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Operations: Introduction to Break-even Analysis

Levels: AS, A Level Exam boards: IB

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Break-even analysis is a technique widely used by production management and management

accountants. It is based on categorising production costs between those which are
"variable" (costs that change when the production output changes) and those that are
"fixed" (costs not directly related to the volume of production).

Total variable and fixed costs are compared with sales revenue in order to determine the
level of sales volume, sales value or production at which the business makes neither a
profit nor a loss (the "break-even point").

The Break-Even Chart

In its simplest form, the break-even chart is a graphical representation of costs at various
levels of activity shown on the same chart as the variation of income (or sales, revenue) with
the same variation in activity. The point at which neither profit nor loss is made is known as
the "break-even point" and is represented on the chart below by the intersection of the two
lines:

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In the diagram above, the line OA represents the variation of income at varying levels of
production activity ("output"). OB represents the total fixed costs in the business. As output
increases, variable costs are incurred, meaning that total costs (fixed + variable) also
increase. At low levels of output, Costs are greater than Income. At the point of intersection,
P, costs are exactly equal to income, and hence neither profit nor loss is made.

Fixed Costs

Fixed costs are those business costs that are not directly related to the level of production or
output. In other words, even if the business has a zero output or high output, the level of
fixed costs will remain broadly the same. In the long term fixed costs can alter - perhaps as a
result of investment in production capacity (e.g. adding a new factory unit) or through the
growth in overheads required to support a larger, more complex business.

Examples of fixed costs:

- Rent and rates
- Depreciation
- Research and development
- Marketing costs (non- revenue related)
- Administration costs

Variable Costs

Variable costs are those costs which vary directly with the level of output. They represent
payment output-related inputs such as raw materials, direct labour, fuel and revenue-related
costs such as commission.

A distinction is often made between "Direct" variable costs and "Indirect" variable costs.

Direct variable costs are those which can be directly attributable to the production of a
particular product or service and allocated to a particular cost centre. Raw materials and the
wages those working on the production line are good examples.

Indirect variable costs cannot be directly attributable to production but they do vary with
output. These include depreciation (where it is calculated related to output - e.g. machine
hours), maintenance and certain labour costs.

Semi-Variable Costs

Whilst the distinction between fixed and variable costs is a convenient way of categorising
business costs, in reality there are some costs which are fixed in nature but which increase
when output reaches certain levels These are largely related to the overall "scale" and/or
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when output reaches certain levels. These are largely related to the overall scale and/or
complexity of the business. For example, when a business has relatively low levels of output
or sales, it may not require costs associated with functions such as human resource
management or a fully-resourced finance department. However, as the scale of the business
grows (e.g. output, number people employed, number and complexity of transactions) then
more resources are required. If production rises suddenly then some short-term increase in
warehousing and/or transport may be required. In these circumstances, we say that part of
the cost is variable and part fixed.

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