Cellular Differentiation & Stem Cells

Cellular Differentiation Definition

1. Cell Division – growth of cell populations, where one cell divides into two. Necessary for
maintenance of cell populations. Only stem cells divide by mitosis, specialised cells don’t.
2. Cell Differentiation – less specialised cells become more specialised through differential
gene expression. Differentiated cells can’t divide to make copies of themselves.
3. Morphogenesis – cells take the shape of their functions and spatially distribute.

Unique Properties of Stem Cells

Stem Cells:
Undifferentiated cells that divide and give rise to cells that differentiate into specialized cells.
Stem cells divide to produce either two stem cells (self-renewal) or two more specialised cells.
Niche:
Microenvironment around stem cells that provides the conditions for their self-renewal and
differentiation. Includes: direct contact, soluble factors and intermediate cells.
Potent:
A measure of how many types of specialized cell a stem cell can make.
Multipotent:
Make multiple specialised cell types. Ex: tissue stem cells.
Pluripotent:
Make all specialised cells but don’t extensively contribute to extraembryonic tissue, like placenta.
Ex: embryonic stem cells from inner cell mass (ICM) which is part of the blastocyst.
Totipotent:
Make all cell types in the body plus extraembryonic cells like the placenta, umbilical cord.
Ex: early embryonic stem cells (8 cell stage embryo, morula).

Types of Stem Cells and their Similarities and Differences

Cell Type & Source/ Function & Mechanism Ethical Limitations

Potency Location
Embryonic Blastocyst’s Make all intraembryonic cells. Put Requires destruction of
(Pluripotent) ICM under specific conditions to cause embryo.
differentiation. Donation requires
informed consent.
Tissue All tissues Make cells of tissue they reside in. Difficult to identify,
(Multipotent) Foetus, baby, Stem cells divide into rapidly dividing isolate & maintain in lab.
umbilical committed progenitors/ transient Stem cells can be
and amplifying cells with no self-renewal genetically matched to
throughout properties which then divide into patient.
specialised cells. No major ethical
concerns.
Induced All tissue Make all intraembryonic cells. Long term effects
Pluripotent cells can be Cells genetically reprogrammed to act unknown.
Stem Cells induced like embryonic stem cells by adding Stem cells could be
(iPS) transcription factors that are highly genetically matched to
expressed during embryonic stages: patient.
Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc. Oct4 only
can induce pluripotency.
Cloning

1. Reproductive Cloning
Live birth cloning which is used to make two identical individuals. Nucleus from an adult cell
is placed into a denucleated egg cell and shocked with electricity. The ‘fertilised’ egg is then
placed into a surrogate. The product is an individual identical to the one that provided the
nucleus.

2. Therapeutic Cloning
Experimental cloning used to make patient-specific cell lines isolated from an embryo.
Nucleus from an adult cell is placed into a denucleated egg cell and shocked with electricity.
The embryonic cells are then used in tissue cultures to produce cell lines identical to the
donor nucleus.

3. Molecular Cloning
DNA cloning used to study what a gene does.

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT): technique for creating a clone embryo with a donor nucleus.

Applications of Stem Cells

1. Regenerative Medicine – Potential to treat diseases by replacing cells which are irreversibly
lost, and for which there are currently no therapies, e.g. Parkinson’s, heart disease,
diabetes, spinal cord injury.
2. Bone marrow transplants and skin grafting are established examples of therapeutic uses of
stem cells.
3. Drug testing and screening - stem cells directed to produce a specific cell type in lab, huge
amounts of identical cells.
4. Study disease processes - most cases its extremely difficult to obtain cells damaged due to
the disease in order to study them in detail – diseased cells used to model the disease.

Regulations of Stem Cell Research

 Many countries (US, UK, Australia), new cell lines can be created from spare embryos from
fertility clinics with consent from donors. Laws prohibit the creation of embryos for
research.
 Ireland - one of few countries in Europe that has no regulation for stem cell research.