Chapter 8

Muscular System

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. Overview of Muscular Tissue

A. Types of muscle tissue
1. The types of muscle tissue are categorized by
location, histology, and modes of control.
2. There are three recognizable types of muscular
tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
a. Skeletal muscle tissue is primarily
attached to the bones. It is striated and
under voluntary (conscious) control.
b. Cardiac muscle is found in the walls of the
heart. It is striated and involuntary (not
under conscious control).
c. Smooth muscle is located in the major
organs (viscera) and the walls of the blood
vessels. It is nonstriated and
involuntary.
B. Muscle tissue has four key functions:
1. Producing body movements – such as walking,
running, writing.
2. Stabilizing body positions – to allow for proper
posture during sitting and standing and for
holding the head upright.
3. Storing and moving substances within the body.
a. Contractions of ring-like bands of smooth
muscles called sphincters prevent outflow
of the contents of a hollow organ.
b. Contraction of cardiac muscle propels and
moves blood though the vessels of the
body, while contraction of smooth muscle
moves substances through the digestive,
urinary and reproductive tracts.
4. Heat production – contracting muscle generates
heat.

II. Skeletal Muscle Tissue

A. Connective tissue components
1. Skeletal muscle tissue contains several
connective tissue components which help protect
and strengthen the muscle tissue.
2. The fasciae are sheets of fibrous connective
tissue beneath the skin or around muscles and
organs of the body.
3. Epimysium covers the entire muscle.
4. Perimysium covers the fascicles (bundles of
muscle fibers).
5. Endomysium covers the individual muscle fibers.
 6. Extensions of connective tissue beyond the muscle
cells include tendons, which attach muscle to
bone.
B. Skeletal muscle tissue contains both nerve and blood
supplies.
1. Nerves convey impulses for muscular contractions.
2. Blood provides the essential nutrients and oxygen
while removing many of the metabolic wastes
resulting from contraction.
C. Skeletal muscle histology
1. Histologically, skeletal muscle consists of
elongated muscle fibers (cells) covered by a
sarcolemma (plasma membrane).
2. The fibers contain sarcoplasm (cytoplasm),
multiple nuclei, many mitochondria, sarcoplasmic
reticulum, and transverse (T) tubules.
3. Each muscle fiber contains smaller units called
myofibrils that consist of thin and thick protein
filaments.
a. The filaments are compartmentalized into
units of contraction called sarcomeres.
b. The thin filaments are composed of the
proteins actin, tropomyosin, and troponin,
and have myosin-binding sites.
c. The thick filaments are composed mostly of
the protein myosin and contain projecting
myosin heads.

III. Contraction and Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle

A. Neuromuscular junctions – the role of a motor neuron
1. A motor neuron is responsible for transmitting
the nerve impulse (action potential) to a
skeletal muscle where it serves as the stimulus
for contraction.
2. The point at which the synaptic end bulb of the
motor neuron and the muscle fiber’s sarcolemma
meet is referred to as the neuromuscular junction
(NMJ).
a. A chemical neurotransmitter released at
neuromuscular junction in skeletal muscle is
actylcholine (Ach).
3. A single motor neuron and all of the muscle
fibers it stimulates form a motor unit.
a. A single motor unit may affect as few as 10
or as many as 3000 muscle fibers.
b. The number of motor units that fire in a
muscle at any one time is the basis for the
variability in contraction.
B. Physiology of contraction
1. When a nerve impulse, or action potential, from a
motor neuron reaches the axon terminal, the
 synaptic vesicles in the axon terminal release
ACh.
2. ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds
with receptors on the sarcolemma.
3. The release of ACh ultimately initiates a muscle
action potential in the muscle fiber sarcolemma.
4. The muscle action potential travels into the
transverse tubules and causes the sarcoplasmic
reticulum to release stored calcium ions into the
sarcoplasm.
5. The released calcium combines with troponin which
pulls on the tropomyosin filaments and changes
their orientation. This exposes the myosin-
binding sites on the thin filament.
6. Splitting ATP with ATPase into ADP + phosphate
releases energy which activates the myosin cross-
bridges.
7. The activated cross-bridges attach to the thin
filament, and a change in the orientation of the
cross-bridges occurs. This is called a power
stroke.
8. The power stroke results in the sliding of the
thin filaments past the thick filaments towards
the center of the sarcomere.
9. The sliding of filaments shortens the sarcomeres,
which causes shortening of the muscle fiber.
C. Relaxation of the muscle fiber
1. The enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the
neuromuscular junction destroys acetylcholine and
stops the generation of a muscle action
potential.
2. Calcium ions are then reabsorbed into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, exposing the troponin.
3. Tropomyosin slides back over the myosin-binding
sites.
4. This causes the cross-bridges to separate and the
muscle fiber resumes its resting state, or
relaxation.
D. Muscle tone
1. Muscle tone is a result of involuntary
contraction of a small number of motor units in a
muscle.
2. Muscle tone keeps muscles firm but doesn’t
produce movement.
3. These types of contractions are responsible for
keeping the head upright.
4. Flaccid muscles have lost their muscle tone.

IV. Skeletal Muscle Metabolism

A. Energy for contraction
1. The immediate and direct source of energy for
muscle contraction is ATP.
 2. Creatine phosphate and the metabolism of glycogen
and fats are necessary for the continuous
generation of ATP by muscle fibers.
3. Creatine phosphate and ATP allow for initial
contraction and short bursts of maximal
contraction lasting up to fifteen seconds.
4. The glycogen-lactic acid system provides energy
via anaerobic glycolysis. This process allows
about two minutes of maximum muscular contraction
after the creatine phosphate supply is exhausted.
5. Aerobic cellular respiration is used for
prolonged muscular contraction and will function
efficiently as long as oxygen and nutrients are
present in adequate amounts.
B. Muscle fatigue and oxygen consumption
1. Muscle fatigue is the inability of a muscle to
contract forcefully after prolonged activity.
2. Recovery oxygen uptake refers to the elevated use
of oxygen after exercise.

V. Control of Muscle Tension

A. Skeletal muscles are capable of producing several
different types of contractions, depending upon the
strength and frequency of stimulation.
B. The various kinds of contractions are twitch, wave
summation, and tetanus.
1. A twitch contraction is a brief contraction of
all of the muscle fibers in a motor unit
responding to a single action potential.
a. The three major phases are the latent
period, contraction period, and relaxation
period.
b. The latent period is the time lapse between
the action potential and the response of
the muscle fibers.
c. The contraction period is the time frame in
which the muscle fibers are undergoing
shortening.
d. The relaxation period is that time frame
when a muscle has temporarily lost its
excitability.
2. Wave summation occurs when stimuli arrive at
different times, causing larger contractions.
3. Unfused (incomplete) tetanus is a sustained but
wavering contraction and fused (complete) tetanus
is a sustained contraction.
C. There are three types of muscle fibers contained in
skeletal muscles: slow oxidative (SO), fast oxidative-
glycolytic (FOG), and fast glycolytic (FG).
1. Slow oxidative fibers are resistant to fatigue
and capable of prolonged contractions.
 2. Fast-oxidative glycolytic fibers contract and
relax more quickly than SO fibers, and have a
moderately high resistance to fatigue.
3. Fast glycolytic fibers fatigue quickly but
generate the most powerful and rapid contractions
in the body.
4. Skeletal muscles contain a mixture of the three
types of muscle fibers.
a. Various types of exercise can cause changes
in some of these fibers.

VII. Cardiac Muscle

A. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. It is
striated and its action is involuntary.
B. Cardiac muscle fibers branch freely, contain a single,
centrally located nucleus, and are interconnected by
intercalated discs.
1. The intercalated discs aid in the conduction of
muscle action potentials by way of the gap
junctions located at the discs.
C. Cardiac muscle is autorhythmic, meaning it can
contract without extrinsic stimulation.
D. Cardiac muscle contracts and relaxes rapidly,
continuously, and rhythmically and needs a constant
supply of oxygen and nutrients.

VIII. Smooth Muscle

A. Smooth muscle is nonstriated and involuntary.
B. The smooth muscle fibers are elongated, tapered fibers
with a single, centrally located nucleus.
1. They contain thick and thin filaments, but,
unlike skeletal muscle, the filaments are not
arranged in an orderly fashion.
C. There are two kinds of smooth muscle.
1. Visceral (or single unit) smooth muscle is found
in the walls of the viscera as well as the walls
of both small arteries and veins.
a. When stimulated, the muscle cells contract
in unison as a single unit.
2. Multiunit smooth muscle is found in large blood
vessels, large airways, and in the eyes. These
muscle fibers operate singly, rather than as a
unit.
D. Compared to skeletal muscle, smooth muscle displays a
longer duration of contraction and relaxation.
E. Smooth muscle fibers respond to nerve impulses,
hormones, stretching, and local chemical factors.
F. Smooth muscle fibers are very extensible without
developing tension.

IX. Exercise and Aging

 A. There is a progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass
beginning at about 30 years of age.
1. This results in decreased strength, flexibility
and reflexes.
B. Endurance and strength training can slow or reverse
these age-related changes.

X. Skeletal Muscles and Movement

A. Skeletal muscles produce movements by exerting force
on tendons, which in turn, pull bones or other
structures, such as skin.
B. Most muscles cross at least one joint and are attached
to the articulating bones that form the joint.
1. When a muscle contracts, it draws a movable bone
toward a stationary one.
2. The origin is the point of attachment on the
stationary bones, while the insertion is the
point of attachment on movable bones.
C. Group actions of skeletal muscle
1. Most movements are coordinated by several
skeletal muscles acting in groups rather than
individually.
2. Most skeletal muscles are arranged in opposing
pairs at joints.
3. The muscle that causes a desired movement is
called the prime mover or agonist; the antagonist
produces the opposite action.
4. Most movements also involve muscles called
synergists. These function to steady movements
and to aid the prime mover in functioning more
efficiently.
5. Muscles can also be fixators which stabilize the
origin of the prime mover so that it can operate
more efficiently.
6. Most muscles can act as prime movers,
antagonists, synergists, or fixators depending on
the movement.

XI. Naming Skeletal Muscles

A. There are nearly 700 skeletal muscles.
B. Their names are based on several characteristics:
1. Direction of muscle fibers
2. Size
3. Shape
4. Action
5. Number of origins
6. Origin and insertion points
7. Location
C. Reference should be made to Exhibit 8.2 Naming
Skeletal Muscles for a detailed listing.

XII. Principal Skeletal Muscles

A. Muscles of facial expression
1. Occipitofrontalalis
2. Orbicularis oris
3. Zygomaticus major
4. Buccinator
5. Platysma
6. Orbicularis oculi
B. Muscles of mastication (chewing)
1. Masseter
2. Temporalis
C. Muscles that move the eyeball
1. Superior rectus
2. Inferior rectus
3. Lateral rectus
4. Medial rectus
5. Superior oblique
6. Inferior oblique
7. Levator palpebrae superioris
D. Muscles of the anterior abdomen
1. Rectus abdominis
2. External oblique
3. Internal oblique
4. Transverse abdominis
E. Breathing muscles
1. Diaphragm
2. External intercostals
3. Internal intercostals
F. Muscles that move the shoulder girdle
1. Pectoralis minor
2. Serratus anterior
3. Trapezius
4. Levator scapulae
5. Rhomboid major
G. Muscles that move the arm
1. Pectoralis major
2. Latissimus dorsi
3. Deltoid
4. Subscapularis
5. Supraspinatus
6. Infraspinatus
7. Teres major
8. Teres minor
9. Coracobrachialis
H. Muscles that move the forearm
1. Biceps brachii
2. Brachialis
3. Brachioradialis
4. Triceps brachii
5. Supinator
6. Pronator teres
I. Muscles that move the wrist and fingers
1. Flexor carpi radialis
 2. Flexor carpi ulnaris
3. Palmaris longus
4. Flexor digitorum (superficialis and profundus)
5. Extensor carpi radialis longus
6. Extensor carpi ulnaris
7. Extensor digitorum
J. Muscles that move the vertebral column
1. Erector spinae
2. Sternocleidomastoid
3. Quadratus lumborum
K. Muscles that move the thigh
1. Psoas major
2. Gluteus maximus
3. Gluteus medius
4. Tensor fasciae latae
5. Adductor longus
6. Adductor magnus
7. Piriformis
8. Pectineus
L. Muscles that move the lower leg
1. Adductor magnus
2. Adductor longus
3. Pectineus
4. Gracilis
5. Quadriceps femoris
6. Sartorius
7. Biceps femoris
8. Semitendinosus
9. Semimembranosus
M. Muscles that move the foot and toes
1. Tibialis anterior
2. Extensor digitorum longus
3. Fibularis longus
4. Gastrocnemius
5. Soleus
6. Tibialis posterior
7. Flexor digitorum longus