Activity Book Class 12 Maths

Samar
Activities
in
Mathematics
(A Manual of Laboratory Activities & Projects)
Class XII
C.K. Bansal
Samar Publications
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Preface
The “Samar Activities in Mathematics” manual of activities has been prepared to help the students
gain a better understanding of concepts from different branches of mathematics by performing
relevant activities. Learning outcomes of each activity in terms of skill/aptitude/creativity/
knowledge, etc.; have been identified. Provision has been made for the teachers to record their
observations and suggest remedial measures. The section in Projects has also been included.
I hope this edition becomes useful for the students. As ever, suggestions and feedback from the
users shall be gratefully acknowledged.
— C K Bansal
e-mail: ckbansal@gmail.com
NCERT List of Activities
1. To verify that the relation R in the set L of all lines in a plane, defined by R = {(l, m) : l ^ m} is
symmetric but neither reflective nor transitive.
2. To verify that the relation R in the set L of all lines in a plane, defined by R = {(l, m) : l || m} is
an equivalence relation.
3. To demonstrate a function which is not one-one but is onto.
4. To demonstrate a function which is one-one but not onto.
5. To draw the graph of sin–1 x, using the graph of sin x and demonstrate the concepts of mirror
reflection (about the line y = x).
6. To explore the principal value of the function sin–1 x using a unit circle.
7. To sketch the graphs of ax and logax, a > 0, a ≠ 1 and to examine that they are minor images of
each other.
8. To establish a relationship between common logarithm (to the base 10) and natural logarithm
(to the base e) of the number x.
9. To find analytically the limit of a function f(x) at x = c and also to check the continuity of the
function at that point.
10. To verify that for a function f to be continuous at given point x9, Dy = f(x0 + Dx) – f(x0) is
arbitrarily small provided Dx is sufficiently small.
11. To verify Rolle’s Theorem.
12. To verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem.
13. To understand the concepts of decreasing and increasing functions.
14. To understand the concepts of local maxima, local minima and point of inflection.
15. To understand the concepts of absolute maximum and minimum values of a function in a
given closed interval through its graph.
16. To construct an open box of maximum volume from a given rectangular sheet by cutting equal
squares from each corner.
17. To find the time when the area of a rectangle of given dimensions become maximum, if the
length is decreasing and the breadth is increasing at given rates.
18. To verify that amongst all the rectangles of the same perimeter, the square has the maximum
area.
b
( )
19. To evaluate the definite integral ∫ 1 − x 2 dx as the limit of a sum and verify it by actual
integration. a
      
( )
20. To verify geometrically that a × a + b = c × a + c × b.
21. To verify that angle in a semi-circle is a right angle, using vector method.
22. To locate the points to given coordinates in space, measure the distance between two points in
space and then to verify the distance using distance formula.
23. To demonstrate the equation of a plane in normal form.
24. To verify that the angle between two planes is the same as the angle between their normals.
25. To find the distance of given point (in space) from a plane (passing through three non-collinear
points) by actual measurement and also analytically.
26. To measure the shortest distance between two skew lines and verify it analytically.
27. To explain the computation of conditional probability of a given event A, when event B has
already occurred, through an example of throwing a pair of dice.
NCERT List of Projects
Project 1: To minimise the cost of the food, meeting the dietary requirements of the staple food of
the adolescent students of your school.
Project 2: Estimation of the population of a particular region/country under the assumptions that
there is no migration in or out of the existing population in a particular year.
Project 3: Finding the coordinates of different points identified in your classroom using the concepts
of three dimensional geometry and also find the distances between the identified points.
Project 4: Formation of differential equation to explain the process of cooling of boiled water to a
given room temperature.
List of Suggested Projects
1. Project on history of Mathematics: It may included history of Indian mathematicians such as
Aryabhata, Brahmgupta, Varahamihir, Sridhara, Bhaskaracharya, Ramanujan etc., and history
of foreign mathematicians such as Cantor, Pythagoras, Thales, Euclid, Appollonius, Descartes,
Fermat, Leibnitz, Euler, Fibonac, Gauss, Newton, etc.
2. On linear Programming problems related to day-to-day life like collecting data from families
of their expenditure and requirements from the factories to maximum out put.
3. Collect data from dieticians, transporters, agents and formulate linear programming problems.
4. Make a chart of the formula of applications of calculus.
5. Applications of conic sections, vectors, three dimensional geometry, calculus, etc., in
Mathematics and Physics.
6. Mathematics and Chemistry: Study structure of organic compounds.
7. Mathematics and Biology: Study of science of heredity etc.
8. Mathematics and Music
9. Mathematics and Environment.
10. Mathematics and Arts: Construction of shapes using curves.
11. Mathematics and Information and Communication Technology: Writing of Mathematical
programmes, flow charts, algorithm, circuit diagrams etc.
12. Collection of statistical data and analysing it for standard deviation and mean deviation.
13. Observe the various patterns and properties in Pascal’s triangle and make a project.
14. Prepare a project based on the Fibonacci sequence, their properties and similar pattern found
in nature.
15. Form a differential equation for the growth of bacteria in different environments.
16. Study the nature of mathematics and make a project showing where three aspects of nature of
mathematics - formalism, logic, intuition is applied in the development of mathematics.
Syllabus
One paper Max Marks: 80
No. Units No. of Periods Marks
I. Relations and Functions 30 08
II. Algebra 50 10
III. Calculus 80 35
IV. Vectors and Three-Dimensional Geometry 30 14
V. Linear Programming 20 05
VI. Probability 30 08
Total 240 80
Internal Assessment 20
Choice(s): There will no overall choice in the question paper. However, 33% internal choices will
be given.
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT 20 MARKS
Periodic Tests (Best 2 out of 3 tests conducted) 10 Marks
Mathematics Activities 10 Marks
Assessment of Activity Work: Throughout the year any 10 activities shall be performed by the
student from the activities given in the NCERT Laboratory Manual for the respective class (XI or
XII) which is available on the link: http://www.ncert.nic.in/exemplar/labmanuals.html A record
of the same may be kept by the student. An year end test on the activity may be conducted at the
School Level.
The weightage are as under:
• The activities performed by the student through out the year and record keeping: 5 marks
• Assessment of the activity performed during the year end test: 5 marks
• Viva-voce: 2 marks
Certificate
Certified that:
1. The experimental work as recorded in this record book has been done under my
supervision and guidance.
2. It is a bonafide record of the above said work.
3. The personal details of the student, as given below, have been verified and are
correct to the best of my knowledge.
Name: Miss/Mr. :......................................................................................
Class :......................................................................................
Class Roll No. :......................................................................................
Board Exam Roll No. :......................................................................................
Academic Session :......................................................................................
Countersigned by : Principal/HOD .............................................................
.............................................................. ..............................................................
(School Stamp) (Teacher Incharge)

Contents
S.No. Topic of the Activity Page No.
Relations and Functions
1. To verify that the relation R in set L of all lines in plane defined as {(l1l2 ) : l1 ⊥ l2 and l1l2 ∈ L} 1
is symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
2. To verify that the relation R in the set L of all the lines in a plane defined by 3
R = {(l , m): l || m and l, m ∈ L} is an equivalence relation.
3. To demonstrate a function is not one-one but is on to. 5
4. To demonstrate a function which is one-one but not onto. 8
5. To demonstrate a function which is neither one-one nor onto. 10
Inverse Trigonometric function
6. To draw the graph of Sin–1x using the graph of Sin x and demonstrate the concept of 13
mirror reflexion (about the line y = x)
7. To explore the principal value of the inverse trigonometric function y = sin–1x with the 16
help of a unit circle.
Logarithmic functions and exponential functions
8. To sketch the graph of ax and log ax where a > 0 , a ≠ 1 and to examine that they are 20
mirror images of each other.
Relation between common logarithm and natural logarithm
9. To establish a relationship between common logarithm (to the base 10) and natural 23
logarithm (to the base e) of the number x.
Continuity and differentiability
10. To find analytically the limit of a given function f(x) at given point x = c and also check 26
the continuity of the given function at that point.
11. To verify that for a function f(x) to be continuous at given point x0 and 28
Dy = [f(x0 + Dx) – f(x0)] is arbitrarily small provided Dx is sufficiently small.
Application of Derivative
12. To verify Rolle’s Theorem 31

13. To verify Lagrange’s mean value theorem. 34
14. To understand the concepts of decreasing and increasing functions. 37
15. To understand the concept of local maxima and local minima and point of inflexion for a 40
given function.
16. To construct an open box of maximum volume from a given rectangular sheet by 43
cutting squares from each corner.
17. To construct an open box of maximum volume from a given rectangular sheet by 45
18. To find the time when the area of a rectangle of given dimensions become maximum 48
if the length is decreasing and breadth is increasing at given rates.
19. To verify that amongst all the rectangles of the same perimeter the square has the 51
maximum area.
Definite Integral
20. To evaluate the definite integral ∫ab 1 − x 2 dx as the limit of a sum and verify it by 54
actual integration.
Vectors
21. To verify that angle in the semi circle is a right angle using vector method. 57
      
( )
22. To verify geometrically that c × a + b = c × a + c × b. 60
Three-Dimensional Geometry
23. To verify that the angle between two planes is the same as the angle between their 63
normals.
24. To locate the points to given co-ordinates in space, measure the distance between two 65
points in space and then to verify the distance using the distance formula.
25. To measure the shortest distance between two skew lines and verify by analytically. 68
26. To demonstrate the equation of the plane in normal form. 72
27. To find the distance of given point (in space) from a plane (passing through three 74
non-collinear points) by actual measurement and also analytically.
Probability
28. To explain the computation of conditional probabilities of a given event A when event 78
B has already occurred through an example of throwing a pair of dice.
index
Teacher’s
S.No. Experiment Remarks Date
Signature
index
Teacher’s
S.No. Experiment Remarks Date
Signature
1 Relations and Functions
Objective of the Activity

To verify that the relation R in set L of all lines in plane defined as
is symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
Materials Required
✧✧ A piece of card board of suitable size
✧✧ Pieces of wires
✧✧ Nails
✧✧ White chart paper
✧✧ Glue
✧✧ Scale
Logical Steps of the Activity

1. Take a card board of suitable
size and paste a white chart
paper on it.
2. Draw two straight lines on

white chart paper with the help
of wires and glue in such a way
that some of them are parallel
some are perpendicular to the
first drawn parallel lines and
some are inclined to the given
drawn lines as shown in the
given figure.
3. Name these lines as l1, l2, l3, l4, l5,

l6 as shown in the given figure.
1
Observations
1. l1 is perpendicular to l4 and l5.
4. l1 is parallel to l2.
7. So (l1, l4), (l1, l5), (l2, l4), (l2, l5), (l3, l6), (l3, l7) ∈ R.
8. From the above figure we can see that there is no line which is perpendicular to itself, i.e.,
(l l) ∈ R so that the given relation R is not a reflexive relation.
9. From the above figure we can see that l1 ^ l4 and l4 ^ l1
Then (l1 , l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l4, l1) ∈ R
Similarly (l2, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l4, l2) ∈ R
Also (l3, l6) ∈ R ⇒ (l6, l3) ∈ R
So we can say that the given relation R is a symmetric relation.
10. From the above figure we can see that l1 ^ l2, and l4 is ^ l2 but l1 || l2 not perpendicular.
Thus (l1, l4) ∈ R and (l4, l2) ∈ R but (l1, l2) ∈ R so we can say the given relation R is not a
transitive relation.
Result
From the above activity it is verified that the given relation R “is perpendicular to” on the set R
of all straight lines in a plane is symmetric but neither reflexive nor transitive.
Application
This activity is useful to identify that the given relation is an equivalence relation or not.
2

To verify that the relation R in the set L of all the lines in a plane defined by R = {(l ,
m): l || m and l, m L} is an equivalence relation.
Materials Required
✧✧ A piece of card board of suitable size
✧✧ Pieces of wires
✧✧ Nails
✧✧ Glue
✧✧ Scale

1. Take a card board of suitable size and paste a white chart paper on it.
2. Draw some parallel lines with

the help of wires on the chart
paper in such a way are line
is perpendicular to the given
drawn || lines and drawn a
line which is inclined to the
given || lines.
3. Let the wires represents the

lines l1 l2 l3 l4 l5 l6. Then we have
the following observations.
Observations
1. Line l1 is ^ to l4 and l6.
3
4. Line l4 is parallel to l6.
5. Line l1 is parallel to l2, l2 is parallel to l3 and line l1 is parallel to l3.
6. So (l1, l2) (l2, l3) (l1, l3) (l4, l6) ∈ R.
From the given figure we can see that every line is parallel to itself thus l1 || l1, l2 || l2 and
l3 || l3, l4 || l4, l6 || l6. So we can say (l1, l1) (l2, l2) (l3, l3) (l4, l4) .... (l6, l6) ∈ R. Hence the given
relation R is a reflexive relation.
7. From the given figure we can see that l4 || l6 thus l6 || l4 so we can say (l4, l6) ∈ R ⇒ (l6, l4)
∈ R.
Similarly (l1, l2) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l4) ∈ R
(l2, l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ∈ R
also (l1, l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l1) ∈ R
Hence the given relation R is a symmetric relation.
8. From the given figure we can see that l1 || l2, l2 || l3 and l1 || l3.
So we can say (l1, l2) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l1, l3) ∈ R
Hence the given relation is a transitive relation.
Thus the given relation R is a reflexive, symmetric and transitive relation. Hence the relation
R is an equivalence relation.
Result
From the above discussion through the activity it is verified that the relation “is parallel to” on
the given set R of all straight lines in a plane is an equivalence relation.
Application
This activity is helpful to identify whether the given relation is an equivalence relation or not.
Follow-up Activity
Take some wires and construct triangles (In which some triangles are similar triangles) and
put them in a collection say A. Define a relation R = {(T1, T2): T1 is similar to T2} in A and
check whether the given relation R is an equivalence relation or not.
4

To demonstrate a function is not one-one but is on to.
Pre-requisite Knowledge
❖❖ Basic knowledge of relations, functions and type of relations and type of function such that
one-one functions and on to functions.
Materials Required
✧✧ Coloured chart papers (orange, green)
✧✧ A card board
✧✧ Scissors
✧✧ Glue sticks
✧✧ Pins

1. Take a orange chart paper and
cut out a elliptical strip length 10
cm and width 5 cm as shown in
the figure.
2. Take a green chart paper and

cut a elliptical strip of length 8
cm and width of 3 cm as shown
in figure.
3. Paste these two strips on the

card board and mark X and Y
on them respectively as shown
in the figure.
5
4. Fix 5 paper pins on the orange strip and
mark as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Similarly fix 4 paper
pins on the green strips and mark them a,
b, c and d as shown in the figure.
5. Now join the pins on the given strips with

the help of threads as shown in the figure.
6
Observations
1. Now we can see that image of the element 1 of x in y is a.
2. The image of the element 2 of x in y is c.
3. The image of the element 3 of x in y is d.
4. The image of the element 4 of x in y is b.
5. The image of the element 5 of x in y is d.
6. The pre image of the element a of y in x is 1.
7. The pre image of the element b of y in x is 4.
8. The pre image of the element c of y in x is 2.
9. The pre image of the element d of y in x is 3 and 5.
10. Since the elements 3 and 5 in x have the common image as d in y, so the given function is
many-one not one-one.
11. Also we can see that every element of y is image of some element of x so function is on to.
Thus from the observation 10 and 11 we can say that the given function is shown in the
figure is on-to but not one-one.
Result
From the above activity we have demonstrated a function which is not one-one but on-to.
Application
This activity is helpful to clear the concept of bijective functions.
7

To demonstrate a function which is one-one but not onto.
Materials Required
✧✧ A card board
✧✧ Scissors
✧✧ Glue sticks
✧✧ Pins

1. Take a orange chart paper and cut out a
elliptical strip length 10 cm and width 5 cm
as shown in the figure.
2. Take a green chart paper and cut a elliptical
strip of length 8 cm and width of 3 cm as
shown in figure.
3. Paste these two strips on the card board
and mark X and Y on them respectively as
shown in the figure.
4. Fix four paper pins on the orange strips and
mark the pins as 1, 2, 3 and 4. Similarly fix
5 paper pins on the green strips and mark
them a, b, c, d and e as shown in figure.
8
5. Now join the pins on the orange strips to the pins on the green strips with the help of
threads as shown in the figure.
Observations
Here we observe that
1. The image of the element 1 of x in y is b.
2. The image of the element 2 of x in y is c.
3. The image of the element 3 of x in y is a.
4. The image of the element 4 of x in y is e.
5. The pre image of the element d of y in x does not exist.
7. From the above mapping we can say that the images of distinct element of x are distinct so
the function is one-one.
8. We also see that there is an element d in y which has no pre image. So the function is not
onto.
9. Thus from the above observations 7 and 8 we can say that the function or mapping shown
in figure is one-one but not onto.
Result
From the above activity we have demonstrated that a function which is one-one but not onto.
Application
This activity is helpful for the clarity of the concept of bijective function.
9

To demonstrate a function which is neither one-one nor onto.
Materials Required
✧✧ A card board
✧✧ Scissors
✧✧ Glue sticks
✧✧ Pins

1. Take a orange chart paper and
cut out a elliptical strip length 10
cm and width 5 cm as shown in
the figure.
2. Take a green chart paper and

cut a elliptical strip of length 8
cm and width of 3 cm as shown
in figure.
3. Paste these two strips on the

card board and mark X and Y
on them respectively as shown
in the figure.
10
4. Fix 5 paper pins on the orange strip and
mark as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Similarly fix 4
paper pins on the green strips and mark
them a, b, c and d as shown in the figure.
5. Now join the pins on the orange strips to
the pins on the green strips with the help
of threads as shown in figure.
11
Objectives
1. Here the image of the element 1 of X in Y is a.
2. The image of the element 2 of X in Y is b.
3. The image of the element 3 of X in Y is b.
4. The image of the element 4 of X in Y is d.
5. The image of the element 5 of X in Y is d.
6. The pre image of C ∈ Y does not exist or we can say the element C of Y has no pre image.
7. Since the images of distinct elements in X are not distinct in Y so the function is not one-
one.
8. Here we can also see that there is an element C in Y which has no any pre image so the
function is not onto.
9. Now from the above observation in (7) and (8) we can say that the function which is shown
in the figure is neither one-one nor onto.
Result
From the above activity we have demonstrated that a function which is neither one-one nor
on‑to.
Application
This activity is helpful to clarify to the concept bijective (one-one onto) functions.
12
6 Inverse
Trigonometric function

To draw the graph of Sin–1x using the graph of Sin x and demonstrate the concept of
mirror reflexion (about the line y = x)
❖❖ Knowledge about trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric function and their
properties. Difference between trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions.
Materials Required
✧✧ A cardboard of suitable size
✧✧ White chart papers
✧✧ Ruler
✧✧ Coloured pens
✧✧ Adhesive
✧✧ Pencil
✧✧ Eraser
✧✧ Board pins
✧✧ Paper pins
✧✧ Wires

1. Take a cardboard of suitable size and a white sheet paste on it with the help of pins.
2. With the help of wires draw two perpendicular lines XoX‘ and YoY‘, XoX‘ says x-axis and
YoY‘ says y-axis.
3. Now mark some points on y-axis like 1, 1/2, 0, –1/2, –1 etc.
13
4. Sketch the graph of inverse trigonometric function y = Sin–1 x with the help of the following
table. This table will help to draw the exact graph of the inverse trigonometric function y =
Sin–1 x.
π π π π
X 0
6 4 3 2
1 1 3
Sin x 0 = .5 = .71 = .81 1
2 2 2
π 
5. Now fix the paper pins to locate the coordinate which is represent the points say P1  , 0.5
6 
 π   π  π 
, p2  , 0.71 , P3  , 0.87  , P4  , 1 as shown in the figure.
4  3  2 
6. Now we will repeat the same process for the other side of the x-axis. Mark the points with
the help of the following table.
π π π π
X − − − −
6 4 3 2
1 1 3
Sin x − = − .5 − = − .71 − = − .87 –1
2 2 2
π π
7. With the help of paper pins we represent the points say P11  − , − .5 , P21  − , − .71 ,
 6   4 
 π   π 
P31  − , − .87  , P41  − , − 1 and fix a paper pin at point O which represents the origin of
 3   2 
the graph.
8. Join the pins with the help of wires on both the sides of x-axis. Here we have a curve which
π π
is a graph of Sin x from − to . Now plot the points (1, 1) (2, 2) (3, 3) (4, 4) ..... etc. on the
2 2
cartesian plane to draw the graph of line y = x.
9. From the marked point P1, P2, P3 and P4 draw perpendiculars on the line y = x and construct
lines such that length of perpendicular on both the sides of the line y = x are equal. Mark
these points as Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 and fix the paper pin on them.
10. Repeat the same process on the other side of x-axis and fix the paper pins on the points Q11,
Q21, Q31, Q41.
11. Now join the pins on both the sides of the line y = x by a wire tightly to obtain the graph of
y = sin–1x.
12. Now place a mirror on the line y = x. The mirror image of the graph of y = sin x represents
the graph of y = sin–1x which shows that sin–1x is a reflexion of sin x about the line y = x.
14
Observation
1. We observe that the image of point P1 in the mirror (through the line y = x) is Q1.
2. The image of point P2 in the mirror (through the line y = x) is Q2.
Result
From the above discussion the mirror image of the graph of y = sin x about the line y = x is the
graph of y = sin–1x and mirror image of y = sin–1x through y = x is the graph of sin x.
Application
This activity is helpful to clarify the concepts of inverse trigonometric functions.
Follow-up Activity
Perform the similar activity for drawing the graphs of y = cos–1x and y = Tan–1x etc.
15
7 Inverse
Trigonometric function

To explore the principal value of the inverse trigonometric function y = sin–1x with the
help of a unit circle.
❖❖ Basic knowledge about trigonometric ratios and properties of inverse trigonometric functions.
Materials Required
✧✧ Board pins
✧✧ Wires
✧✧ Ruler
✧✧ Needle

1. Take a card board of suitable size and paste a white sheet on it with the help of board pins.
2. Draw two perpendicular lines XoX‘ and YoY‘
with the help of wires on white sheet. XoX‘
says x-axis and YoY‘ says y-axis.
3. Take one unit radius and draw a circle on to
the white sheet with centre O.
4. Mark the points P, Q, R, S where the circle cuts
the axis respectively as shown in the figure.
5. Now fix two bars which are || to y-axis on
the opposite sides of the cardboard as shown
in the figure.
16
6. Now fix one steel wire between the bars so that the wire can be moved freely which is ||
to the x-axis.
7. Now fix a needle of unit length such that one end of the needle is at the centre of the circle
and the other end to move freely along the circle as shown in the figure.
8. Place the needle at an arbitrary angle Q1 with the positive x-axis.
9. Now measure the angle in Radius is equal to the length of intercepted arc of the circle.
10. Now slide the steel wire between the bars such that the wire meets with free end of the
needle mark this meeting point as A1 as shown in the figure.
12. Identify the y-co-ordinate of point A1, which is equal to the perpendicular distance from
the x-axis it gives y1 = sin Q1.
13. Rotate the needle further in the anticlockwise direction and keep it at the angle (p – Q1).
Here the wire meets the needle at point A2 as shown in the figure.
14. Now with the help of slide wire find the value of y-coordinate of A2. With the help of both
the points A and A2 the value of y-coordinates are same for different values of angles i.e.,
y1 = sin Q1 and y1 = sin (p – Q1).
15. The above observations shows that the sine function is not one to one function for the
angles which are in first and second quadrants.
16. Now repeat the same process of angle –Q1 and (–p + Q1) respectively or we can say (p + Q1)
and (2p – Q1) in this case we also get the same result that y-coordinate for the point A3 and
A4 are the same. Thus the sine function is not one to one for the angle which are coming in
IIIrd and IVth quadrants as shown in the figure.
17. Here we observe that the value of y-coordinate is different for the points A3 and A1.
17
π π
18. Now move the needle again in anticlockwise direction from − to . By sliding the steel
2 2
wire we see that the value of y-coordinate for the points A5, A6, A7 and A8 are different.
 π π
Therefore sine function is one-one in the domain  − ,  and thus the range lies between
–1 and 1 as shown in the figure.  2 2
 π π
19. Now place the needle at any arbitrary angle f lying in the interval  − ,  and find
 2 2
y-coordinate of the intersecting point A9 through the sliding steel wire. We can say it as y.
 π π
The y = sin f or f = sin–1 y as sine function is one-one and on-to in the domain  − ,  and
 2 2
range [–1, 1]. Hence its inverse arc sine function exists as shown in figure.
18
20. Thus the domain and range of sine inverse function are interchanged with the domain and
 π π
range of sine function i.e., the domain of arc sine function is [–1, 1] and range  − ,  . This
 2 2
range of arc sine function is known as principal value of arc sine function or sin–1 function.
Observation
1. From the above discussion we observe that sine function is non-negative in first and second
quadrants.
2. And for the third and fourth quadrants the sine function is negative (including zero).
3. We observe that f = arc sin y ⇒ y = sin–1 f
 π π
where  − ≤ φ ≤ 
 2 2
Result
 π π
From the above activity we conclude that the principal value branch of sin–1 x is  − ,  .
 2 2
Application
This activity is helpful to clear the concept of principal value branch of various inverse
trigonometric function.
Follow-up Activity
Repeat this activity to find the principal value of cos–1 y or other inverse trigonometric
functions.
19
8 Logarithmic functions and
exponential functions

To sketch the graph of ax and logax where a > 0 , a 1 and to examine that they are
mirror images of each other.
❖❖ Knowledge about exponential functions and logarithmic functions with their properties.
Materials Required
✧✧ Card board of suitable size
✧✧ Drawing pins
✧✧ Thin wires
✧✧ Sketch pens
✧✧ Glue stick
✧✧ Pencil
✧✧ Eraser
✧✧ A plane mirror etc.

1. Take a white chart paper of suitable size and paste it on the card board.
2. Draw two lines perpendicular which is bisected at point o horizontal line XoX‘ is called
x-axis and vertical line YoY‘ is represented y-axis.
3. Find some ordered pairs which will satisfying the function y = ax and y = logax. Plot these
points corresponding to the ordered pairs and join them by free hand curves in both the
cases. Fix thin wires along these curves using board pins.
4. Draw the graph of y = x and fix a wire along the graph using board pins.
20
5. For ax, take a = 2 (say) and find the ordered pairs.
1 1
x 0 1 –1 2 –2 3 –3 − 4
2 2
1 1
2x 1 2 0.5 4 8 1.4 0.7 16
4 8
6. Join the bases of drawing pins with a thin wire. This is going to represent the graph of 2x.
7. Some ordered pairs are given below which is satisfying to the curve y = log2x gives x = 2y.
1 1 1
x 1 2 4 8
2 4 8
y 0 1 –1 2 –2 3 –3
8. Plot these ordered pairs on the graph paper and fix a drawing pin at each plotted point.
Join the bases of the drawing pins with a thin wire. This is going to represent the graph of
curve y = log2x.
9. Draw a graph of y = x on the graph paper.
21
10. Place a plane mirror along the wire representing y = x, it can be seen that the two graphs of
the given functions are mirror images of each other in the line y = x.
Observations
1. The image of ordered pair (1, 2) on the graph of y = 2x in y = x is log y = 0 it lies on the graph
of y = log2x.
2. The image of the ordered pair (4, 2) as the graph y = log2x in y = x is log24 = 2 log22 = 2 × 1
= 2 which is lie on the graph of y = 2x.
Application
This activity is helpful to understand the concept of experimental and logarithmic functions
which are mirror images of each other in y = x.
22
9 Relation between common
logarithm and natural logarithm

To establish a relationship between common logarithm (to the base 10) and natural
logarithm (to the base e) of the number x.
❖❖ Knowledge about logarithmic functions and the base.
Materials Required
✧✧ Graph paper
✧✧ Pencil
✧✧ Scale
✧✧ Log tables
✧✧ Calculator (graphic and scientific)

1. Take a card board of suitable size and paste a white chart paper on it.
2. Draw two lines perpendicular which is bisected perpendicularly at point o. The horizontal
line XoX‘ is represented x-axis and vertical line YoY‘ is represented y-axis.
3. Now find some ordered pairs which will satisfying to the function y = log10 x.
4. Find some values of y for different values of x for the given function y = log10 x. Some
values are given below.
23
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y= log101 log102 log103 log104 log105 log106 log107 log108 log109 log1010
log10 x 0 .3010 .4771 .6020 .6989 .7781 .8450 .9030 .9542 1
5. Now plot these points (1, 0) (2, .30), (3, 0.47) (4, .60) (5, .69) (6, .77) (7, .84) (8, .90) (9, .95) (10,
1) and join these points free hand. To obtain the graph of y = log10 x which is shown in the
figure.
6. Now find the different values of y‘ for different values of x for the function y‘ = loge x. Some
values are given below.
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y= loge1 loge2 loge3 loge4 loge5 loge6 loge7 loge8 loge9 loge10
loge x 0 .6931 1.0986 1.3862 1.6094 1.7917 1.9459 2.0794 2.1972 2.3025
7. Now plot these points (1, 0) (2, .69) (3, 1.0), (4, 1.38) (5, 1.60) (6, 1.79) (7, 1.94) (8, 2.07) (9, 2.19)
(10, 2.30). Join these points free hand to obtain the graph of y = loge x.
24
Observation
Points on the y
S.No. y = log10 x y‘ = loge x Ratio (approximately)
x-axis y′
1 x1 = 1 y1 = 0 y‘1 = 1 Not defined
2 x2 = 2 y2 = 0.3010 y‘2 = 0.6931 0.4342
3 x3 = 3 y3 = 0.4771 y‘3 = 1.0986 0.4342
4 x4 = 4 y4 = 0.6020 y‘4 = 1.3862 0.4342
5 x5 = 5 y5 = 0.6989 y‘5 = 1.6094 0.4342
6 x6 = 6 y6 = 0.7181 y‘6 = 1.7951 0.4342
7 x7 = 7 y7 = 0.8450 y‘7 = 1.9459 0.4342
8 x8 = 8 y8 = 0.9030 y‘8 = 2.0794 0.4342
9 x9 = 9 y9 = 0.9542 y‘9 = 2.1972 0.4342
10 x10 = 10 y10 = 1 y‘10 = 2.3025 0.4343
y
1. The value of for each point x is equal to 0.4242 (Approximately)
y′
1
y
2. The observed value of in each case is approximately equal to the value of log e 10
y′
log e x
3. Therefore log 10 x =
log e 10
y′
⇒ y=
log e 10
y 1
⇒ = = .4342 (Approximately)
y ′ log e 10
Result
log e x
From the above discussion with the help of the activity we conclude that log 10 x = .
log e 10
Application
This activity is helpful to change the base of a logarithmic function.
25
10 Continuity and
differentiability

To find analytically the limit of a given function f(x) at given point x = c and also check
the continuity of the given function at that point.
❖❖ Knowledge of the concepts of limit and continuity of a function at given point.
Materials Required
✧✧ A drawing board
✧✧ A white paper sheet
✧✧ Board pins, pencil and calculator

 x2 − 9

1. Let the given function be f(x)  x − 3 if x ≠ 3
 6 if x = 2

2. Take some points or value of x on left side of 3, very close to 4 and find the value of f(x)
x 2 − 9 ( x + 3) ( x − 3)
⇒ f ( x) = = = x + 3 ⇒ ( x ≠ 3)

x−3 ( x − 3)
3. Find the corresponding values of f(x) for given values of x with the help of calculator.
4. The values of x and f(x) may be tabulated as below:
x 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999 2.99999 2.999999 2.9999999

f(x) 5.9 5.99 5.999 5.9999 5.99999 5.999999 5.9999999
5. Now take some values of x or points on the right side of (x = 3) which are very close to c.
26
6. Find the corresponding values of f(x) for the given value of x with the help of calculator.
7. The value of f(x) are tabulated as below:
x 3.1 3.01 3.001 3.0001 3.00001 3.000001 3.0000001

f(x) 6.1 6.01 6.001 6.0001 6.00001 6.000001 6.0000001
Observations
1. The values of f(x) is approaching to 6 when x → 3 from the left.
2. The values of f(x) is approaching to 6 when x → 3 from the right.
3. So we can say lim f ( x ) = 6 ( L.H .L.) and lim f ( x ) = 6 ( R.H .L.) L.H.L. → stands for
x → 3− x → 3+ Left Hand Limit
4. Therefore lim f ( x ) = 6 , f(3) = 6 R.H.L. → stands for
x→3 Right Hand Limit
 f ( x ) Value of the function
Thus lim f ( x ) = f (3) 
x→3 at given point.
Since lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = f (3) = 6 {L.H.L. = R.H.L., f(x)}
x → 3− x → 3+
So the given function is continuous function at x = 3.
Result
With the help of above activity, we conclude the limit of a function f(x) at given point c analytically
and checked whether the function is continuous or not.
Application
This activity is useful to understand the concept of limit and continuity of a given function
at given point.
Follow up activity
 x 2 − 25
 when x ≠ 5 check the continuity of f ( x ) witth the help of above activity
f ( x) =  x − 5
 10 when x = 5

27
11 Continuity and
differentiability

To verify that for a function f(x) to be continuous at given point x0 and Dy = [f(x0 + Dx)
– f(x0)] is arbitrarily small provided Dx is sufficiently small.
❖❖ Knowledge of continuity of a function at a given point.
Materials Required
✧✧ Card board
✧✧ White sheets
✧✧ Graph paper
✧✧ Pencil
✧✧ Scale
✧✧ Calculator
✧✧ Glue

1. Paste a white sheet on a graph paper on the card board.
2. Draw a curve for any given continuous function y = f(x) as represented in the given figure.
3. Take any point A (x0, 0) on x-axis in the positive side and mark a point P (x0) corresponding
to this point A on the curve.
4. Take one more point A1 (x0 + Dx0, 0) to the right side of A where Dx1 is an increment in x.
5. Draw a perpendicular from point A1 to meet the curve at B1. Let the co-ordinates of B1 be
(x0 + Dx1, y0 + Dy1).
6. Draw a perpendicular from the point P (x0, y0) to meet B1 A1 at C1.
28
7. Now measure AB1 = Dx1 (say) and record it and also measure B1A1 = Dy1 and record it.
8. Reduce the increment in x to Dx2 (i.e. Dx2 < Dx1) to get another point B2 (x0 + Dx0, 0). Get the
corresponding point C2 on the curve.
9. Let the perpendicular PC1 intersects B2A2 at C2.
10. Again measure AA2 = Dx2 and record it.
11. Repeat the steps 4, 5, 6, 7 for some more points so that Dx becomes smaller and smaller.
12. Similarly take points A2, A3, A4 and locate the corresponding points B2, B3 and B4.
Observation
1. With the help of graph we prepare the following table.
S.No. Value of increment in x0 (x0 = 1) Corresponding incrementing

1
2
29
S.No. Value of increment in x0 (x0 = 1) Corresponding incrementing
3
4
5
2. From the table we observe that Dy becomes smaller when Dx becomes smaller.
3. Thus lim ∆y = 0 for a continuous function.

∆x → 0
Result
From the above activity it is verified that for any given function to be continuous at any point x0,
Dy = [f(x0 + Dx) - f(x0)] is an arbitrarily small when Dx provided sufficiently small.
Application
This activity is helpful to check the differentiability of a function means explaining the
concept of right hand derivative and left hand derivative of a function at a given point.
30
12 Application of Derivative

To verify Rolle’s Theorem
❖❖ Knowledge of continuity and differentiability of a function and knowledge about the Basic
Concept of Rolle’s Theorem.
Materials Required
✧✧ A piece of plywood or card board sheet
✧✧ Wires of different lengths
✧✧ White paper sheet.
✧✧ Sketch pen

1. Take a card board of suitable size and paste a white paper sheet on it.
2. Take two wires of convenient size. With the help of wires draw two perpendicular lines
XOX‘ and YOY‘ which are bisecting perpendicularly at point O. Now XOX‘ will represent
X-axis and YOY‘ will represent Y-axis.
3. Take a piece of wire of any length as per convenient and make its shape curved as (y = f(x))
and paste it on the card board as shown in the figure.
4. Take two wires of same length and fix them in a straight way that they are perpendicular
on x-axis A at point A and B which are meeting to the curve at C and D respectively.
31
Observations
1. In the given figure the curve represents the function y = f(x). Let OA = 3 units and OB = 7
units, so the coordinates of the points A and B are (3, 0) and (7, 0) respectively.
2. The curve has no break in the closed interval [3, 7]. So we will say the function is continuous
on [3, 7].
3. The curve is smooth between the point X = 3 and X = 7 which means we can drawn a
tangent at each point which is turn gives that the function y = f(x) is differentiable in an
open interval (3, 7).
4. We can observe that the lengths of wires at point A and point B are equal.
5. The above points 2, 3, and 4 satisfy the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem, i.e.
(i) The function f(x) is continuous in the closed interval (3, 7).
(ii) The function f(x) is differentiable in an open interval (3, 7).
(iii) The values of the function at x = 3 and at x = 7 are equal i.e. f(3) = f(7).
32
6. Now we observe that if draw the tangents at points P and Q these are || to x-axis it means
at point P and Q f‘(x) is zero.
So that at P (4, 3.5), f‘(4) = 0
and at Q (6, 2.8) f‘(6) = 0
Thus there exists at least one value of C of x in open interval (3, 7) such that f‘(c) = 0
Hence Rolle’s theorem is verified.
Result
From the above activity the following theorem known as Rolle’s Theorem has been verified. Let
f:[a, b] → R be a continuous function on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) such that f(a) = f(b)
where a and b are real number/arbitrary constants. Then there exists some C in (a, b) such that
f‘(c) = 0.
Geometrical Meaning of Rolle’s Theorem

That means we have at least one point between a and b on the curve on which we can draw a
tangent which is || to x-axis.
Application
Rolle’s theorem is helpful in finding the roots of a given equation.
33

To verify Lagrange’s mean value theorem.
❖❖ Knowledge about differentiability of a function, continuity of a function and basic knowledge
about Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem.
Materials Required
✧✧ Drawing board
✧✧ Wires
✧✧ White paper sheet
✧✧ Sketch pens
✧✧ Pencil
✧✧ Scale
✧✧ Glue

1. Take a card board of suitable size and paste a white paper sheet on it.
2. Take two wires of convenient size and paste on the white paper to represent x-axis and
y-axis means with the help of wires draw two lines XOX‘ and YOY‘ which is bisected
perpendicularly at point O. The line XOX‘ will represent x-axis and YOY‘ represents y-axis.
3. Take a piece of wire of any length as per convenience and make its shape curved as y = f(x)
and paste on the drawing board as shown in the figure.
4. Take two wires of required lengths and fix them at two different points P and Q of the
curve which is parallel to y-axis always and their feet touching the x-axis perpendicularly
at A and B respectively. Joint the points P and Q using the wire of required length.
34
5. Take one more wire of required length and fix it in such a way that it is tangential to the
curve at L and which is parallel to the wire PQ joining the two points on the curve.
Observations
1. In the given fig. the curve represents the function y = f(x). Here OA = 4 units and OB = 9
units.
2. The co-ordinates of the points A and B are (4, 0) and (9, 0) respectively.
3. PQ is a chord joining the points P (4, 3) and Q (9, 5).
4. MN represents a tangent to the given curve (y = f(x)) at the point (6, 6.5) in the interval (4,
9).
5. f ‘(7.5) is the slope of tangent MN at x = 6.
5 −3 2
6. The slope of a chord PQ is = = = 0.4
9−4 5
7. Hence PQ || MN therefore f ‘(6.5) = 0.4
Hence Lagrange’s mean value theorem verified.
35
Result
From the above activity we conclude that Lagrange’s mean value theorem verified.
Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function on [a, b] and y = f(x) is a differentiable function in an

f (b ) − f ( a )
open interval (a, b) then there exists some C in an open interval (a, b) such that f ‘(c) = .
b−a
Geometric Meaning
That means we have at one point and the curve between point M and N on which we can drawn
a tangent which is parallel to the chord MN always.
Application
Lagrange’s mean value theorem is helpful to understand the concepts like continuity of a
function at given point and the concepts like convexity and concavity.
36

To understand the concepts of decreasing and increasing functions.
Materials Required
✧✧ Piece of plywood of suitable size
✧✧ Piece of wire of different lengths
✧✧ Adhesive
✧✧ Geometry box
✧✧ Trigonometric tables

1. Take a piece of plywood of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two wires of convenient size. With the help of wires draw two perpendicular lines
XOX‘ and YOY‘ which will bisect perpendicularly at point O. Now XOX‘ will represent
x-axis and YOY‘ represent y-axis.
3. Take two more pieces of wire of suitable lengths and make its shape of curves representing
two functions and fix them on the paper sheet as shown in the figure.
4. Take two or three wires of suitable lengths for the tangents to the curves at different points
on the curves.
5. Take the straight wire and place it on the curve in (L.H.S.) such that it is tangent to the
curve at the point say A1 and making an angle Q1 with x-axis in the positive direction.
6. Take another two points say A2 and A3 on the same curve and make tangents using the
same wire at A2 and A3 making angles Q2 and Q3 respectively with x-axis in the positive
direction.
37
7. Now take three points B1, B2 and B2 on the curve (R.H.S.) and using another wires forms
tangents to each of these points which makes angles f1, f2, f3 respectively with x-axis in the
positive direction.
Observations
1. With the above figure we have Q1 = 110º is an obtuse angle so tan Q1 is –ve.
2. Again we Sec. Q2 = 120 and Q3 = 125º are obtuse angles and therefore shapes of the tangents
tan Q2 and tan Q3 both are –ve.
3. tan Q1 = tan 110 = − 5.6712 


tan Q2 = tan 120 = − 2.7474 These are − ve values
tan Q3 = tan 125 = − 1 

4. Thus we can say that the given function in (L.H.S) is a decreasing function.
5. In R.H.S. on measuring f1, f2 and f3 the angles which makes by the tangents are f3 = 65º,
f3 = 75º, f1 = 0º.
38
⇒ tan B1 = tan 80° = + 5.6112
tan B2 = tan 75° =  These are +ve values
tan B3 = tan 65° = 

Thus we can say that the given function in (R.H.S.) is a increasing function.
Result
From the above activity it is verified that a function f(x) is increasing when f‘(x) ≥ 0 and decreasing
when f‘(x) ≤ 0 (where X ∈ domain of f)
Application
This activity is helpful to clarify the concept of increasing and decreasing function.
39

To understand the concept of local maxima and local minima and point of inflexion
for a given function.
Materials Required
✧✧ A drawing board
✧✧ A white paper sheet
✧✧ Board pins
✧✧ Wires
✧✧ Glue
✧✧ Pencil
✧✧ Scale

1. Take a drawing board of convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two pieces of wires of convenient lengths and fix them on the drawing board which
are bisected at point o. One is horizontal (XoX‘) is called x-axis and one is vertical (YoY‘) is
called y-axis.
3. Take another wire of suitable length and bend it in the shape of curve. (The curve should be
make at least four points). Fix this curved wire on the white paper pasted on the drawing
sheet as shown in the figure.
4. Take four more wire of suitable lengths and fix them at the points A, B, C, D and P. Which
are represents the tangents of the curves at points A, B, C, D which are parallel to the x-axis.
5. The slope of tangents at these points are zero i.e., the value of first derivative of a function
is zero at all these points and the tangent at point P intersect the curve.
40
Observation
dy
1. We see from the given figure the sign of the slope of the tangent   first derivative at
 dx 
a point on the given curve to the immediate left of A is negative and sign of the slope of
dy
tangent   first derivative at a point on the curve to the immediate right of A is positive.
 dx 
That means at the point A sign of the first derivative is changes from negative to positive.
So the point A is the point of local minima.
dy
2. Now similarly we observe that the slope of tangent   (first derivative) at point B. When
 dx 
we move from just left to just right is changes from negative to +ve. Therefore we can say
the point B is also a point of local minima.
dy
3. The slope of tangent   (first derivative) at point on the curve the immediate left of c
 dx 
 dy 
is +ve and the sign of the slope the tangent   first derivative at a point on the curve is
 dx 
41
immediate right of c is –ve. That means the sign of the first derivative of a given function is
changes from +ve to –ve. Thus the point c is the point of local maxima.
4. Similarly the sign of first derivative is also changes from the +ve to –ve thus the point D is
also point of local maxima.
5. But when we move from just left to just right at point P there is no change in the sign of the
 dy 
first derivative   of the given function. Thus the point P is the point of inflexion.
 dx 
Result
Hence from the above discussion we conclude that point A and B are the points of local minima
and the points C and D are the points of local maxima and the point P is neither minima nor
maxima it is a point of inflexion.
Application
1. This activity is helpful to find the points of local minima and local maxima and point of
inflexion for the given curve.
2. The concept of maxima and minima is useful in daily life problems for constructing of
packages of maximum and minimum capacity. Cost and profit maximum and minimum.
42

To understand the concepts of absolute maximum and minimum values of a function
in a given closed interval through its graph.
Materials Required
✧✧ A drawing board required size
✧✧ Wire
✧✧ Glue
✧✧ Pencil
✧✧ Scale

1. Take a drawing board of convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two pieces of wires of convenient lengths and fix them on the drawing board which
are bisected at point o. One is horizontal (XoX‘) is called x-axis and one is vertical (YoY‘) is
called y-axis.
3. Take another wire of suitable length and bend it in the shape of curve. Fix this curved wire
on the white paper pasted on the drawing sheet as shown in the figure.
4. Let the given function f(x) = 4x4 – 17x2 + 18 in the interval [–2, 2].
5. We take different values of x in the given interval [–2, 2] and find the value of f(x) and form
the ordered pair (x, f(x)).
6. Plot the graph of the given function (with the help of ordered pair) by free hand curve.
x 0 ±.5 ±1.25 ±.127 ±2

f(x) 0 6 –1.55 –1.56 2.1
43
Observations
1. Now through the graph we observe or find the maximum value of given function f(x) on
the given interval [–2, 2]
2. The absolute maximum value of the given function f(x) is 21 at x =± 2.
The absolute minimum value of the function f(x) = –1.56 at x = 1.27.
Application
This activity is helpful to understand the concept of absolute maxima and absolute minima
by using the graph.
44

To construct an open box of maximum volume from a given rectangular sheet by
Materials Required
✧✧ Chart papers
✧✧ Scissors
✧✧ Cello tape
✧✧ Glue
✧✧ Calculator

1. Take a rectangular chart paper of size 45 cm × 24 cm and name it as rectangle PQRS.
2. Cut out four equal square pieces of size 1 cm × 1 cm from each corner. Now fold up the
flaps from all the sides and form a open top rectangular box (like lid) with the help of cello
tape. Now after measuring the length, breadth and height with the help of scale calculate
the volume of the box with the help of the formula V = (length (l) × breadth (b) × height
(h)).
3. Now take another rectangular chart paper sheet of the same size (45 cm × 24 cm) and repeat
the above process by cutting the square of size (1.5 cm × 1.5 cm) from each corner and
measure its length, breadth, height and then calculate the value of the box which formed.
4. Now take the third rectangular sheet of chart paper of the same size (45 cm × 24 cm) again
remove the square of size (2 cm × 2 cm) from each corner and measure its length, breadth,
height then calculate the volume of the box.
5. Go on repeating the same process by cutting out the square pieces of same size from each
corners of sizes 2.5 cm × 2.5 cm, 3 cm × 3 cm, 3.5 cm × 3.5 cm, 4 cm × 4 cm and so on. In
each and every case make an open box by folding up the flips from all the sides now. After
45
measuring the length, breadth, height of the rectangular box calculate the volume of the
box.
Observation
1. When x = 1, l = (45 – 2) = 43 cm , b = (24 – 2) = 22 cm and height = 1 cm.
 Volume V1 = (43 × 42 × 1) cm3 = 946 cm3
2. When x = 1.5, l = (45 – 3) = 42 cm, b = (24 – 3) = 21 cm and height = 1.5 cm
 Volume V2 = (42 × 21 × 1.5) cm3 = 1323 cm3
3. When x = 2 cm, l = (45 – 4) = 41 cm, b = (24 – 4) = 20 cm and height = 2 cm
 Volume V3 = (41 × 20 × 2) cm3 = 1640 cm3
4. When x = 2.5 cm, l = (45 – 5) = 40 cm, b = (24 – 5) = 19 cm and height = 2.5 cm
 Volume V4 = (40 × 19 × 2.5) cm3 = 1900 cm3
 Volume V5 = (39 × 18 × 3) cm3 = 2106 cm3
 Volume V6 = (38 × 17 × 3.5) cm3 = 2261 cm3
 Volume V7 = (37 × 16 × 4) cm3 = 2368 cm3
 Volume V8 = (36 × 15 × 4.5) cm3 = 2430 cm3
46
 Volume V9 = (35 × 14 × 5) cm3 = 2450 cm3
 Volume V10 = (34 × 13 × 5.5) cm3 = 2431 cm3
 Volume V11 = (33 × 12 × 6) cm3 = 2376 cm3
Observation
1. When x = 1 cm then V1 = 946 cm3
2. When x = 1.5 cm then V2 = 1323 cm3
4. When x = 2.5 cm then V4 = 1900 cm3
6. When x = 3.5 cm then V6 = 2261 cm3
8. When x = 4.5 cm then V8 = 2430 cm3
9. When x = 5 cm then V9 = 2450 cm3 Maximum Volume
10. When x = 5.5 cm then V10 = 2431 cm3
11. When x = 6 cm then V11 = 2376 cm3
Result
From the above discussion we can conclude that volume is maximum = 2450 cm3 when size of
the square to be removed from each corner 5 cm × 5 cm.
Application
This activity is helpful to explain the concept of maxima and minima to solve the problems
related with daily life.
47

To find the time when the area of a rectangle of given dimensions become maximum
if the length is decreasing and breadth is increasing at given rates.
❖❖ Knowledge of rectangles and the area of rectangles.
Materials Required
✧✧ Card board
✧✧ Chart paper of white colours
✧✧ Cutter
✧✧ Glue Sticks
✧✧ Scale
Logical Steps of Activity

1. We take a rectangle R1 of dimentions 18 cm × 9 cm.
2. Let the length of the rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 1 cm/sec. and breadth is increasing
at the rate of 2 cm/sec.
48
3. Now we cut other rectangles R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, of the dimensions 17 cm × 11 cm,
16 cm × 13 cm, 15 cm × 15 cm, 14 cm × 17 cm, 13 cm × 19 cm, 12 cm × 21 cm, 11 cm × 23 cm,
10 cm × 25 cm respectively as shown in the figure.
4. Now fix these rectangle on the white sheet and then card board.
49
Observation
1. Here we observe that the length of the rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 1 cm/sec. and
breadth is increasing at the rate of 2 cm/sec.
2. Area of Rectangle R1 = 18 cm × 9 cm = 162 cm2
12. Now we observe that the area of rectangle is maximum after 8 seconds. It is 253 cm2.
13. Hence the maximum area of rectangle is 253 cm2.
Result
From the above activity we conclude that the time when the area of rectangle of given dimensions
becomes maximum if the length is decreasing and breadth is increasing at the given rates.
Application
This activity is helpful to understand the relationship between area and dimensions of a
rectangle.
50

To verify that amongst all the rectangles of the same perimeter the square has the
maximum area.
❖❖ Knowledge of perimeter and area of rectangle and square, knowledge of differentiation and
its application.
Materials Required
✧✧ A card board of suitable size
✧✧ Paper cutter
✧✧ Glue Sticks
✧✧ Scale

1. Take a cardboard of suitable size and paste a white sheet on it.
2. Make rectangles of the perimeter (say 40 cm) each on chart paper. We have some rectangles
of different dimensions each having perimeter of 40 cm.
51
R1 = 14 cm × 6 cm, R2 = 13 cm × 7 cm, R3 = 12 cm × 8 cm, R4 = 11 cm × 9 cm, R5 = 10 cm × 10
cm, R6 = 8.5 cm × 11.5 cm, R7 = 9.5 cm × 10.5 cm.
3. Cut out those rectangles and paste them on the white sheet on the card board.
4. We can form more rectangles of different dimensions each having the perimeter 40 cm.
5. Paste these rectangles on the card board.
Observations
1. Now the area of rectangle R1 = 14 cm × 6 cm = 84 cm2
Area of rectangle R2 = 13 cm × 7 cm = 91 cm2
Area of rectangle R6 = 8.5 cm × 11.5 cm = 97.75 cm2
Area of rectangle R7 = 9.5 cm × 10.5 cm = 99.75 cm2
52
2. We observe that perimeter of each rectangle is 40 cm. But the areas of these rectangles are
different.
3. The area of R5 is maximum = 100 cm2 but it is a square since its length = breadth.
4. We can verify the above result using differentiation perimeter of the rectangle
P = 2(x + y) = 40 cm where x represents its length and y represents its width/breadth.
⇒ 2(x + y) = 40
(x + y) = 20 ⇒ y = (20 – x) or x = (20 – y)
Now the area of rectangle A = xy
A = (20 – y)y
A(y) = 20y – y2
On differentiating both sides w.r. to y we get
dA dA
= 20 − 2 y put = 0 ⇒ 20 − 2 y = 0
dy dy
⇒ y = 10 cm

Now
d2 A
= − 2 which is less than zero
dy 2
d2 A
⇒ <0  A ( y = 10 ) is the point of maxima.
dy 2

Hence the area (y = 10) ⇒ 20 × 10 – 102 ⇒ 200 – 100 = 100 cm2 is the maxim area of the
rectangle.
Result
From the above activity we conclude that the amongst all the rectangles of the same perimeter
the square has the maximum area.
Application
This activity is helpful to the field packaging.
53
20 Definite Integral

To evaluate the definite integral as the limit of a sum and verify it by actual
integration.
❖❖ Knowledge of integration and geometrical concepts related with area of plane geometrical
figures.
Materials Required
✧✧ A card board of suitable size
✧✧ Graph paper
✧✧ Pencil
✧✧ Scale

1. Take a cardboard of suitable size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Draw two line which is bisected perpendicularly at point o. The horizontal line XoX‘ is
called x-axis and vertical line YoY‘ is called y-axis.
3. Now draw a quadrant of a circle with centre at origin o and radius is 1 unit which is shown
in the fig. This curve in the 1st quadrant represents the graph of the function 1 − x 2 in the
closed interval [0, 1].
4. Let origin o be denoted by Mo and the points where the curve meets the x-axis and y-axis
be denoted by M10 and N0 respectively.
5. Divide M0M10 into 10 equal parts with the help of point of division as M1, M2, M3 .... Mg.
54
6. With the help of each points M1, M2, M3 .... Mg draw perpendicular on the x-axis to meet the
curve at the points N1, N2, N3 .... Ng measure the lengths of M0N0, M1N1, M2N2, ...... MgNg
and call them as y0, y1, y2, y3, ..... yg whereas width of each part M0M1 = M1M2 = M2M3 =
M3M4 = M4M5 = M5M6 = M6M7 = M7M8 = M8M9 = M9M10 = 0.1 unit.
Observation
1. We observe that y0 = M0N0 = 1 unit.
y1 = M1N1 = .99 units.
y2 = M2N2 = .97 units.
y3 = M3N3 = .95 units.
55
y4 = M4N4 = .92 units.
y5 = M5N5 = .87 units.
y6 = M6N6 = .80 units.
y7 = M7N7 = .71 units.
y8 = M8N8 = .6 units.
y9 = M9N9 = .43 units.
y10 = M10N10 = which is very small and assumed to be zero.
2. Now area of the quadrant of the circle

= area bounded by the curve and two axis
= sum of the areas of 10 trapeziums
1
= × (.1) × [1 + .99] + [.99 + .97] + [.97 + .95] + [.95 + .92] + [.92 + .87] + [.87 + .8]
2
+ [.8 + .71] + [.71 + .6] + [.6 + .43] + (.43)]
= .1 × [.5 + .99 + .97 + .95 + .92 + .87 + .80 + .71 + .60 + .43]
= .1 × 7.74 = 0.774 sq units (Approximately)
1
x 1 
3. Now by integration we have 1
∫0
2
1 − x dx =  1 − x 2 + sin −1 x 
2 2 0
1 π π 3.14
= × = = = 0.785 sq. units (Approx.)
2 2 4 4
4. The area of the quadrant as a limit of sum is nearly the same as the area obtained by actual
integration.
Result
From the above discussion we see that the definite integration ∫ab 1 − x 2 dx can be evaluated as
the limit of a sum.
Application
This activity is helpful to evaluate the area of bounded curves.
Follow-up Activity
2
Repeat the same activity by evaluating ∫ 16 − x 2 as the limit of a sum and verify it by actual
integration. 1
56
21 Vectors

To verify that angle in the semi circle is a right angle using vector method.
❖❖ Knowledge about a circle and its properties, knowledge about vectors.
Materials Required
✧✧ Pins
✧✧ Thread
✧✧ Glue stick
✧✧ Paper arrow heads etc.

1. Take a card board of suitable size and a white sheet paste on it.
2. Draw a circle on this chart paper of radius 5 cm with the centre O.
3. Draw a diameter AB of this circle.
4. Take any point P on the circumference of this circle as shown in the figure.
5. Now fix the nails/pins at O, A, B and P.
6. Join OA, OB, OP, AP, BP using thread, stick arrow heads on threads along OA, OB, OP,AP,
BP as shown in the figure. Arrow heads show that OA, OB, OP, AP, BP are vectors.
7. Now take another cardboard sheet of suitable dimensions and repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 which
are given above.
8. Take any two points Q and R on the circumference of the circle as shown in the figure.
57
9. Fix nails/pins at O, A, B, Q and R.
10. Now join OA, OB, OQ, OR, AQ, AR, BQ, BR using threads. Stick arrow heads on the threads
along OA, OB, OQ, OR, AQ, AR, BQ, BR as shown in the figure. These arrow heads are
representing vectors.
Observation
1. From the above figure, we have
Case I Case II
In D OAQ In D OBQ In D OBR In D AOR

⇒ OA + AQ = OQ ⇒ OB + BQ = OQ ⇒ OB + BR = OR ⇒ OA + AR = OR

⇒ − r + AQ = Q ⇒ r + BQ = Q ⇒ −r + BR = A ⇒ r + AR = t

⇒ AQ = q + r ⇒ BQ = q − r ⇒ BR = t − r ⇒ AR = t + r
58
2. With the help of Case I
In D OAQ

(
AQ ⋅ BQ = q + r q − r)( )
2 2
⇒ AQ ⋅ BQ = q − r = 0 ∵ q = r = radius of the circle 
 

AQ ⊥ BQ ⇒ ∠AQB = 90°
Verification by actual measurement:

Measure AQ ⋅ BQ and AB

⇒ AQ = ______ cm BQ = ______ cm and AB = ______ cm

2 2 2
Now verify AQ + BQ = AB
Hence ∠ AQB = 90° [By Pythagorous theorem]
3. From Case II in D OBR

( ) (
BR ⋅ AR = t − r − t + r )
2 2
BR ⋅ AR = t 2 − r = 0

BR ⊥ AR

∠ ARB = 90° ∵ t = r = radius of the circle 
 
Verification by Actual measurement:

AR = ____ cm BR = ____ cm and AB = ____ cm
2 2 2
Ar + BR = AB

Hence ∠ ARB = 90° [by Pythagorus theorem]
Result
With the help of above activity we conclude that the angle in a semi circle is always a right angle.
Application
This activity is helpful to find the angle between two vectors.
59
22 Vectors

To verify geometrically that
❖❖ Knowledge of vector algebra, addition of vectors, vector product or cross product of two
vectors.
Materials Required
✧✧ Cutter
✧✧ Sketch pen
✧✧ Cello tape
✧✧ Scale

1. Take a card board of suitable size and paste a white paper on it.

2. Draw a line segment OA = 7 cm which is representing c .

3. Draw a line segment OB = 5 cm which is representing a such that ∠AOB = 60°. Let OB = a.

4. Draw line segment BC = 3 cm representing b and making an angle of 30º with OA.
5. Draw BM ^ OA, CL ^ OA and BN ^ CL.
6. Now complete the parallelogram OAQB, OAPC, and BQPC.
60
Observations

1. We know that c × a = c a sin α ∵ α = 60°
= OA × BM
= Area of parallelogram OAQB.

   
2. c × b = c ⋅ b sin α
= OA × CN
= BQ × CN
= Area of parallelogram BQPC

3. OB = a and BC = b

∴ in ∆OBC , OC = OB + BC = a + b
and ∠ COA = d

4. ( )
C × a × b = c a × b sin d
= OA × OC sin d = OA × CL
= Area of parallelogrram OAPC
5. Area of parallelogram OAPC = (OA) (CL)

= OA × (LN + NC)
= OA (BM + MC)
= (OA) (BM) + (OA) (NC)
= Area of parallelogram OAQB
+ area of parallelogram BQPC
61
      

∴ ( )
c× a+b = c×a + c×b
      
6. ( )
c × a + b , c × a and c × b are perpendicular to the same plane.
      
∴ ( )
c × a + b = c × a + c × b (Condition of co-planarity)
Result
  
From the above activity we conclude that it is verified that for any three vectors a, b and c we
      
( )
have c × a + b = c × a + c × b.
Application
This activity is helpful to understand the concept of distributive property of vectors.
62
23 Three-Dimensional
Geometry

To verify that the angle between two planes is the same as the angle between their
normals.
❖❖ Knowledge of a plane and equation of a plane. Knowledge about normal to the plane and
angle between two planes.
Materials Required
✧✧ Two thick card board sheets
✧✧ Straight pieces of wires
✧✧ Glue sticks etc.

1. Take two thick card board sheets of suitable size says P1 and P2 and fix them perpendicularly
using glue stick as shown in the figure.
2. Fix two straight wires on each plane to

show normals to these planes. Wire l1 is
normal to plane P1 and wire l2 is normal to
plane P2. Let these wires meets at a point A.
Now join these wires at A.
3. Now using a set square measure the angle

between the planes i.e., angle at point O.
4. Also measure the angle formed at the

crossing point of the wires l1 and l2 i.e.,
angle at point A.
63
Observations
1. P1 represents the plane.
2. P2 represents the plane.
3. l2 represents the normal to the plane P1.
4. l2 represents the normal to the plane P2.
5. Angle between l1 and l2 is equal to the angle between planes P1 and P2.
Result
From the above activity we conclude that the angle between two planes is equal to the angle
between their normals.
Application
This activity is helpful to measure the angle between a line and a plane.
64
Geometry

To locate the points to given co-ordinates in space, measure the distance between two
points in space and then to verify the distance using the distance formula.
❖❖ Knowledge about the co-ordinates of a point in space. Knowledge about the formula to
calculate the distance between two points.
Materials Required
✧✧ A card board
✧✧ Squared paper
✧✧ Nails of different lengths
✧✧ Paper arrows
✧✧ Geometry box

1. Take a card board of suitable length, paste a white sheet on it and now paste a graph paper
on it.
2. Now on this graph paper draw two mutually perpendicular lines which is bisected at point
O. The horizontal line XOX‘ is called x-axis and the vertical line YOY‘ is called y-axis. O is
called the origin of the graph. On these axis take 1 cm = 1 unit and hold them as shown in
the figure.
3. Fix a wire through O in the vertical direction representing the z-axis.
4. Now plot the points P(5, 2), Q(–3, 2), R(3, –6), S(–2, –4) on the graph.
65
5. Now fix nails of length 5 cm, 3 cm, 1 cm and 2 cm vertically at the points P, Q, R and S
respectively. The upper tips of the nail represents the points C, D, A, B respectively.
66
Observation
1. Since the nails at points P(5, 2), Q(–3, 2), R(–2, –4) and S(3, –6) are vertical so their lengths
(heights) gives the z-coordinates of the respective points. Since A, B, C and D are the tips of
the nails. So co-ordinates of these points are given below.
A(5, 2, 5), B(–3, 2, 3), C(–2, –4, 1) and D(3, –6, 2).
2. By distance formula
AB = ( 5 + 3)2 + ( 2 − 2)2 + ( 5 − 3)2 cm = 64 + 0 + 4 cm = 68 cm = 8.24 cm
BC = ( 3 − 2)2 + ( −4 − 2)2 + (1 − 3)2 cm = 1 + 36 + 4 cm = 41 cm = 6.4 cm
CD = ( 3 + 2)2 + ( −6 + 4)2 + ( 2 − 1)2 cm = 25 + 4 + 1 cm = 30 cm = 5.47 cm

AC = ( 5 + 2)2 + ( 2 + 6)2 + ( 5 − 1)2 cm = 49 + 36 + 16 cm = 105 cm = 10.24 cm

3. Actual distance which is measured by the ruler are AB = 8.3 cm, BC = 6.4 cm, CD = 5.5 cm
and AC = 10.2 cm
4. From the 2 and 3 we see that the distance obtained by actual measurement are approximately
same as the distance obtained by distance formula.
Result
From the above activity we conclude that the distance formula verified.
Application
This activity is helpful to clarify the concept of position vector in the space.
67
Geometry

To measure the shortest distance between two skew lines and verify by analytically.
❖❖ Knowledge about various forms of equation of lines, skew lines. Knowledge about the
formula of distance (shortest) between two skew lines.
Materials Required
✧✧ Thick card board sheets
✧✧ Four wooden blocks of suitable dimensions
✧✧ Threads

1. Take a card board sheet of suitable size and paste a white sheet on it and after that paste a
graph paper on it.
2. Draw two lines XOX‘ and YOY‘ which is bisected perpendicularly at point O. The point O
represent the origin and XOX‘ is called x-axis and YOY‘ is called y-axis. On these axis take
1 cm = 1 unit and label them as shown in the figure.
3. Mark the points P(3, 3), Q(11, 3), R(6, 11), S(14, 13) on the graph paper.
4. Label the four wooden blocks as a, b, c and d.
5. Now fix the wooden blocks labeled a, b, c and d at point P(3, 3), Q(11, 3), R(6, 11) and S(14,
13) respectively such that their base centers fall exactly at these points.
6. Using adhesive/glue sticks fix a piece of thread joining points A and D where A and D are
the contents of the tops of blocks a and d respectively.
68
7. Similarly fix a piece of thread joining points B and C where B and C are the centers of the
blocks b and c respectively.
69
8. Take a thread and join it perpendicularly with the lines AD and BC and measure the actual
distance.
9. Place a set square such that its side forming the right angle is along the thread BC.
10. Move the set square along AD till its other side forming the right angle touches the other
piece of thread.
11. Measure the distance between the two threads in this position to get the required shortest
distance between AD and BC.
Observations
1. Here the threads joining AD and BC represents two skew lines.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
2. Equation of line joining two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is = = .
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
3. Now equation of line joining A(3, 3,1) and D(14, 13, 2) is given by
x−3 y −3 z−1
= =
14 − 3 13 − 3 2 − 1
x −3 y −3 z−1
or = = ... (1)
11 10 1
and equation of line joining B(11, 3, 1) and C(6, 11, 0) is given by
x − 11 y − 3 z − 0 x − 11 y − 3 z
= = or = = ... (2)
6 − 11 11 − 3 0 − 1 −5 8 −1
4. Now we know that the shortest distance (d) between two skew lines
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = and = = is given by
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1
d= a2 b2 c2

( a1b2 − a2b1 )2 + (b1c2 − b2c1 )2 + (c1a2 − a1c2 )2
So the shortest distance d between the lines (i) and (ii) is given by
11 − 3 3 − 3 0 − 1
11 10 1
d= −5 8 −1

(88 + 50)2 + ( −10 − 8)2 + ( −11 + 5)2
70
8 0 −1
11 10 1 8 ( −18 ) − 0 + 1 ( 88 + 50 )
d= =
−5 8 −1 19044 + 324 + 36
2 2 2
(138 ) + 18 + 6

−144 + 138 −6
d= =
19404 139.29
6
or ⇒ d = .04 cm
139.29
5. On actual measurement the shortest distance between two skew lines = 0.6 cm
6. From point (4) & (5) we observe that the shortest distance between Skew lines AD and
BC by actual measurement is approximately equal to the shortest distance obtained by
analytical method.
Result
From the above activity we conclude that the shortest distance between two Skew lines obtained
by actual measurement and obtained by analytical method is coming equal.
Application
This activity is helpful to explain the concept of Skew lines and shortest distance between
two Skew lines.
71
Geometry

To demonstrate the equation of the plane in normal form.
❖❖ Knowledge of position vector of two points in a plane. Knowledge about equation of a plane
etc.
Materials Required
✧✧ Two thick card board sheets
✧✧ Wooden stick
✧✧ Some straight wire
✧✧ Arrow heads

1. Take two thick card board sheets of suitable size and fix a wooden stick between them as
shown in the figure. The wooden stick should be perpendicular to both the card board
sheets. Here the card board sheets represents two planes and the wooden stick represents
the normal to the planes and here O is assumed as a origin.
2. Now fix three straight pieces of wires as OA, OB and AB as shown in figure. Here A and B
are any two points on the plane P1.
3. Now stick paper arrow head on the wooden stick ON and on the three wires OA, OB and
AB as shown in the figure.
These arrow heads show ON, OA, OB and AB as vectors.
72
Observation

1. Now we observe that O is the origin and ON is the normal to the plane P1. Let ON = n.
 
2. Let a be the position vector of A, and b is the position vector of B.

So OA = a and OB = b

∵ OA + AB = OB

⇒ AB = OB − OA = b − a
  
3. The vector AB = b − a lies on the plane P1 and vector n is perpendicular to b − a. So
  
( )
b − a ⋅ n = 0 [if two vectors are perpendicular then their scalar or dot product is 0] Hence
  
( )
b − a ⋅ n = 0 is the equation of plane P1 in the normal form.
Result
  
( )
From the above activity we conclude that the equation of a plane in normal form is b − a ⋅ n = 0
Application

This activity is helpful to show the position vector of a point in space [i.e., a be the position

vector of 0, r be the position vector of B].
73
Geometry

To find the distance of given point (in space) from a plane (passing through three non-
collinear points) by actual measurement and also analytically.
❖❖ Knowledge about plane and equation of plane. Knowledge about normal to the plane,
perpendicular distance of a point from a plane etc.
Materials Required
✧✧ A card board sheet
✧✧ Graph paper
✧✧ Tooth picks of different lengths
✧✧ Glue sticks
✧✧ A straight piece of wire

1. Take a card board sheet of suitable size and paste a white sheet on it and after that paste a
graph paper on it.
2. Draw two lines XOX‘ and YOY‘ which is bisected perpendicularly at point O. The point O
represent the origin and XOX‘ is called x-axis and YOY‘ is called y-axis. On these axis take
1 cm = 1 unit and label them as shown in the figure.
3. Now plot the points D(4, –6), E(–1, 1), F(–1, –6) and G(4, –2) on the graph.
4. Now fix a straight piece of wire through the origin O vertically. This straight wire represents
z-axis.
74
5. Fix tooth pick of length 1 cm, 2 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm vertically at points E, D, F and G
respectively.
6. Now take another cardboard sheet KLMN of suitable diameters and rest it on the tip of the
tooth pick A, B, C so that A, B and C lies on the plane KLMN. We have to find the distance
of point P from the plane KLMN.
75
7. Place a set square such that its one side forming the right angle faces on the plane KLMN
and the other side in the direction normal to the plane.
8. Now place a ruler along the side of the set square which is in the direction normal to the
plane KLMN and slide both of them till the ruler touches the point P. In this way the
distance between the point P and the plane in normal direction is measured using a ruler.
Observations
1. We observe that the co-ordinates of points A, B, C and P are A(4, –6, 2), B(–1, 1, 1), C(–1, –6,
4) and P(4, –2, 5).
2. Now we know that the equation of a plane which is passing through these points (x1, y1,
z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) is given by
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
3. Also the distance of a point P(x1, y1, z1) from the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d

d=
a2 + b 2 + c 2
 x3 y3 z 3 
Now eq. of KLMN plane which is passing through A  4 , −6 , 2  B  −1, 1 , 1  and C −1, −6 , 4
x1 y1 z1 x2 y2 z2
4.
     
is given by  
x−4 y+6 z−2

−1 − 4 1 + 6 1 − 2 = 0
−1 − 4 −6 + 6 4 − 2
x−4 y+6 z−2

= −5 7 −1 = 0
−5 0 2
or (x – 4) (14 – 0) – (y + 6) (–10 – 5) + (z – 2) (0 + 35) = 0
or (x – 4) (14) – (y + 6) (–15) + (z – 2) (35) = 0
14x – 56 + 15y + 90 + 35z – 70 = 0
14x + 15y + 35z – 36 = 0
5. Now distance of point P(4, –2, 5) from the plane 14x + 15y + 35z – 36 = 0 is given by
76
14 × 4 + 15 × ( −2) + 35 × 5 − 36
d= cm
14 2 + 15 2 + 35 2

56 − 30 + 175 − 36
d= cm
196 + 225 + 1225

231 − 66 165
d= = = 4.06 cm
1646 40.57
d = 4.06 cm
6. The distance d of point P from the plane KLMN by actual measurement = 4.2 cm.
7. From point (5) and (6) we observe that the distance of a point from a plane by actual
measurement ≈ distance from the point to the plane by analytical method.
Result
From the above activity we find conclude that the distance of a point (in space) from the plane
by actual measurement and by analytical method are equal.
Application
This activity is helpful to obtaining the distance between two parallel lines and a plane can
passing through the infinite number of points.
77
28 Probability

To explain the computation of conditional probabilities of a given event A when event
B has already occurred through an example of throwing a pair of dice.
❖❖ Knowledge about probability, knowledge about random experiment, sample space, event,
equally likely events etc., conditional probability.
Materials Required
✧✧ Card board sheet
✧✧ Squared sheet
✧✧ White chart

1. Take a card board of suitable size and paste a white sheet on it and paste a squared paper
on it which has 36 square as shown in the figure.
2. Write all possible out comes obtained

by throwing two dice on the squared (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
paper i.e. and write all the following
outcomes on the squared paper as (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
shown in the figure.
(3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2,
1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 1), (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
(3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 1), (4,
2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
(5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6,
3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6) (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)
78
Observation
Case I: To find the conditional probability of an event E when F has already occurred where E is
the event a number 3 appears on both the dice and F is the event 3 has already appeared on one
 E
of the dice. Here we have to find the conditional probability P   .
 F
1. From the above figure
Favourable out comes of E is (3, 3)
E = {3, 3} i.e, n(E) = 1
Favourable outcomes of F are
F = {(1, 3) (2, 3) (3, 3) (4, 3) (5, 3) (6, 3) (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)}
No. of favourable outcomes of F i.e., n(B) = 11
Now the common outcomes of E and F is {3, 3}
Now no. of favourable outcomes of ( E ∩ F ) = n(1)

E P (E ∩ F ) 1
Conditional probability P   = =
 F P( F ) 11
Alternate Method:
 E  P (E ∩ F )
P  =
 F P (F)

Total no. of outcomes in a single throw of two dice = 36
 n(S) = 36 and n(F) = 11

n( F ) 11
P( F ) = =
n(S) 36
n(E ∩ F ) = 1
1
P(E ∩ F ) =
36
1
 E  P ( E ∩ F ) 36 1
So P   = = =
 F P( F ) 11 11
36
Case II: To find the conditional probability of an event E when F has already occurred, where
E be the event getting the sum 8 and F is the event a doublet has already occured. Here also we
 E
have to find P   .
 F
79
2. From the figure
Favourable outcomes of E are (3, 5) (4, 4) (5, 3) ⇒ {( 3, 5) ( 4, 4)( 5, 3)}

No. of outcomes of (E) = n(E) = 3
Favourable outcomes of F are (1, 1) (2, 2) (3, 3) (4, 4) (5, 5) (6, 6)
F = {(1, 1) (2, 2) (3, 3) (4, 4) (5, 5) (6, 6)}
No. of outcomes in F i.e. n(F) = 6
Common outcomes of E and F is {4, 4}
No. of outcomes in ( E ∩ F ) i.e. n ( E ∩ F ) = 1
 E  P (E ∩ F ) 1
Hence P   = =
 F P (F) 6
Alternative Method
 E  P (E ∩ F )
We know that P   =
 F P (F)
n(S) = 36, n(E) = 3, n(F) = 6, n ( E ∩ F ) = 1
n( F ) 6 1
P (F) = = =
n(S) 36 6
n (E ∩ F ) 1
P (E ∩ F ) = =
n(S) 36
1
 E  P (E ∩ F ) 36 1
So P  = = =
 F P( F ) 1 6
6
Result
From the above activity we conclude that this activity explains how to calculate the conditional
probability of an event when another event has already occurred.
Application
This activity is helpful to clear the concept of Baye’s Theorem.
80

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Relations and Functions

Inverse Trigonometric function

Logarithmic functions and exponential functions

Relation between common logarithm and natural logarithm

Continuity and differentiability

12. To verify Rolle’s Theorem 31

Objective of the Activity

Logical Steps of the Activity

2. Draw two straight lines on

3. Name these lines as l1, l2, l3, l4, l5,

2. l2 is perpendicular to l4 and l5.

3. l3 is perpendicular to l6 and l7.

9. From the above figure we can see that l1 ^ l4 and l4 ^ l1

Then (l1 , l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l4, l1) ∈ R

Similarly (l2, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l4, l2) ∈ R

Also (l3, l6) ∈ R ⇒ (l6, l3) ∈ R

So we can say that the given relation R is a symmetric relation.

Objective of the Activity

Logical Steps of the Activity

2. Draw some parallel lines with

3. Let the wires represents the

3. Line l3 is ^ to l4 and l6.

4. Line l4 is parallel to l6.

5. Line l1 is parallel to l2, l2 is parallel to l3 and line l1 is parallel to l3.

6. So (l1, l2) (l2, l3) (l1, l3) (l4, l6) ∈ R.

Hence the given relation R is a symmetric relation.

Objective of the Activity

Logical Steps of the Activity

2. Take a green chart paper and

3. Paste these two strips on the

5. Now join the pins on the given strips with

2. The image of the element 2 of x in y is c.

3. The image of the element 3 of x in y is d.

4. The image of the element 4 of x in y is b.

5. The image of the element 5 of x in y is d.

6. The pre image of the element a of y in x is 1.

7. The pre image of the element b of y in x is 4.

8. The pre image of the element c of y in x is 2.

9. The pre image of the element d of y in x is 3 and 5.

This activity is helpful to clear the concept of bijective functions.

Objective of the Activity

Logical Steps of the Activity

Objective of the Activity

Logical Steps of the Activity

2. Take a green chart paper and

3. Paste these two strips on the