2nd Grading

Table of Contents
Activity# Title Score Page
Electronic Structure of Matter
Dalton’s Atomic Model Thomson’s Atomic Model

Rutherford’s Atomic Model Bohr’s Atomic Model

Flame Test - The flame test is a qualitative test used in chemistry to help
determine the identity or possible identity of a metal or metalloid ion found in
an ionic compound. If the compound is placed in the flame of a gas burner,
there may be a characteristic color given off that is visible to the naked eye.
These colors given off by the vapors of element can be analyse with an
instrument called spectroscope. A glass prism separates the light given off into
its component wavelength. We call this series of lines the atomic spectrum of
the element. The color, number, and position of lines produced is called the
“fingerprint” of an element. These are all constant for a given element. The
spectrum produced appears as a series of sharp bright lines with characteristic
colors and wavelength on a dark background instead of being continuous like
the rainbow.
Atomic Spectra

Individual lines in the atomic spectra of

elements indicate definite energy
transformations within the atom.

Bohr considered the electrons as particles moving around the nucleus in fixed
circular orbits. These orbits are found at definite distances from the nucleus.
The orbits are known as the energy levels, n where n is a whole number 1, 2,
3… and so forth.
Electrons in each orbit have a definite energy,
which increases as the distance of the orbit from
the nucleus increases. As long as the electron
stays in its orbit, there is no absorption or
emission of energy.
When an electron of an element absorbs extra
energy, this electron moves to a higher energy
level. At this point the electron is at its excited
state. Once excited, the atom is unstable. The
same electron can return to any of the lower
energy levels releasing energy in the form of light
with a particular color and a definite energy or
wavelength.
Energy levels in an atom are not equally spaced which means that the amount
of energy are not the same. The higher energy levels are closer together. If an
electron occupies a higher energy level, it will take less energy for it to move to
the next higher energy level. As a result of the Bohr model, electrons are
described as occupying fixed energy levels at a certain distance from the
nucleus of an atom. The exact location of electrons moving in great speed can
never be determined, however the probability of finding the electron around the
nucleus can be predicted. These orbiting electrons can be represented by
electron clouds.
Heisenberg discovered that for a very small particle like the electron, its
location cannot be exactly known and how it is moving. This is called the
uncertainty principle. This volume or region of space around the nucleus where
the electron is most likely to be found is called an atomic orbital.
Quantum Mechanical Model
- comes from the mathematical solution to the Schrodinger equation.
- views an electron as a cloud of negative charge having a certain geometrical
shape.
- shows how likely an electron could be found in various locations around the
nucleus.
- It also gives information about the energy of the electron.
- It describes the region of space around the nucleus as consisting of shells.
- proposed that the light and atoms might exhibit the same properties since
electrons may also have wave characteristics and times.
- Schrodinger and Broglie (electron’s behavior)
These shells are also called principal or main energy levels. The principle
energy levels or shells may have one or more sublevels. These sublevels are
assigned with letters: s (sharp), p (principal) oriented along the x, y, and z axes
(p x, py, pz), d (diffused) and f (fundamental). Orbitals have specific energy
values and they have particular shapes and direction in space.
The way in which electrons are distributed in the different orbitals around the
nucleus of an atom is called the electron configuration.

H = element hydrogen with an atomic number of 1.

1

Atomic number is the number of proton = the number of electron for an atom
So, the number of electrons in the highest energy level of the elements is the
basis of their location on the periodic table.
Summary: Rutherford’s nuclear atomic model describes the atom as mostly empty space.
Its mass is concentrated in the nucleus that consist of protons and neutrons. However it
could not explain the chemical properties of elements. Bohr’s atomic model describes the
atom like a solar system, where the electron is found only in specific circular paths, or
orbits, around the nucleus. In the Bohr model, each electron carries a fixed amount of
energy and does not lose energy as long as it stays in its given orbit. The fixed energies that
the electrons have are called energy levels. An electron that has received enough energy can
jump to a higher energy level. When the electron returns to a lower energy level, energy is
emitted in the form of light. The Bohr model was later replaced by a model of the atom that
showed that electrons are not limited to fixed orbits around the nucleus. Through
mathematical calculations, scientists explained that there is only a probability that the
electron can be found in a certain volume in space around the nucleus. This volume or
region of space around the nucleus where the electron is most likely to be found is called an
atomic orbital. Schrodinger formulated a mathematical equation that describes the behavior
of the electron. The solution to the equation is used to calculate the probability of finding
the electron at a particular region in space around the nucleus. The quantum mechanical
model of the atom describes the atom as having a nucleus at the center around which the
electrons move. This model describes a region in space where the electron is most likely to
be found. An electron is imagined to be a cloud of negative charge having a certain
geometrical shape. The electrons are arranged in principal or main energy levels that
consist of one or more sublevels. The way in which electrons are distributed in the different
orbitals around the nucleus of an atom is called the electron configuration. Filling of
electrons start from lower energy level to highest energy level.
How does the Bohr atomic
model differ from Rutherford’s
model?
- Rutherford described the atom as
consisting of a tiny positive mass
surrounded by a cloud of negative
electrons. Bohr thought that
electrons orbited the nucleus in
quantised orbits. Bohr built upon
Rutherford's model of the atom. ...
So it was not possible for
electrons to occupy just any
energy level.
What is the basis for the
quantum mechanical model of
the atom?
- The quantum mechanical model
of the atom uses complex shapes
of orbitals (sometimes called
electron clouds), volumes of space
in which there is likely to be an
electron. So, this model is based
on probability rather than
certainty.
How are electrons arranged in
the atom?
- The electrons in an atom move
around the nucleus in regions
known as electron shells. Each
electron shell can only contain a
certain number of electrons. The
maximum number of electrons
that the first shell can contain is
2, the maximum number of
electrons that the second shell can
contain is 8 and the maximum
number of electrons that the 3rd
shell can contain is 18 and so
forth. Electrons are placed in the
lower energy level first up to the
highest energy level.