertising.

An iBeacon is a Bluetooth low energy device emitting advertisement following a strict
format, that being an Apple defined iBeacon prefix, followed by a variable UUID, and a
major, minor pair.
An example iBeacon advertisement frame could look like:
fb0b57a2-8228-44 cd-913a-94a122ba1206 Major 1 Minor 2
Byte 0-2: Standard BLE
Flags o Byte 0: Length :
0x02
o Byte 1: Type: 0x01 (Flags)
o Byte 2: Value: 0x06 (Typical Flags)
Byte 3-29: Apple Defined iBeacon
Data o Byte 3: Length: 0x1A
o Byte 4: Type: 0xFF (Custom Manufacturer Packet)
o Byte 5-6: Manufacturer ID : 0x4C00 (Apple)
o Byte 7: Sub Type: 0x02 (iBeacon)
o Byte 8: Sub Type Length: 0x15
o Byte 9-24: Proximity UUID
o Byte 25-26: Major
o Byte 27-28: Minor
Byte 29: Signal Power/strengh
 UUID: This is a 16 byte string used to differentiate a large group of related beacons. For
example, if Coca-Cola maintained a network of beacons in a chain of grocery stores, all
Coca-Cola beacons would share the same UUID. This allows Coca-Cola’s dedicated
smartphone app to know which beacon advertisements come from Coca-Cola-owned
beacons.
Major: This is a 2 byte string used to distinguish a smaller subset of beacons within the
larger group. For example, if Coca-Cola had four beacons in a particular grocery store, all
four would have the same Major. This allows Coca-Cola to know exactly which store its
customer is in.
Minor: This is a 2 byte string meant to identify individual beacons. Keeping with the
Coca-Cola example, a beacon at the front of the store would have its own unique Minor.
This allows Coca-Cola’s dedicated app to know exactly where the customer is in the
store.
Tx Power: This is used to determine proximity (distance) from the beacon. How does
this work? TX power is defined as the strength of the signal exactly 1 meter from the
device. This has to be calibrated and hardcoded in advance. Devices can then use this as a
baseline to give a rough distance estimate.

Example: A beacon broadcasts the following packet

UUID: 12345678910245
Major: 22
Minor: 2

A device receiving this packet would understand it’s from the Coca-Cola Beacon
(UUID) in the Target on 1st Street (Major) at the front of the store (Minor).

Why is iBeacon a Big Deal?

With an iBeacon network, any brand, retailer, app, or platform will be able to understand exactly
where a customer is in the brick and mortar environment. This provides an opportunity to send
customers highly contextual, hyper-local, meaningful messages and advertisements on their
smartphones.

Example: A consumer carrying a smartphone walks into a store. Apps installed on a consumer’s
smartphone listen for iBeacons. When an app hears an iBeacon, it communicates the relevant
data (UUID, Major, Minor, Tx) to its server, which then triggers an action. This could be
something as simple as a push message [“Welcome to Target! Check out Doritos on Aisle 3!”],
and could include other things like targeted advertisements, special offers, and helpful reminders
[“You’re out of Milk!”]. Other potential applications include mobile payments and shopper
analytics and implementation outside of retail, at airports, concert venues, theme parks, and
more. The potential is limitless.

This technology should bring about a paradigm shift in the way brands communicate with
consumers. iBeacon provides a digital extension into the physical world. We’re excited to see
where iBeacon technology goes in the next few years.

Raspberry Pi
Raspberry Pi is a credit card sized bargain micro Linux machine.
•The goal behind creating Raspberry Pi was to create a low cost devicethat would improve
programming skillsand hardware understanding for students.
•The latest model of Raspberry Pi comes sporting 1 GB of RAM, 1200 MHz quad –core ARM
Cortex-A53 processor, and basic levels of functionality that enables hobbyists, computer
enthusiasts, and students to use this device for DIY projects.
•Raspberry Pi is open hardwarewith the exception of its primary chip, the
BroadcommSoCwhich runs the main components of the board –CPU, graphics, memory, USB
controller etc.

Different models of Raspberry Pi (RPi)

•The current models of the Raspberry Pi available: the Pi 2 Model B, the Pi 3 Model B, the Pi
Zero,and the Pi 1 Model B+ and A+.
•The Model A+ is the low-cost variant of the Raspberry Pi. It has 256MB RAM, one USB port,
40 GPIO pins and no Ethernet port. •The Model B+ is the final revision of the original Raspberry
Pi. It has 512MB RAM (twice as much as the A+), four USB ports, 40 GPIO pins, and an
Ethernet port
.•The Pi 2 shares many specs with the Pi 1 B+, but it uses a 900MHz quad-core ARM Cortex-A7
CPU and has 1GB RAM.
•The Pi 3 Model B was launched in February 2016; it uses a1.2GHz 64-bit quad-core ARM
Cortex-A53 CPU, has1GB RAM, integrated 802.11n wireless LAN, and Bluetooth 4.1.
•Pi Zero is half the size of a Model A+, with a 1Ghz single-core CPU and 512MB RAM, and
mini-HDMI and USB On-The-Go ports.
•All of these Raspberry Pi Models share the following features:
•Operating Systems: RaspbianRaspBMC, Arch Linux, Rise OS, OpenELECPidora
•Video Output: HDMI Composite RCA
•Supported Resolutions: 640x350 to 1920x1200, including 1080p, PAL & NTSC standards
•Power Source: Micro USB

What can RPi do?

Raspberry Pi users have made many creative and impressive projects using this device.
North Carolina Near Space Research (http://www.ncnearspace.org/) used a raspberry pi
to power very-high-altitude balloons to take pictures from space.Engineers have used RPi
to design a ‘dicta-teacher’ meant to teach disadvantaged blind children how to read
Braille.A link to a weather station made from Raspberry Pi -
http://embeddedday.com/projects/rescuing-a-foam-box/RPi can also be programmed to
assist in ‘housekeeping’ your network by functioning as NAS, LDAP server, web server,
media server, DNS server etc.
Where can you buy RPi from?
From the Raspberry Pi website : http://swag.raspberrypi.org/
•From the Raspberry Pi’s main distributors : Premier Farnell/Element 14
(https://www.element14.com/community/community/raspberry-pi) and RS
Compnents/Allied Electronics (http://uk.rs-
online.com/web/generalDisplay.html?id=raspberrypi)
•Resellers of Raspberry Pi such as Adafruit(https://www.adafruit.com/products/998)or
Amazon.
•How much does it cost?•The Model A+ costs $20 •The Model B+ costs $25•Pi 2 costs
$35 •The Pi 3 costs $35
•The Pi Zero costs $5•Power supply and SD card are not included in this price but are
available from the same sellers. Refer to http://elinux.org/RPi_Buying_Guidefor further
information on buying

What hardware do you need to setup your RPi ?

1.A Raspberry Pi 2.An HDMI or composite video capable television or monitor3.An

HDMI or composite video cable4.An SD card that is compatible with your Raspberry Pi -
 http://elinux.org/RPi_SD_cardshas a list of SD cards you should use5.A USB keyboard
and mouse (Bluetooth keyboard/mouse work for latest model but with minor connectivity
issues)6.Standard Ethernet cable7.Micro USB power supply (that can provide at least
700mA at 5V)8.A 3.5 mm stereo audio cable if your project requires Raspberry Pi to be
connected to external speakers
Steps to setup your RPiEach of the following steps is detailed in the subsequent slides.Step:
1 SD Card SetupStep
2 : Raspberry Pi cablingStep
3 : Booting your RPi for the first timeStep
4 : Load GUI environment to your RPiSep
5 : Setup a network connection

After completing this setup , you will have your device powered up and working as a full fledged
Linux box running Debian.

Step 1: SD Card Setup

•RPi will NOTstart without a properly formatted SD Card (with a bootloader and suitable
OS).
•Two of the most important RPi OS options are Raspbian(based on Debian) and
Pidora(based on Fedora)
•IMPORTANT -The formatted SD Card has to be inserted before powering the RPi; and
the RPi has to be shut down before unplugging the card.
•Ways to setup the SD card
:•Easy/ Safe way –Buy a preloaded card from a reputable supplier (Available for sale
http://swag.raspberrypi.org/and https://thepihut.com/. There have been reports of
problems with SD cards purchased from ebayor Amazon so be cautious if buying from
there)
•Create your own SD card for Rpi•Using NOOBS
•Flashing the SD Card using Windows, Mac, or linux

Step 1: SD Card setup using NOOBS

•NOOBS (New Out Of Box Software) is an easy way to install RPi distributions.
•It is a 1 GB download compared to the 500 MB size of images used for flashing
.•Download NOOBS from the raspberrypi.org downloads page
•Insert a (4GB+) SD Card into your computer
•Format the disk using instructions mentioned in notes for this slide
.•If your monitor doesn’t work with NOOBS, press 1-4 for the following troubleshooting options
:◦Default HDMI Mode
◦HDMI Safe Mode -Use this if Default (1) doesn't work and you cannot see anything
◦Composite PAL Mode -Use this or 4. if you are using the yellow and black outputs on the
opposite side to the HDMI output
◦Composite NTSC Mode
Step 1: SD Card setup by flashing the cardInstructions for Windows
•Using the Win32DiskImager program
1.Download the distribution from raspberrypi.org downloads page.Make sure the distribution is
for Raspberry Pi (it will mostly be a compressed file ending in .zip or .gz). Extract this image.
2.Insert the SD card into your SD card reader and make note of what drive your SD Card is
assigned.
3.Download the Win32DiskImagerutility from
https://sourceforge.net/projects/win32diskimager/. This can be run from a USB drive.
4.Extract the executable from the zip file and run the Win32DiskImager utility (mightneed to
‘Run as Administrator’; Right-click on the file, and select 'Run as Admin’).
5.If you see a file error when Win32DiskImager loadsv(in windows 7), ignore the error.
6.Select the image file you extracted and the drive letter of SD card as shown here
7.Click ‘Write’ and wait for write to complete.
8.Exit imager and eject SD card. It can now be plugged into RPi.

If you are unable to chose the device in Win32DiskImager, try using ‘flashnul’ to do a similar
installation. Alternatively, you can use the Fedora ARM Installer to download and install RPi
Fedora Remix images (http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Fedora_ARM_Installer)

Step 1: SD Card setup by flashing the card

Instructions for Mac OS X•One way is to run an app with a GUI such as Pi Filler, ApplePi-
Baker, or PiWriter; but the way that has worked out for most users is by using systems tool from
the command line. •First, download the image you want here :
http://www.raspberrypi.org/downloads•Verify the file using the published hash value -from the
command line:$ opensslsha1path_to_file.img, or drag&dropthe .imgfile into command window
instead of typing the full path and file name.•Unzip the file to extract the image (.img) file (an
app like Unarchiverworked better that the OS X file de-compressor. •Follow this link for
instructions on installing OS images from the latest version of MAC OS :
https://www.raspberrypi.org/documentation/installation/installing-images/mac.md

Step 1: SD Card setup by flashing the cardInstructions for Linux command line•Download the
zip file containing the image of the distribution : http://www.raspberrypi.org/downloads•Extract
image with : unzip ~/2012-12-16-wheezy-raspbian.zip•Run df–hto see what devices are currently
mounted.•Insert SD card into your computer and run df–hagain. Your SD card will be listed as
something like "/dev/mmcblk0p1" or "/dev/sdd1". The last part ("p1" or "1" respectively) is the
partition number, but you want to write to the whole SD card, not just one partition, so you need
to remove that part from the name (getting for example "/dev/mmcblk0" or "/dev/sdd").•Now,
unmount the SD card (and all its partitions that show up) -umount/dev/sdd1 (replace
/dev/sdd1...)•In the terminal write the image to the card with this command, making sure you
replace the input fileif=argument with the path to your .imgfile, and the "/dev/sdd" in the output
fileof=argument with the right device name(IMPORTANT !!! The wrong device name will cause
you to lose all data on the hard drive) ddbs=4M if=~/2012-12-16-wheezy-raspbian.img
of=/dev/sdd---Might need to sudofor this. •As root run the commandsyncor if a normal user
runsudosync(this will ensure the write cache is flushed and that it is safe to unmount your SD
card)•Remove SD card from reader and insert in RPi.
Step 2: Raspberry Pi cabling

•Push SD card into the SD card slot.•Plug the HDMI cable into the HDMI output of the
Raspberry Pi and connect to the TV/monitor.•Turn on monitor and switch to the HDMI
port.•Insert the network cable and connect to the router.•Connect the keyboard and mouse via
USB ports.•Plug the power supply into the micro USB.•The device is now ready for the next
steps

Step 3: Booting your RPi for the first time

These steps are for the Debiandistribution of Raspberry pi, Raspbian
. •The first time you boot the Raspberry Pi you'll see a configuration tool called "raspi-config.“
•Calling “raspi-config” command from the terminal of your device will open this configuration
screen again, if you need to see it.
•Select “expand_rootfs” and press enter (As shown in the images below). This option expands
the installed image to use the maximum available size of your SD card.
Select “configure_keyboard” from the main menu and press enter. From the list of keyboard
options that comes up, select your keyboard setup. If you are unable to find your keyboard setup.
Select the default 105-key option

. •Select the keyboard layout as required

•The last option to set in the Keyboard configuration is the ALT / CTRL / BACKSPACE feature
to kill X11. It is recommended that you enable this, so that in case your GUI ever crashes you
can safely kill it without rebooting.

•Setting user password on your device.

•From the main menu, select “change_pass” and press Enter. You will be prompted to enter new
UNIX password.
•Set your “locale” which is the general characterset used in your native language (en_US.UTF-8
for USA). Set this as the default locale when prompted.
•Set your timezoneby selecting the “Change_timezone” option.
•Select “Finish” and reboot. Once you are back online, you will see a login prompt like this.

Step 4 : Load GUI environment to RPi

•Log in from the login prompt with the username “pi” and the password you set earlier.
•After logging in, type “startx” to get the GUI environment loaded.
•After a loading sequence, you will see a UI which looks similar to the Windows UI. It is the
LXDE Window Manager which is a light weight UI that runs well on Raspberry Pi. •After
finishing the whole setup sequence, you now have your device powered up and the LXDE WM
running. You can now use this Pi for your projects, or for general computing tasks.
Step 5 : Setup a network connection
•Your device can be connected to the internet in the following different ways, depending on the
model you have used:
•The LAN interface via Ethernet cable to your Internet router (Models B & B +, not the A, A +
and Zero)
•If you are using the Ethernet option and your router is configured for DHCP, you should be able
to connect without any further configuration.
•The built-in wireless card -Only the Raspberry Pi 3
•A USB wireless dongle -available for all models
•This option consumes more power than other options. If you are using this option, make sure
you hvea power supply that can support it. Wifican be setup using either the command line or the
graphical interface. Instructions on setting up wifiare available in detail in this document :
https://learn.adafruit.com/downloads/pdf/adafruits-raspberry-pi-lesson-3-network-setup.pdf
Getting started with IDLE on RPi
•Raspbiancomes preloaded withPython, the official programming language of the Raspberry Pi
and IDLE 3 which is a Python Integrated Development Environment.
•IDLE3 can be loaded up by double-clicking the icon on your LXDE desktop.•Click File > New
Window, which will then bring up a new blank window which you can type in.•Type in your
code and save
.•Click Run > Run Module or press F5 to run your code.
Enable SSH on your RPi
•If you want to access the command line (not the full desktop environment) of your RPi from
another computer, you can use ssh•SSH can be enabled using “raspi-config”
.•Enter sudoraspi-configin the terminal, navigate to ssh, hit Enter, and select Enable or disable
sshserver
•For access to the full desktop environment via remote control, you can use VNC. It transmits
the keyboard and mouse events from the controller, and receives updates to the screen over the
network from the remote host.
•Instructions to enable VNC are here : https://www.raspberrypi.org/documentation/remote-
access/vnc/README.md

SSH into Rpi using Windows

•Download PuTTY(available as ‘putty.exe’)

•When you run it, you will see a configuration screen like this ->
•Type the RPi’sIP address into the Host name field and ‘Open’.(Find the IP address using
hostname –I )
•When the connection starts, you will see a security warningabout the server’s host key not
cached in the registry. This can be safely ignored. Click ‘Yes’.
•You will now get the usual RPi login prompt. Log in with ‘pi’ as username and the password
you set earlier.
•Type exitto close the putty window.
•You can use ‘Saved sessions’ on the configuration screen to connect the second time. You can
change the ‘Seconds between keepalives’ value in the left hand pane to 30 to allow PuTTYto
leave the remote connection open for long periods without any activity on your RPi.
SSH into RPi using Linux/ Mac OS•SSH from Linux or Mac OS doesn’t require any
software installations.•Get your device’s IP address from the terminal using hostname –
I•Type the command sshpi@<IP> where <IP> is the IP address of the RPi into the
terminal window of the Linux or Mac OS devices. If your RPi user name is not ‘pi’,
replace ‘pi’ in the command with your user name.•If you receive a ‘connection timed
out’, check if you have the RPi’scorrect IP address. •When you get a security authenticity
warning, type yes.•You will now be prompted for the password for the pi (username: pi;
password: as in the setup).•X-Forwarding can also be set up from Linux or Mac OS by
using the –Y flag as ssh-Y pi@<IP>With X-forwarding, When you type in commands
such as idle3 & you can now open up graphical windows such as Python Editor IDLE
remotely.

Aurdino:-

Arduino is a prototype platform(open-source)based on an easy-to-use hardware and

software.It consists of a circuit board,which can be programed(referred to as
amicrocontroller) and a ready-made software called Arduino IDE (Integrated
Development Environment),which isused to write and upload the computer code to the
physical board. The key features are: Arduino boards are able to read analog or digital
inputsignals from different sensors and turn it into an output such as activating a motor,
turning LED on/off, connect to the cloud and manyotheractions. You can control your
board functions by sending a set of instructions to the microcontroller on the board via
Arduino IDE (referred to as uploading software). Unlike most previous programmable
circuit boards, Arduino does not need an extra piece of hardware (called a programmer)
in order to load a new code onto the board. You can simply use a USB
cable.Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it easier
to learn to program.Finally, Arduino provides a standard form factor that breaks the
functions of the micro-controller into a more accessible package.
Arduino3
Board TypesVarious kinds of Arduino boards are availabledependingon different
microcontrollers used.However, all Arduino boards have one thing in common: they are
programedthrough the Arduino IDE. Thedifferencesare based on the number of inputs
and outputs (the number of sensors, LEDs, and buttons you can use on a single board),
speed, operating voltage,form factor etc. Some boards are designed to be embedded and
have no programming interface (hardware),which you would need to buy separately.
Some can run directly from a 3.7V battery, others need at least 5V

Hereis a list of different Arduino boardsavailable. Arduino boardsbased on ATMEGA328

microcontroller
Arduino –Board Description
we will learn about the different components on the Arduino board. We will study the
Arduino UNO board because it is themost popular board in the Arduino board family. In
addition,it is the best board to get started with electronics and coding. Some boards look a
bit different from the one given below, but most Arduinos have majority of these
components in common
Power USB Arduino board can be powered by using the USB cable from your
computer.All you need to doisconnect the USBcable to the USB connection
2.Power(Barrel Jack)Arduino boardscan be powered directly from the AC mainspower
supply by connecting it to the Barrel Jack
(3).Voltage RegulatorThe function of the voltage regulator is tocontrolthe voltage given
to the Arduino board and stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other
elements.
4.CrystalOscillator The crystal oscillatorhelps Arduino in dealing with time issues.How
does Arduino calculate time? The answer is,by using the crystaloscillator.The number
printed on top of the Arduino crystal is 16.000H9H. It tells us that the frequency is
16,000,000 Hertz or 16 MHz.
5,17.Arduino Reset You can reset your Arduino board,i.e.,start your program from the
beginning. You can reset the UNO board in two ways. First, by using the reset button
(17)on the board. Second, you can connect an external reset button to the Arduino pin
labelled RESET
(6,7,8,9). Pins (3.3, 5, GND, Vin)3.3V (6): Supply 3.3 output volt 5V (7): Supply 5
output volt Most of thecomponents used with Arduino board worksfine with 3.3 volt
and 5 volt. GND (8)(Ground): There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of
which can be used to ground your circuit.Vin (9): This pin alsocan be used to power the
Arduino board froman external power source,like AC mainspower supply.
10.Analog pins The Arduino UNO board has five analog input pins A0 through A5.These
pins can read the signal from an analog sensor like the humidity sensor ortemperature
sensorand convertit into a digital valuethat can be read by the microprocessor
11. Main microcontroller
Each Arduino board has its own microcontroller(11). You can assume it as the brain of
your board.The main IC (integrated circuit) on the Arduino is slightly different from
board to board. The microcontrollers are usually of the ATMEL Company. You must
know what IC your board has before loading up a new program from the Arduino
IDE.This information is available on the top of the IC. For more details about the IC
construction and functions,you can refer to the data sheet.
12.ICSP pin Mostly,ICSP(12)is anAVR, a tiny programming header for the Arduino
consistingof MOSI, MISO, SCK, RESET, VCC,andGND. It is often referred to as an SPI
(Serial Peripheral Interface),which could be considered as an "expansion" of the
output.Actually, you are slaving the output device to the master of the SPI bus
13.Power LED indicatorThis LED should light up when you plug your Arduino into a
power source to indicate that your board ispowered up correctly. If this light does notturn
on, then there is something wrongwith the connection.

14. TX and RXLEDs

On your board,you will find two labels: TX (transmit) and RX(receive). They appear in
two places on the Arduino UNOboard. First, at the digital pins 0 and 1,to indicate the
pins responsible for serial communication.Second,the TX and RXled(13).The TX led
flasheswith different speed while sending the serial data. The speed of flashing depends
on the baud rate used by the board.RXflashesduring the receiving process.

15.Digital I / O
The Arduino UNO board has 14 digital I/O pins(15)(of which 6 provide PWM (Pulse
Width Modulation) output.Thesepins can be configured to work as input digital pins to
read logic values (0 or 1) or as digital output pins to drive different modules like LEDs,
relays,etc.The pins labeled “~” can be used to generate PWM

16.AREF
AREFstands for Analog Reference. It is sometimes,used to set an external reference
voltage (between 0 and 5 Volts) as the upper limit for the analog input pins
Arduino –Installation

After learning about the main parts of the Arduino UNO board, we are ready to learn how
to set up the Arduino IDE. Once we learn this, we will beready to upload our program on
the Arduino board. Inthis section,we will learn in easy steps, how to set up the Arduino
IDE on our computer and prepare the board to receive the programvia USB cable.

Step1:Firstyou must have your Arduino board (you can choose your favorite board) and a
USB cable. In case you use Arduino UNO, Arduino Duemilanove, Nano, Arduino Mega
2560, or Diecimila, you will need a
standard USB cable (A plug to B plug),the kind you would connect to a USB printeras
shown in the following image
Step 2: Download Arduino IDE Software. You can get different versions of Arduino IDE
from the Download pageon the Arduino Official website. You must select your software,
which is compatible with your operating system (Windows, IOS, or Linux). After your
file download is complete,unzip the file.

Step 3: Power up your board.

The Arduino Uno, Mega, Duemilanove and Arduino Nano automatically draw power
from either,the USB connection to the computer or an external power supply. If you
areusing an Arduino Diecimila, you have tomake sure that the board is configured to
draw power from the USB connection. The power source is selectedwith a jumper, a
small piece of plastic that fits onto two of the three pins between the USB and power
jacks. Check that it ison the two pins closest to the USB port. Connect the Arduino board
to your computer using the USB cable. The green power LED (labeledPWR) should
glow.

Step 4: LaunchArduino IDE.

After your Arduino IDE software isdownloaded,you need to unzip the folder.Inside the
folder, you can find the application icon with an infinity label (application.exe). Double-
click theicon to start theIDE.

Step 5: Open your first project.Oncethe softwarestarts, you have two options:Create
anew project.Open an existing project example.
Arduino13Here,we are selectingjust one of the exampleswith the name Blink. Itturns the
LEDon and off with some time delay.You can select any otherexample from the list.Step
6: Select your Arduino board.To avoid any error while uploadingyour program to
theboard,you must select the correct Arduino boardname,whichmatcheswith theboard
connected to your computer.Go to Tools ->Boardand select your board.

Arduino15Step 7:
Select your serial port.Select the serial device of the Arduino board.Go toTools->Serial
Port menu. This is likely to be COM3 or higher (COM1 and COM2 are usually reserved
for hardware serial ports). To find out, you can disconnect your Arduino board and re-
open the menu,the entry that disappears should be of the Arduino board. Reconnect the
board and select that serial port.
Step 8: Upload the program to your board.
Before explaining how we can upload our program to the board, we must demonstrate the
function of each symbol appearingin the ArduinoIDE toolbar

Arduino16Step 8: Upload the program to your board.Before explaining how we can

upload our program to the board, we must demonstrate the function of each symbol
appearingin the ArduinoIDE toolbar.
 A-Used to check if there is any compilation error.
B-Used to upload a program to the Arduino board.
C-Shortcut used to create a new sketch.
D-Used to directly open one of the example sketch.
E-Used to save your sketch.
F-Serial monitor used to receive serial data from the board and send the serial data to the
board.Now, simply click the "Upload" button in the environment.
Wait a few seconds;you willsee the RX and TX LEDsonthe board,flashing. If the upload
is successful, the message "Done uploading" will appear in the status bar.
Note: If you have an Arduino Mini, NG, or other board, you need to press the reset
button physically on the board,immediately before clicking the upload button on the
Arduino Software.

Protocols:-
Identification and Tracking Technologies:

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) – Automatic Identification and Data Capture (AIDC)

It uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. The
tags contain electronically stored information. Today RFID market is worth US$9 billion, market
value is expected to rise to US$18.68 billion by 2026.

RFID Components

Passive tags collect energy from nearby RFID reader’s interrogating radio waves. Active tags
have a local power source (battery) and may operate at hundreds of meters from RFID
reader. Two way radio transmitter-receiver called Interrogators or readers send a signal to the tag
and read its response.

Near Field Communication (NFC) – NFC CTLS – NFC Contactless

It is a set of communication protocols that enable two electronic devices, one of which is usually
a portable device such as a smartphone, to establish communication by bringing them within 4
cm (1.6 in) of each other.

Each full NFC device can work in three modes:

1.NFC card emulation—enables NFC-enabled devices such as smartphones to act like smart
cards, allowing users to perform transactions such as payment or ticketing.

2.NFC reader/writer—enables NFC-enabled devices to read information stored on inexpensive

NFC tags embedded in labels or smart posters.
3.NFC peer-to-peer—enables two NFC-enabled devices to communicate with each other to
exchange information in an adhoc fashion.

Zigbee (IPv6 enabled Low-power Wireless Personal Area Network)

It is an open global standard for wireless technology designed to use low-power, low data rate
digital radio signals for personal area networks with close proximity.

The standards created by the Zigbee alliance can be used to create

multivendor interoperable offerings.

There are three Zigbee specifications:

 Zigbee PRO
 Zigbee RF4CE
 Zigbee IP

Zigbee PRO
It aims to provide the foundation for IoT with features to support low-cost, highly reliable
networks for device-to-device communication. Zigbee PRO also offers Green Power, a new
feature that supports energy harvesting or self-powered devices that don’t require batteries or AC
power supply. Zigbee’s addressing scheme is capable of supporting more than 64,000 nodes per
network and multiple network coordinators can be linked together to support extremely large
networks.

Zigbee RF4CE (Radio frequency for consumer electronics)

It is designed for simple, two-way device-to-device control applications that don’t need the full-
featured mesh networking functionalities. It offers an immediate, low-cost, easy-to-implement
networking solution for control products based on Zigbee Remote Control and Zigbee Input
Device. Eg: Home entertainment devices, Garage door openers, Keyless entry systems and many
more.

 No line of sight limitation

 Two-way communication
 Signal goes through walls and floors
 Lifetime battery

Zigbee IP

It optimizes the standard for IPv6-based full wireless mesh networks, offering internet
connections to control low-power, low-cost devices.

 Each node on a network can be individually addressed using IPv6 routing and addressing
protocol.
 Zigbee IP provides multicast capability. It enables service discovery using multicast DNS
(mDNS) and DNS-Service Discovery (DNS SD) protocols.

The Zigbee protocol defines three types of nodes:

 Coordinator – Stores information of the network, security keys.

 Routers – Intermediate nodes, relaying data from other devices.
 End devices – Low-power or battery-powered devices, which can talk to the coordinator
or a router, but can’t relay data from other devices.

Zigbee 3.0 (dotdot)

Recently, the Zigbee Alliance rolled out “dotdot,” a program to extend its interoperability
technology beyond Zigbee. Dotdot, a universal language for the internet of things, lets smart
objects work together on any network, unlocking new markets for members and unifying the
fragmented IoT.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)

 Efficient, low-cost, low-power devices for use in remote sensing applications.

 Low-power integrated circuits and wireless communications.
 A large number of intelligent sensors collect raw data, and create valuable services by
processing, analyzing, and spreading data.
 Challenges are related to limited processing capability and storage, and sensor data
sharing for multiple device/system cooperation.

IPv6

is good for IoT and IoT is good for IPv6. There are several arguments and features that
demonstrate that IPv6 is actually a key communication enabler for the future Internet of Things:

 · Adoption is just a matter of time

 The Internet Protocol is a must and a requirement for any Internet connectivity. It is the
addressing scheme for any data transfer on the web. The limited address capacity of its
predecessor, IPv4, has made the transition to IPv6 unavoidable. Google’s figures are
revealing an IPv6 adoption rate following an exponential curve, doubling every 6 months.

The LTE

you use on your phone is the not the same LTE for IoT. For instance, Verizon rolled out
LTE in 2014 but didn’t announce LTE for IoT until July 2017. From there, it takes time
for cellular and wireless chip providers to implement LTE into modules that can be used
for IoT applications. While some early chips were released around that time, U-Blox, a
wireless module provider, became one of the first to offer a cellular module certified to
support AT&T’s LTE-M network with the release of their SARA-R410M module. With
the SARA-R410M, IoT platform providers like Particle finally had the modules they
needed to offer LTE to their customers.

 This isn’t the end of LTE for IoT either. Narrowband IoT (Cat-NB1) is a proposed Low
Power Wide Area (LPWA) technology that is supposed to work anywhere and is
optimized to handle small amounts of infrequent data. Currently, North America (AT&T
 and Verizon) are adopting Cat-M1, while Europe is adopting Cat-NB1, which goes to
show that many LTE solutions are still in the works and will continue to be improved
upon over time. Due to this, product creators and enterprises should be turning their
attention to LTE if they want to work undisrupted for the next 10+ years.

UNIT 4
SERVICES AND ATTRIBUTES OF IOT

Big-Data Analytics and Visualization:

Introduction:
Data is a collection of raw facts.
Big Data: The term big data was first used to refer to
increasing data volumes in the mid-1990s.
The term has been in use since the 1990s, with some
giving credit to John Mashey for coining or at least
making it popular.
Big data usually includes data sets with sizes beyond the ability of commonly used
software tools to capture, curate, manage, and process data within a tolerable elapsed
time.
Big data philosophy encompasses unstructured, semi-structured and structured data;
however the main focus is on unstructured data.
Big data "size" is a constantly moving target, as of 2012 ranging from a few
dozen terabytes to many Exabytes of data.
Big data requires a set of techniques and technologies with new forms of integration to
reveal insights from datasets that are diverse, complex, and of a massive scale.

Big Data:
Big data can be defined by 4 Vs.
Volume:
 Volume refers to the amount of data (Size of
the data).
Today data size has increased to size of
terabytes in the form of records or
transactions. 90% of all data ever created,
was created in the past 2 years.
From now on, the amount of data in the
world wills double every two years. By
2020, we will have 50 times the amount of
data as that we had in 2011.
In the past, the creation of so much data
would have caused serious problems. Nowadays, with decreasing storage costs, better
storage solutions like Hadoop and the algorithms to create meaning from all that data
this is not a problem at all.
Massive volumes of data are getting generated, in the range of tera bytes to zeta bytes.
The data generated by machines, networks, devices, sensors, satellites, geospatial data
and human interaction on systems like transaction-based data (stored through years),
text, images, videos from social media, etc.

Velocity:
The Velocity is the speed at which the data is created, stored, analyzed and
visualized.
In the past, when batch processing was common practice, it was normal to receive an
update from the database every night or even every week.
In the big data era, data is created in real-time or near real-time which is called as
“Streaming data”.
With the availability of Internet connected devices, wireless or wired, machines and
devices can pass-on their data the moment it is created.
The speed at which data is created currently is almost unimaginable: Every minute we
upload 100 hours of video on YouTube. In addition, every minute over 200 million
emails are sent, around 20 million photos are viewed and 30,000 uploaded on Flickr,
almost 300,000 tweets are sent and almost 4 to 5 million queries on Google are
performed.
According to Gartner, velocity means both how fast the data is being produced and how
fast the data must be processed to meet demand.
The flow of data is massive and continuous. This real-time data can help business to
make decision in real time.
Variety:
Variety refers to the many sources and types of data.
In the past, all data that was created was structured data, it neatly fitted in columns and
rows but those days are over.
Nowadays, 90% of the data that is generated by organizations is unstructured data.
Data today comes in many different formats: structured data, semi-structured data,
unstructured data and even complex structured data.

Structured Data: Any data that can be stored, accessed and processed in the form of
fixed format is termed as a structured data. Structured data refers to kinds of data with
a high level of organization, such as information in a relational database.
 Example: Relational Data

Semi-structured Data: Semi-structured data is information that doesn’t reside in a

relational database but that does have some organizational properties that make it
easier to analyze. With some process you can store them in relation database.

Examples of semi-structured: XML and JSON documents are semi

structured documents, NoSQL databases are considered as semi structured.

Unstructured Data: Any data with unknown form or unknown structure is classified
as unstructured data. It often includes text and multimedia content.

Examples: e-mail messages, word processing documents, videos, photos, audio files,
presentations, webpages and many other kinds of business documents.

Veracity:

Big data veracity refers to the biases, noise and abnormalities, ambiguities,
incompleteness, inconsistencies and latency in data.
Is the data that is being stored and mined, meaningful to the problem being
analyzed?
Keep your data clean and processes to keep 'dirty data' from accumulating in your
systems.
Having a lot of data in different volumes coming in at high speed is worthless if that data is
incorrect.
Incorrect data can cause a lot of problems for organizations as well as for consumers.
Therefore, organizations need to ensure that the data is correct as well as the analyses
performed on the data are correct.
Especially in automated decision-making, where no human is involved anymore, you need
to be sure that both the data and the analyses are correct.
Big data technology ecosystem:

Big data analytics:

“The process of examining large data sets containing a variety of data types (i.e., Big
Data) to uncover hidden patterns, unknown correlations, market trends, customer
preferences, and other useful information.”

Big data analytics is the scientific process of transforming data into insights for making
better decisions.

There are various types of tools that may fall under the umbrella of Big Data Analytics or
serve to improve the process of analyzing data: data storage and management, data
cleaning, data mining, data analysis, data visualization, data integration, and data
collection.
Types of IoT Big data analytics:
They can be categorized into 6 main categories:

Descriptive analytics (What has happened?)

Diagnostic analytics (Why it happened?)
Predictive analytics (What could happen?)
Prescriptive analytics (What should we do?)
Monitoring
Control and Optimization

All these require a deep understanding of domains, situation and the requirements of
services by users.
Gaining insights and knowledge in real time and actionable insights can lead to
performance optimization.
All 5 applications are inter-related and require multiple tools like machine learning,
reasoning, optimization etc.
Analytics can provide services such as observing behavior of things, gaining
important insights and processing in real time for immediate actions.

Descriptive Analytics:

Use data aggregation and data mining to provide insight into the past and
answer: “What has happened?”
Offers insights into the situation and help in deep understanding.
The vast majority of the statistics we use fall into this category. (Think
basic arithmetic like sums, averages, percent changes).
Usually, the underlying data is a count, or aggregate of a filtered column of data
to which basic math is applied.
For all practical purposes, there are an infinite number of these statistics.
Descriptive statistics are useful to show things like, total stock in inventory,
average dollars spent per customer and Year over year change in sales.
Eg: Reports that provide historical insights regarding the company’s production,
financials, operations, sales, finance, inventory and customers.

Diagnostic Analytics:

Historical data can be measured against other data to answer the question
of “why something happened?”
To find out dependencies and to identify patterns.
Companies go for diagnostic analytics, as it gives a deep insight into a particular
problem.
 2. At the same time, a company should have detailed information at their disposal;
otherwise data collection may turn out to be individual for every issue and time-
consuming.
Eg: Healthcare provider compares patients’ response to a promotional campaign in
different regions; a retailer drills the sales down to subcategories.
Another flashback to our BI projects: in the healthcare industry, customer
segmentation coupled with several filters applied.

15. Predictive Analytics:

Use statistical models and forecasts techniques to understand the future and
answer: “What could happen?”
Predictive analytics is used in applications where users require service that can
foresee the situation and act on it.
Predictive analytics provide estimates about the likelihood of a future outcome.
It is important to remember that no statistical algorithm can “predict” the future
with 100% certainty.
They combine historical data to identify patterns in the data and apply statistical
models and algorithms to capture relationships between various data sets.
Eg: Weather forecasting, Cab journey time estimation, Traffic jam estimation, Credit
score of a person (These scores are used by financial services to determine the
probability of customers making future credit payments on time) etc.

• Prescriptive Analytics:

Helps in finding best course of action for given situation.

Use optimization and simulation algorithms to advice on possible outcomes and
answer: “What should we do?”
These analytics go beyond descriptive and predictive analytics by recommending
one or more possible courses of action.
Essentially they predict multiple futures and allow companies to assess a number
of possible outcomes based upon their actions and also can provide trade-off
among them.
Prescriptive analytics use a combination of techniques and tools such as business
rules, algorithms, machine learning and computational modeling procedures.
These techniques are applied against input from many different data sets
including historical and transactional data, real-time data feeds, and big data.
Eg: Google maps – routes to source to destination and estimation, comparison of
traffic and time to reach.
 4. Monitoring & 6. Control & Optimization: These are legacy applications, but with
big data analytics they can be improved immensely.

Big data and IoT:

6. As the Internet of Things continues its expansion, by 2020, it is projected that 50 billion
“things” will be used globally.
7. All of these connected devices will generate unimaginable amounts of data, and all
of this data will have to end up passing through data-processing entities.
8. More data means companies will have to rethink about their data center
infrastructures.
9. This is where big data comes in; big data analytics tools are capable of handling masses
of data transmitted from IoT devices that produce a continuous stream of information.
10. In other words, the IoT delivers the information from which big data analytics can draw
the information to create the insights required of it.
11. We need cloud services to store all this data, and big data services to analyze the data to
gain knowledge about hidden patterns.

Big data Visualization:

Data visualization is very helpful: instead of looking through a report with hundreds of
lines, a business user can just glance at a graph. For big data, visualization is not just a
convenient feature, rather it’s a must.
Data visualization is the graphical display of abstract information for three purposes:
explore, analysis and present.
It is representing data in some systematic form including attributes and variables for the
unit of information.
Visualization-based data discovery methods allow business users to mash up disparate
data sources to create custom analytical views.
 4. Big Data analytics plays a key role through reducing the data size and complexity in
Big Data applications. Visualization is an important approach to helping Big Data get a
complete view of data and discover data values. Big Data analytics and visualization
should be integrated seamlessly so that they work best in Big Data applications.

Big data visualization techniques:

6. The trick with Big Data visualization is choosing the most effective way to visualize
the data to surface any insights it may contain.
7. In some circumstances simple business tools such as pie charts or histograms may reveal
the whole story, but with large, numerous and diverse data sets more esoteric
visualization techniques may be more appropriate.
8. Various Big Data visualization examples include:
Linear: Lists of items, items sorted by a single feature.
2D/Planar/Geospatial: Cartograms, dot distribution maps, proportional symbol
maps, contour maps.
3D/Volumetric: 3D computer models, computer simulations
Temporal: Timelines, time series charts, connected scatter plots, arc diagrams,
circumflex charts.
Multidimensional: Pie charts, histograms, tag clouds, bar charts, tree maps, heat
maps, spider charts.
Tree/Hierarchical: Dendrogram, radial tree charts, hyperbolic tree charts.
Interactive charts

Big data visualization tools:

8. The tools for Big Data visualization should provide a certain set of
features: o Capability to process multiple types of incoming data
o Capability to apply various filters to adjust the results
o Capability to interact with the data sets during the analysis
o Capability to connect to other software to receive incoming data or provide input
for them
o Capability to provide collaboration options for the users.

9. There are lot many visualization tools available.

JupyteR is an open-source project enabling Big Data analysis, visualization and real-
time collaboration on software development across more than a dozen of
programming languages.
Tableau is the best solution for visualizing AI, Big Data and Machine Learning apps.
Google chart is a free and powerful integration of all Google power.
D3.js stands for Data Driven Document, a JS library for interactive Big Data
visualization in literally ANY way required real-time. This is not a tool, so a user
should have a solid understanding of Javascript to work with the data and present it in a
humanly-understandable form.
Dependability
p The Internet of Things (IoT) depends on a network of connected sensors and actuators
embedded in physical objects, such as appliances and medical devices, providing people,
businesses and governments with real-time online access to the state of things and places.
q Dependability is the combination of several attributes that allow a user to put trust into
and rely on a system.
r Such attributes are reliability (i.e., continuity of correct, accurate, and timely service),
s availability (i.e., readiness for correct service), safety (i.e., absence of catastrophic
consequences on users and environments);
t Confidentiality (absence of unauthorized disclosure of information); and integrity (i.e.,
absence of improper system alteration).
u This connectivity will result in a wide range of new services, applications and data,
leading to smart cities, electricity grids and healthcare services.
v Example: smart cities, smart grids, and smart healthcare applications.
w However wireless sensors and actuators do not currently offer dependable
performance, as they are often affected by the surrounding environment.
x Example 1: temperature variations can lead to a loss of synchronization and a
degradation of the quality of the wireless connection.
y Example 2: Radio interference from wireless devices and other electrical appliances can
also impair low-power communications, reducing speed and leading to high latencies.
z Guaranteeing that application-specific dependability requirements are met is however
still an open research challenges.
aa The IoT indeed exposes highly resource-constrained computing devices to harsh
environmental conditions (e.g., heat, mechanical shock, electromagnetic radiation) and
physical attacks.
bb Unfortunately, traditional methods to withstand these threats heavily rely on
redundancy, a concept that is incompatible with the resource constraints of common
IoT devices.
cc How then can developers create smart city solutions if sensors that transmit information
on the number of parking spots available or on the concentration of pollutants in the air
are not operating as expected during the hottest times of the day or in the presence of
radio interference?
dd The dependability of embedded wireless networks cannot yet be taken for granted, and
there is hence a need to increase understanding of the performance of these devices under
a wide range of environmental conditions. Only in this way can the promise of the future
internet become a reality.
ee To obtain a deep understanding of performance in relation to environmental conditions
and to provide dependable solutions, the RELYonIT team has extended existing FIRE
facilities to enable the repeatable playback of pre-recorded environmental conditions.
 Environmental models that capture how environmental properties (e.g.,
temperature and radio interference) vary over time.
Platform models that capture how these environmental properties affect the
operation of a hardware (HW) platform. A specification language allows a user to
specify dependability requirements for a given application that drive the
automatic selection and parametrization of environment-aware communication
protocols such that performance requirements can be met for a given environment
and HW platform (or the infeasibility of these requirements is detected). If
environmental properties change at runtime, the framework automatically adapts
protocol parameters to reflect the new environmental model.

p High temperatures affect low-power radios and

decrease the received signal strength.
q This can cause the received signal strength drop
below the CCA threshold dotted line as a result of
temperature increase that can compromise link
connectivity.
r A protocol model describing how the operations of
the employed protocol are affected by temperature
changes.
 Mitigating the impact of temperature variations on
low-power wireless networks:
p An environmental model capturing the relevant
aspects of the environment. Such model can be simply
based on on-board temperature ranges recorded on the
sensor nodes at specific times of the day.
q A platform model mapping environmental parameters
to variables that are relevant for the operation of IoT
hardware: such models would capture the relationship
between the on-board temperature of sender and
receiver nodes and the attenuation of the received
signal strength for the HW in use.
r Shown how low-power wireless sensors deployed outdoors often experience high on-
board temperature fluctuations, especially if they are placed inside IR-transparent
enclosures exposed to direct sun radiation
s These large temperature variations can have a severe impact on the operation of carrier
sense multiple access (CSMA) protocols, because they can reduce the effectiveness of
clear channel assessment (CCA) and compromise the ability of a sensor node to avoid
collisions and to successfully wake-up from low-power mode.
Other reasons that affect dependability are:
p Physical and remote attacks: IoT devices are deployed everywhere, and attackers can
not only mount attacks remotely via network interfaces, but also physically (e.g., by
performing dynamic fault induction or by collecting information through side-channels.
q Complexity: The IoT is a complex system (of systems) where many devices with
continuously updated software and services cooperate using a dynamically changing
communication network and where the number of devices is not known in advance.
These properties make designed IoT applications prone to design and implementation
flaws, as well as scaling bugs.
r Dependable wireless localization and communication: Wireless technologies suffer
from physical and man-made impairments; this impairs the accuracy, latency, loss, and
energy consumption of wireless services. A key challenge is therefore to offer statistical
guarantees on the reliability and availability of correct wireless localization and
communication by automatically adapting system parameters, using models of the
transceiver hardware and the environment.
s Dependable embedded computing: The IoT requires all kinds of connected computing
devices to execute software dependably: operations have to be completed within
guaranteed response times, functions must be immune to environmental attacks, and
secret information must not be revealed via physical side-channels or communication
interfaces. While security, reactivity, and dynamic modularity are still considered
independently in today’s embedded system design, this separation has unacceptable
implications on the resilience, versatility, and longevity of IoT devices.
 Dependable composition: In the IoT, smart things collaborate to provide services. They
do so by using protocols that are vital for the safe and secure operation of the system,
but that are not always documented well and rarely implemented correctly
Dependable networked control: As communication between smart items is prone to
errors and likely to be corrupted by unpredictable distortions and losses, the stability and
performance of the respective feedback loops have to be robust with respect to these
phenomena which are inherent to the IoT. The fact that conventional control theories are
based on ideal assumptions such as non-delayed actuation and sensing and perfect
synchronization motivates the need for innovative methods for the design of dependable
systems.

Security

Following are few security mechanisms for IoT.

IoT network security:

o Protecting and securing the network connecting IoT devices to back-end systems on the
internet.
p IoT network security is a bit more challenging than traditional network security because
there is a wider range of communication protocols, standards, and device capabilities, all
of which pose significant issues and increased complexity.
q Key capabilities include traditional endpoint security features such as antivirus and
antimalware as well as other features such as firewalls and intrusion prevention and
detection systems.
IoT authentication:
o Providing the ability for users to authenticate an IoT device, including managing multiple
users of a single device (such as a connected car), ranging from simple static
password/pins to more robust authentication mechanisms such as two-factor
authentication, digital certificates and biometrics.
p Unlike most enterprise networks where the authentication processes involve a human
being entering a credential, many IoT authentication scenarios (such as embedded
sensors) are machine-to-machine based without any human intervention.
IoT encryption:
o Encrypting data at rest and in transit between IoT edge devices and back-end systems
using standard cryptographic algorithms, helping maintain data integrity and preventing
data sniffing by hackers.
p The wide range of IoT devices and hardware profiles limits the ability to have standard
encryption processes and protocols.
q Moreover, all IoT encryption must be accompanied by equivalent full encryption key
lifecycle management processes, since poor key management will reduce overall
security.
p IoT PKI:
Providing complete X.509 digital certificate and cryptographic key and life-cycle
capabilities, including public/private key generation, distribution, management, and
revocation.
The hardware specs for some IoT devices may limit or prevent their ability to utilize PKI.
Digital certificates can be securely loaded onto IoT devices at the time of manufacture
and then activated/enabled by third-party PKI software suites; the certificates could also
be installed post-manufacture.

q IoT PKI:
Providing complete X.509 digital certificate and cryptographic key and life-cycle
capabilities, including public/private key generation, distribution, management, and
revocation.
The hardware specs for some IoT devices may limit or prevent their ability to utilize PKI.
Digital certificates can be securely loaded onto IoT devices at the time of manufacture
and then activated/enabled by third-party PKI software suites; the certificates could also
be installed post-manufacture.
r IoT security analytics:
Collecting, aggregating, monitoring, and normalizing data from IoT devices and
providing actionable reporting and alerting on specific activities or when activities fall
outside established policies.
These solutions are starting to add sophisticated machine learning, artificial intelligence,
and big data techniques to provide more predictive modeling and anomaly detection (and
reduce the number of false positives), but these capabilities are still emerging.
IoT security analytics will increasingly be required to detect IoT-specific attacks
and intrusions that are not identified by traditional network security solutions such
as firewalls.
s IoT API security:
Providing the ability to authenticate and authorize data movement between IoT devices,
back-end systems, and applications using documented REST-based APIs.
API security will be essential for protecting the integrity of data transiting between edge
devices and back-end systems to ensure that only authorized devices, developers, and
apps are communicating with APIs as well as detecting potential threats and attacks
against specific APIs.

Localization
Localization in the Internet of Things Network:
Location awareness, providing ability to identify the location of sensor, machine,
vehicle, and wearable device, is a rapidly growing trend of hyper-connected society and
one of key ingredients for Internet of things (IoT).
 p Localization means
Identifying the Location of a smart object
Restricting area of a Network
Smart Object adopting Local Customs, slang, idioms, Trends etc.
q In order to make a proper reaction to the collected information from devices, location
information of things should be available at the data center.
r One challenge for the massive IoT networks is to identify the location map of whole
sensor nodes from partially observed distance information.
s This is especially important for massive sensor networks, relay-based and hierarchical
networks, and vehicular to everything (V2X) networks.
t Many localization algorithms and systems have been developed by means of wireless
sensor networks for both indoor and outdoor environments.
u To achieve higher localization accuracy, extra hardware equipments are utilized by most
of the existing localization solutions, which increase the cost and considerably limit the
location-based applications.
v Location-based service is a primary service of the IOT, while localization accuracy is
a key issue.
w But what localization-specific challenges are associated with this global connectivity
growth?
Volume of Data
1 The collection of data is a cornerstone of the IoT.
2 However, data is essentially useless if it cannot be translated into a usable form.
3 If a sensor captures data once every minute, this would result in 1,440 data
samples per day. What if there are 10 sensors that each capture data once per
second? Translating this mass of data for your global customer base presents a
big headache.
4 Machine Translation (MT) or Automated Translation allows for increased
productivity, reduced translation time, and greater cost savings.
Agile localization will be crucial.
1 Language Service Providers (LSPs) are already accustomed to agile
practices within the paradigms of mobile, cloud computing and big data but
the IoT whirlwind is about to make things even faster.
2 There will be rapid, regular, time-critical content distribution across multiple
devices and channels.
3 Your language strategy will need to be proactive which is why it makes sense to
leverage automated technology and continuous translation workflows.
User Experience
1 If connected devices are to be adopted on a global scale, users speaking a wide
range of languages will have to understand them.
 Essentially IoT device makers will need to distribute professionally
localized content that caters for local idioms, current slang, and social and
linguistic trends. Being ‘Glocal’ will be key.
Users will want IoT devices and apps in their local language and adapted for their
culture.
Formats for date, time, temperature scales, measurement systems, currency, icons, etc. will
have to reflect the user’s specific target market.
Programmed World:
p In the Programmed World, all our devices will act as one.
q Alarm clocks will talk to coffee machines, gym machines will activate your workout
routine as you approach, medical devices will schedule appointments with your local
clinics, moisture sensors on lawns will check weather forecasts to predict water
requirements before turning on the sprinklers, your swimming pool will heat up when a
BBQ is scheduled on the calendar etc.
Actionable Intelligence:
p But what will we choose to do with all this information to benefits our lives?
q Actionable Intelligence, they call it.
r We can creatively choreograph devices to respond to our needs and we can use that
information to improve our way of life, both from a personal and business perspective.
Real-time translation:
p Many organizations across the world are already bringing devices to life through near
natural language.
q SIRI by Apple is a prime example of that.
r We can probably expect devices to evolve to optimize speech to text and text to speech
recognition linking machine translation (MT) and becoming ‘robot interpreters’.
A need to be agile:
p An agile approach is needed, with shorter word counts and faster throughputs.
q Localization is a vital part of the ‘relay race’ and resources must be in place with a tight
nit, speedy production line to get to the finish line.
Adaptation for success:
p Understanding the goal behind that device and making sure it’s achievable in all
markets.
q What are the relevant local customs and how should the device be adapted for optimal
user experience in each market?
r Companies will require consulting and testing services to reach that goal.
Maintainability
p Maintainability is defined as the probability of performing a successful repair
action within a given time.
q In other words, maintainability measures the ease and speed with which a system can
be restored to operational status after a failure occurs.
r This is similar to system reliability analysis except that the random variable of interest in
maintainability analysis is time-to-repair rather than time-to-failure.
s If it is said that a particular component has 90% maintainability for one hour, this means
that there is a 90% probability that the component will be repaired within an hour.
t When you combine system maintainability analysis with system reliability analysis, you
can obtain many useful results concerning the overall performance (availability, uptime,
downtime, etc.) that will help you to make decisions about the design and/or operation of
a repairable system.
In engineering, maintainability is the ease with which a product can be maintained in order to:
p correct defects or their cause,
q repair or replace faulty or worn-out components without having to replace still
working parts,
r prevent unexpected working condition,
s maximize a product's useful life,
t maximize efficiency, reliability, and safety,
u meet new requirements,
v make future maintenance easier, or
w cope with a changed environment.
Maintenance testing:
Maintenance testing is the type of software testing that refers to testing the changes to an
operational system or the impact of a changed environment to an operational system.
Maintainability can be either
o a static form of testing, i.e. carried out by inspections and reviews, or
p a dynamic form i.e. measuring the effort required to execute maintenance
activities.
Maintainability Assessment – Static Maintainability Testing:

A list of maintainability factors to be included in the assessment should be devised e.g.

structure, complexity.
Each factor (or group of factors) should be assigned a weighting to indicate its
importance to the overall maintainability of the system. Each factor will have a
maximum score of 10. The higher the score the less maintainable the system.
During the assessment a score is awarded against each factor on the list. For example, a
relatively old system may be awarded a score of 8 out of 10 to indicate that due to its age
the system will relatively difficult to maintain.
p The scores for each of the factors assessed are then multiplied by the appropriate
weighting and the resultant products are then summed to give an overall score which
forms the Maintainability Measure of the system (the lower the score, the better the
maintainability of the software system).
Example:
2. We need to test the maintainability of a system which is
being introduced into the support function as the result
of a merger with another company.
3. We have calculated an average maintainability measure
figure which equals 300.
4. The requirement is that the ‘new’ system has a
maintainability measure not greater than this average.
5. The following table shows the subset of factors chosen
from which a Maintainability Measure will be
calculated, their relevant weightings and the final
score.
6. Note that the maximum score for all factors is 10.
7. From the table we can see that the required
Maintainability Measure is not greater than 300, so the system has met the
maintainability requirement.
Software Maintenance Life Cycle:
p Maintainability measures can be calculated and recorded at regular intervals, showing
trends in maintainability, both positive and negative.
q Each change could be considered to start a new Software Development Life Cycle
(SDLC), more accurately; the project is now in a Software Maintenance Life
Cycle (SMLC).
r SMLC and can be described in terms of the following principal activities:
Dynamic maintenance
Corrective maintenance
Adaptive maintenance

Example:
The causes of poor maintainability are as follows:
Maintainability can be described in terms of four sub-attributes:
2 Analyzability: It relates to the effort required to diagnose defects or to identify parts
of the software system requiring change.
3 Changeability: It relates to the effort required to actually fix defects or make
improvements.
4 Stability: It is the likelihood that unexpected side effects occur as a result of making
changes to the software. It's what we have in mind when we sometimes say that the
software is brittle.
5 Testability: It describes the effort required for testing changed software. This is one
of the principal software quality attributes that directly affect our work.

UNIT 5
IOT Applications

Technical Challenges
Security and privacy
Connectivity
Compatibility and Longevity
Intelligent analysis and actions
Energy
Heterogeneous things
Communication protocols
Real time solutions

Security and privacy:

IoT has already turned into a serious security concern that has drawn the attention of
prominent tech firms and government agencies across the world.
The more important shift in security will come from the fact that IoT will become more
ingrained in our lives.
 Concerns will no longer be limited to the protection of sensitive information and assets.
Our very lives and health can become the target of IoT hack attacks.
There are many reasons behind the state of insecurity in IoT.
Some of it has to do with the industry being in its “gold rush” state, where every vendor
is hastily seeking to dish out the next innovative connected gadget before competitors do.
Under such circumstances, functionality becomes the main focus and security takes a
back seat.
Some of the data that IoT devices collect are very sensitive.
Vendors and manufacturers must either discard this data or remove the Personally
Identifiable Information (PII) to make sure that consumers aren’t damaged in case of data
breaches.
SECUREITY REQUIREMENTS in each layer:

Connectivity:

From the viewpoint of network, the IoT is a very complicated heterogeneous network,
which includes the connection between various types of networks through various
communication technologies.
Currently, there is lack of a widely accepted common platform that hides the
heterogeneity of underlining networks/communication technologies and provides a
transparent naming service to various applications.
Connecting so many devices will be one of the biggest challenges of the future of IoT,
and it will defy the very structure of current communication models and the underlying
technologies.
At present we rely on the centralized, server/client paradigm to authenticate, authorize
and connect different nodes in a network.
This model is sufficient for current IoT ecosystems, where tens, hundreds or even
thousands of devices are involved.
But when networks grow to join billions and hundreds of billions of devices, centralized
systems will turn into a bottleneck.
Such systems will require huge investments and spending in maintaining cloud servers
that can handle such large amounts of information exchange, and entire systems can go
down if the server becomes unavailable.
The future of IoT will very much have to depend on decentralizing IoT networks.
 Part of it can become possible by moving some of the tasks to the edge, such as using
critical operations and cloud servers take on data gathering and analytical responsibilities.
Compatibility and Longevity:
* IoT is growing in many different directions, with many different technologies competing
to become the standard.
* This will cause difficulties and require the deployment of extra hardware and software
when connecting devices.
* Other compatibility issues stem from non-unified cloud services, lack of standardized
M2M protocols and diversities in firmware and operating systems among IoT devices.
* Some of these technologies will eventually become obsolete in the next few years,
effectively rendering the devices implementing them useless.
Intelligent Analysis & Actions:
The last stage in IoT implementation is extracting insights from data for analysis, where
analysis is driven by cognitive technologies and the accompanying models that facilitate
the use of cognitive technologies.

Artificial intelligence models can be improved with large data sets that are more readily
available than ever before, thanks to the lower storage
Growth in crowdsourcing and open- source analytics software: Cloud-based
crowdsourcing services are leading to new algorithms and improvements in existing ones
at an unprecedented rate.
Real-time data processing and analysis: Analytics tools such as complex event processing
(CEP) enable processing and analysis of data on a real-time or a near real-time basis,
driving timely decision making and action.
Challenges facing the adoptions of intelligent analytics within IoT:
Inaccurate analysis due to flaws in the data and/or model: A lack of data or presence of
outliers may lead to false positives or false negatives, thus exposing various algorithmic
limitations
Legacy systems’ ability to analyze unstructured data: Legacy systems are well suited to
handle structured data; unfortunately, most IoT/business interactions generate
unstructured data
Legacy systems’ ability to manage real- time data: Traditional analytics software
generally works on batch-oriented processing, wherein all the data are loaded in a batch
and then analyzed
The second phase of this stage is intelligent actions which can be expressed as M2M and
M2H interfaces for example with all the advancement in UI and UX
technologies. Factors driving adoption of intelligent actions within the IoT
Lower machine prices
Improved machine functionality
Machines “influencing” human actions through behavioral-science rationale
Deep Learning tools
Challenges facing the adoption of intelligent actions within IoT
Machines’ actions in unpredictable situations
Information security and privacy
Machine interoperability
Mean-reverting human behaviors
Slow adoption of new technologies
Heterogeneous Things:
An IoT empowered framework keeps running with a few heterogeneous gadgets those are
diverse to each other as far as correspondence convention, information position,
information accumulation, and information storage ability and so forth.
This is a challenging task to develop communication protocols supported by all devices.
Standard information configuration is required to empower machine to machine(M2M)
correspondence all the more productively.
Energy:
The devices forming the base of IoT are wireless in nature and reside at remote places
(e.g. environment monitoring sensors) where energy is the most vital issue.
We need ultimate energy efficient algorithms and hardware so as to avoid quick draining
of battery power and make sensor nodes to live active for longer duration.
Machine to machine (M2M) communication has high priority in IoT because machine
automation must be improved to minimize delay, traffic, and immediate action.
Smart technologies need to be more intelligent to enable automated systems.
Communication Protocol and Real-Time
Solution: Communication Protocol:
The heterogeneous nature of IoT enabled services meet an unavoidable problem with
communication protocols.
Each types of device use separate protocol in terms of data communication.
Standard communication protocol needs to be developed for successfully implement IoT
services.
Real-Time Solution:
3. It will be really tough to implement the ‘Anytime’ concept of IoT in reality.
4. The real-time systems need to be implemented in grass root level of the IoT things to
react prominently at any time.
5. The complexity of the existing real-time systems must be minimized, so that they could
be used in nano-scopic devices.

Standardization
16. Standards mean in general common methods, norms and regulations, based on which
some work must be done, some product or service must be produced or some actions be
conducted.
 • These defined by official standardization organizations and can be connected to some
legislation and they should be followed.
• The issues of standardization in the area of The Internet of Things (IoT) are very
challenging both from scientific and managerial point of view because, like the statement,
“As the pace of IoT deployments accelerate, IoT standards are undergoing major
evolutions, sometimes revolutions”.

5. which include network protocols, communication protocols, and data-aggregation

standards, are the sum of all activities of handling, processing and storing the data
collected from the sensors.
6. This aggregation increases the value of data by increasing, the scale, scope, and
frequency of data available for analysis.
Challenges facing the adoptions of standards within IoT:
12. Standard for handling unstructured data: Structured data are stored in relational databases
and queried through SQL for example. Unstructured data are stored in different types of
NoSQL databases without a standard querying approach.
13. Technical skills to leverage newer aggregation tools: Companies that are keen on
leveraging big-data tools often face a shortage of talent to plan, execute, and maintain
systems.
Few standardization organizations:
ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute): Smart Appliances;
Communication Framework; SmartM2M; Smart Appliances; Reference Ontology and
oneM2M Mapping.
Eclipse Foundation: The IoT Working Group is supporting open standards for the
Internet of Things. Provides open source implementations for IoT protocols such as
CoAP, ETSI SmartM2M, MQTT or LwM2M.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization): Identify market requirements
and standardization gaps for Internet of Things (IoT); facilitate the coordination of ISO
IoT activities with IEC, ISO, ITU and other organizations that are developing standards
for IoT.
OMG (Object Management Group): OMG IIoT (Industrial IoT) standards and
activities
include: Data Distribution Service (DDS); Dependability Assurance Framework; Threat
Modeling
Open Group: The Open Group Internet of Things (IoT) Work Group developing open
standards for the Internet of things. It has produced two Open Group IoT standards: the
Open Data Format (O-DF) and the Open Messaging Interface (O-MI)
W3C: The Web of Things Community Group provides an informal, pre-standards
discussion forum to research, prototype, and create working systems for the Web of
Things.
Information Security and Privacy Protection
How is security and privacy safeguarded across billions of connected things?
5. Every device that uses electricity gathering data and connected to the Internet -- what
could go wrong? The security and privacy issues surrounding IoT are so immense that
they're almost overwhelming.
6. This topic is huge, but one aspect to highlight relates to the monitoring theme of the
previous items -- at a minimum, we need to know when a security incident is occurring.
7. Big data tools can help here to alert when attacks are potentially happening or are in
progress. We also need monitoring systems to ensure threats are addressed in real
time. What will these tools and systems look like, and who can step up to help fill this
demand?
Information Security in the Age of IoT
9. Unfortunately, cyber security threats are increasing at a pace that can match the growth of
the IoT.
10. And more data means more opportunities for criminals.
11. A comprehensive report by HP Security Research highlights.
Some of the biggest security challenges brought about by the IoT:
Ninety percent of devices collect at least one piece of personal information via the
device, the cloud, or its mobile application
Seventy percent of devices along with their cloud and mobile application enable
an attacker to identify valid user accounts through enumeration
Seventy percent of devices use unencrypted network service
Eighty percent of devices along with their cloud and mobile application
counterparts failed to require passwords of a sufficient complexity and length
10. These concerns are intensified by the fact that many of these devices collect personal
information such as name, date of birth, health information, and credit card numbers.
11. In some cases, devices can track your current and past geo-location, creating potential
security risks that go beyond the virtual world.
12. But with all of these benefits comes risk, as the increase in connected devices gives
hackers and cyber criminals more entry points.
Managing IoT Risks in A Connected World:
ff It’s unlikely that the growth of the IoT will slow in the near—or even far—future.
gg So how do we take advantage of the many significant positive aspects of this revolution
without being victimized by the information security risks? Ernst & Young’s report
Cyber security and the Internet of Things recommends a three-stage approach:
Stage 1: Activate solid cyber security practices as a foundation
Stage 2: Adapt to keep pace with changing business requirements and dynamics
Stage 3: Anticipate potential attacks and rehearse appropriate responses
IoT Security Issues:

Public Perception:
– If the IoT is ever going to truly take off, this needs to be the first problem that
manufacturers address.
– The 2015 control State of the Smart Home study found that 44% of all Americans
were "very concerned" about the possibility of their information getting stolen
from their smart home, and 27% were "somewhat concerned."
– With that level of worry, consumers would hesitate to purchase connected devices.
Vulnerability to Hacking:
– Researchers have been able to hack into real, on-the-market devices with enough
time and energy, which means hackers, would likely be able to replicate
their efforts.
– For example, a team of researchers at Microsoft and the University of Michigan
recently found a plethora of loop holes in the security of Samsung's Smart Things
smart home platform, and the methods were far from complex.
Are Companies Ready?
– AT&T's Cyber security Insights Report surveyed more than 5,000 enterprises
around the world and found that 85% of enterprises are in the process of or
intend to deploy IoT devices.
– Yet a mere 10% of those surveyed feel confident that they could secure those
devices against hackers.
True Security:
– Jason Porter, AT&T's VP of security solutions, told BI Intelligence, Business
Insider's premium research service, that securing IoT devices means more than
simply securing the actual devices themselves.
– Companies also need to build security into software applications and network
connections that link to those devices.
IoT Privacy Issues:

s Too Much Data:

– The sheer amount of data that IoT devices can generate is staggering.
– A Federal Trade Commission report entitled "Internet of Things: Privacy &
Security in a Connected World" found that fewer than 10,000 households can
generate 150 million discrete data points every day.
– This creates more entry points for hackers and leaves sensitive information
vulnerable.
t Consumer Confidence:
– Each of these problems could put a dent in consumers' desire to purchase connected
products, which would prevent the IoT from fulfilling its true potential.
 t Unwanted Public Profile:
– You've undoubtedly agreed to terms of service at some point, but have you ever
actually read through an entire document?
– The aforementioned FTC report found that companies could use collected data
that consumers willingly offer to make employment decisions.
– For example, an insurance company might gather information from you about your
driving habits through a connected car when calculating your insurance
rate.
– The same could occur for health or life insurance thanks to fitness trackers.
u Eavesdropping:
– Manufacturers or hackers could actually use a connected device to virtually
invade a person's home.
– German researchers accomplished this by intercepting unencrypted data from a
smart meter device to determine what television show someone was watching at
that moment.
v These are just a handful of the issues the IoT must solve in order to reach mass adoption.
w BI Intelligence, Business Insider's premium research service, has put together an
extensive and detailed report that dives into each aspect of the IoT, from devices and
analytics to networks and security.

Research Trends
The development of IoT infrastructures will likely follow an incremental approach and
expand from existing identification techniques such as RFID.
International cooperation efforts and a system-level perspective are needed to address the
above IoT-related challenges.
In addition to conducting research to address the above challenges, identify a few other
research trends:
t Integrating social networking with IoT solutions:
There is a strong interest to use social networking to enhance the communications among
different IoT things.
A new paradigm named Social Internet of Things (SIoT) was recently proposed.
There is a trend for the move from IoT to a new vision named Web of Things that allows
IoT objects to become active actors and peers on the Web.
u Developing green IoT technologies:
As IoT involves billions of connected sensors communicating through the wireless
network, the power consumption of sensors is a big concern and limitation for the
widespread of IoT.
Saving energy should become a critical design goal for IoT devices such as wireless
sensors.
 There is a need to develop energy-efficient techniques or approaches that can reduce the
consumed power by sensors.
Developing context-aware IoT middleware solutions:
When billions of sensors are connected to the Internet, it is not feasible for people to
process all the data collected by those sensors.
Context-awareness computing techniques such as IoT middleware are proposed to better
understand sensor data and help decide what data needs to be processed.
Employing AI techniques to create intelligent things or smart objects:
Creating Internet of Intelligent Things by bringing artificial intelligence into things and
communication networks.
Future IoT systems should have characteristics including “self-configuration, self-
optimization, self-protection, and self-healing”.
Combining IoT and cloud computing:
Clouds provide a good way for things to get connected and allow us to access different
things on the Internet.
Further research will focus on implementing new models or platforms that provide
“sensing as a service” on the cloud.
Sensor aggregation and virtual sensing:
Due to large numbers of sensors in a network, it sometimes becomes necessary to
aggregate multiple sensing streams as one 'virtual' sensor that provides an integrated
interface to other functionalities.
An example of a 'virtual' mobile sensor could be aggregated traffic flow information on a
highway that is derived from multiple vehicle sensors.
Robustness:
In case of fixed deployed sensing and actuation platforms, it is common for devices to
know their locations, have synchronized clocks, have knowledge of their neighbors for
cooperating, configure a consistent set of parameters
Mobility induced sensor network design:
The mobile IoT paradigm invalidates many of the assumptions of traditional wireless
sensor networks, especially with regards to wireless technologies and protocols.
In particular, mobile IoT devices would find it quite difficult to connect with each other
and other components of the IoT network in the presence of mobility, intermittent
connectivity and RF link variability.
For example, internet-connected cars would need to transmit and receive data from
different gateways depending on their location, which would keep changing due to their
(the cars) mobility.
This calls for radical new sensor network paradigms for IoT, perhaps borrowing ideas
from mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) or delay-tolerant networks

Smart cities using Internet of Things Solutions

Smart cities - Practical Applications

In Los Angeles, where traffic has been a tremendous problem for decades, data from an array of
magnetic road sensors and hundreds of cameras feed through a centralized computer system to
control 4,500 traffic signals citywide to help keep traffic moving. Completed in 2013, the $400-
million system is credited with increasing travel speeds around Los Angeles by 16 percent, and
shortening delays at major intersections by 12 percent. (Meis)

In San Francisco, SFpark uses wireless sensors to detect parking-space occupancy in metered
spaces. Installed in 8,200 on-street spaces in the pilot areas, the wireless sensors detect parking
availability in real time. In 2013, two years after launching SFpark, San Francisco published a
detailed report showing that the program reduced weekday greenhouse gas emissions by 25
percent. Traffic volume went down, and drivers cut their search time nearly in half. By making it
easier for people to pay for their parking and reducing loss due to broken parking meters, San
Francisco also increased parking-related revenue by about $1.9 million. (Meis)

London has begun tests on a smart parking project that allows drivers to quickly locate parking
spaces and remove the need for lengthy searches for an open spot. This significantly alleviates
urban traffic congestion, saves fuel and reduces harmful emissions. (“How Smart Cities & IoT
Will Change Our Communities,” Andrew Meola, BusinessInsider.com, December 20, 2016.)

In 2011, Autolib debuted an electric car sharing program in Paris that has grown to over 3,000
vehicles. The connected cars can be tracked via GPS, and drivers can use the car’s dashboard to
reserve parking spaces in advance, saving time and reducing the waste associated with long
searches for parking spots. (Meola)

Copenhagen uses sensors to monitor the city’s bike traffic in real time, which provides valuable
data on improving bike routes in the city. This is crucial, as more than 40% of the city’s residents
commute by bike each day. (Meola)

To save water, the drought-plagued town of Fountain View, California implemented

the FlexNetcommunication system, iPERL residential and OMNI commercial meters to cut
water usage by 23%. (Sensus.com, 2017).
There is a plethora of other applications, including the Bigbelly smart waste and recycling
system, which is completely modular. Bigbelly gives historical and real-time data collection
capabilities and helps with smart trash pick up, helps avoid overflows and generates other
notifications to help cities manage waste better and keep them both cleaner and more beautiful.
(“IoT Applications Spanning Across Industries,” IBM.com, April 28, 2017)

Another useful application, CitySense, uses sensors to save electricity by intuitively adjusting the
brightness of street lights, based on the presence of automobiles and pedestrians. It is also
“smart” enough to filter out interferences like animals and trees. (IBM.com)

How Big Data and IoT are Being Used in Traffic Management

Traffic management is one of the biggest infrastructure hurdles faced by developing countries
today. Developed countries and smart cities are already using IoT and big data to their
advantage to minimize issues related to traffic. The culture of the car has been cultivated
speedily among people in all types of nations. In most cities, it is common for people to prefer
riding their own vehicles no matter how good or bad the public transportation is or considering
how much time and money is it going to take for them to reach their destination.
Thus, the increased use of cars has caused an immense amount of traffic congestion. Several
countries are overcoming this traffic bottleneck by fetching information from CCTV feeds and
transmitting vehicle-related data to city traffic management centers to help create
improvements. Better-organized traffic systems mean a better flow of vehicles on the road, and it
means no idling cars, buses, and trucks in traffic jams. All this eventually translates to lower run
times, proper utilization of natural resources (gas), and less pollution. The emittance of gases is
the largest during stop-start driving, and this happens in spots where traffic is regulated by lights.
Hence, if you go for smart traffic, this helps in pollution reduction throughout the entire city.

However, smart traffic management also involves other factors, like smart parking sensors, smart
streetlights, smart highways, and smart accident assistance amongst other things.

Traffic Lights

Traffic lights that use real-time data feeds are being used to smooth traffic load. Sensors mounted
at strategic places can use IoT technology to gather data about high traffic junctions and areas
diverting vehicles from these places. Big data can analyze this information further and figure out
alternative routes, as well as better traffic signaling to ease congestion. Meanwhile, road-side
lights can also work according to weather sensors mounted on them. Dimming of light happens
not only as a part of the day-night process but also when weather conditions turn murky.
Roadside light sensors can pick up these signals and turn them on and off accordingly.

Smart Parking

Parking has become an Achilles heel in the urban planning scenario. Lack of parking spaces, as
well as parallel parking, has heightened traffic snarls at important junctions in cities. IoT-based
sensors in parking lots can give out real-time information about empty spots to cars coming from
a long distance and looking for a parking space. Such sensors have already been installed in
European cities like Paris, France, and Kansas in the US. They have all seen remarkable results
with a double-digit percentage reduction in parking issues observed in the span of a year.

Smart Assistance

Road accidents have been one of the top causes of deaths across the world. However, what adds
to this gloomy number is the untimely help and assistance to victims in these accidents. CCTVs
and sensors on roads can help in locating accident spots and communicating these to the nearest
emergency rooms. Once this communication is established in time, all else can be better
handled.

Challenges

All pros become more quantifiable with cons. While IoT and big data present a path-breaking
opportunity in smart traffic management and solutions, they also have some limitations. Firstly,
current cities already suffer from infrastructure issues like road planning, zoning, and other
construction-related issues that could potentially pose problems when implementing IoT
technology.
Secondly, all these fancy, hi-tech solutions need high-speed data transfer techniques and, thus,
can work only in cities with great internet connectivity. If for any reason, this connectivity is
hampered, the entire smart city could fall apart.

Thirdly, the number of devices accessing the central network means more opportunities for
hackers to conduct their malicious attacks. An added layer of security, apart from the usual one
and another on top of that, will be needed to make an impenetrable hack-proof smart traffic
solution. Data privacy will also have to be maintained, looping in lawmakers and engineers.