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Practical consequences of calcium addition to and removal from milk and milk
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 doi: 10.1111/1471-0307.12188

REVIEW
Practical consequences of calcium addition to and
removal from milk and milk products
H I LTO N C D E E T H 1 * and M I C H A E L J L E W I S 2
1
School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia, and
2
Department of Food and Nutrition Sciences, University of Reading, Whiteknights, PO Box 226, Reading RG6 6AP,
UK

Calcium in milk is significant for both its nutritive value and its key role in many functional proper-
ties of milk and milk products. Manipulating its concentration, particularly of the ionic form, alters
the properties of the products and facilitates or hinders certain processing operations. Stability to
thermal treatment is the major property affected, but several others such as gelation, coagulation
and foaming are influenced by either adding or removing calcium. This article reviews the
manipulation of the calcium content of several products and its practical consequences for dairy
processing.
Keywords Calcium, Fortification, Gelation, Fouling, Heat stability, Foaming.

placed on measuring the heat stability of milk

INTRODUCTION
Calcium is a very important component of milk
in many ways. Milk is supersaturated in cal-
cium, largely through its presence in the casein
micelle as colloidal calcium phosphate (CCP),
and hence is an excellent carrier of calcium for
the newborn. Besides its undisputed nutritional
value, calcium is also important for many func-
tional properties of milk and milk products. For
example, many authors have demonstrated its
role in the heat stability of milk and how it
influences the heat coagulation time (HCT)–pH
relationship (Singh 2004). HCT for unconcen-
trated milk is the time taken for a milk to coag-
ulate when heated at 140 °C. The most common
shape of the HCT–pH curve has a maximum at
pH ~6.6–6.7 and a minimum at pH ~6.9. Cal-
cium has an influence on the position of the
maximum and minimum with addition of (ionic)
calcium shifting the curve to higher pH (Jeurn-
ink and de Kruif 1995; Singh et al. 2007; Sieva-
nen et al. 2008) and removal of calcium by
cation exchange or chelation shifting the curve
to lower pH (Mohammed and Fox 1983; Jeurn-
*Author for ink and de Kruif 1995). However, Singh (2004)
correspondence. E-mail: cautioned that the results of HCT studies do not
h.deeth@uq.edu.au
predict with any certainty whether a milk will
© 2014 Society of show good heat stability during commercial ste-
Dairy Technology rilisation processes. Recently, emphasis has been
by methods which more closely resemble these
processes, as discussed in more detail below.
There is considerable variation in the calcium
content of milk from different animals. Accord-
ing to Holt (2011), the total calcium content of
human, goat’s, cow’s and sheep’s skim milk is
7.3, 23.1, 30.1 and 56.8 mM. Of the calcium in
cow’s milk, about two-thirds (~20 mM) is pres-
ent as CCP in the casein micelle and about one-
third (~10 mM) is present in the solution mainly
as calcium citrate and phosphates. Of the soluble
calcium, ~2 mM is in ionic form. These forms
of calcium, that is micellar, soluble nonionic
and soluble ionic, exist in equilibrium, and
hence, when ionic calcium (Ca2+) is removed,
the equilibrium is re-established. In this way,
continued removal of the ionic form results in
depletion of the other soluble and micellar forms
to restore the equilibrium. Thus, it is possible to
remove almost all calcium in milk by ion
exchange, although the micelle starts to disinte-
grate when about 60% of the total calcium is
removed (Lin et al. 2006).
Manipulation of the level of calcium in milk
and milk products, often through the ionic form,
is an important aspect of modern dairy technol-
ogy. Ionic calcium can be reduced by converting
it to nonionic forms using chelating agents
such as citrates, phosphates or ethylenediamine

Vol 67 International Journal of Dairy Technology 1

Vol 67

tetraacetic acid (EDTA), or it can be removed by cation
exchange resins or by dialysis against water at reduced pH.
Each of these has a different effect on the final mineral
composition of the milk. Chelation does not change the total
content of calcium or other minerals, cation exchange resins
reduce total calcium and magnesium and replace them with
monovalent ions such as potassium or sodium, and dialysis
against water removes calcium and other minerals without
replacement. The calcium concentration can be increased by
adding either soluble ionic salts such as calcium chloride or
insoluble nonionic salts such as calcium carbonate. Calcium
added in the form of soluble salts increases the soluble and
perhaps the micellar forms of calcium, especially if pH
adjustment is applied. In contrast, calcium added as insolu-
ble salts remains chemically inert in the milk, either sus-
pended in the bulk or as a deposit in the bottom of the
container.
This article reviews some of the practical consequences
for dairy processing of such manipulations to increase or
decrease calcium levels in milk and dairy products. It does
not, however, review the extensive literature related to the
effects of calcium on the heat coagulation time (HCT)–pH
curve.
CALCIUM FORTIFICATION OF MILK
Even though milk has a relatively high calcium content
(~30 mM or 120 mg/100 mL), calcium fortification is com-
monly performed commercially to enhance its functional,
technological and sometimes nutritional properties (Philippe
et al. 2003). Calcium fortification presents technical chal-
lenges as most soluble forms of calcium, such as calcium
chloride, contain calcium in the ionic form and when added
to milk reduce its pH and its stability to heat (Philippe et al.
2003; Tsioulpas et al. 2010). Similar problems are encoun-
tered with calcium fortification of soya milk (Pathomrungsi-
younggul et al. 2010). The relationship between Ca2+ and
pH is described by the following equation (Lewis 2011):
þ
3Ca2þ þ 2HPO2
4 $ Ca3 PO4 # þ 2H
Calcium fortification of heat-processed milk products is
achieved commercially by the use of fine powders of insolu-
ble calcium salts such as calcium citrate, calcium carbonate,
calcium phosphate and calcium lactate/gluconate (M€ unch-
bach and Gerstner 2010). As no calcium ions enter solution
when insoluble calcium salts are used and hydrogen ions
cannot be formed via the above reaction, the milk is not
destabilised to heat. Other calcium fortification products
used commercially in milk and dairy products are mixed
calcium-rich salts derived from milk or from seaweed, for
example Aquaminâ(Marigot Limited, Co. Cork, IRE-
LAND). These largely insoluble calcium supplements are
sometimes added together with texture-modifying agents,
such as guar gum, carrageenan, pectin and starch, and also
with stabilising salts such as potassium or trisodium citrate
(TSC) and disodium hydrogen phosphate (DSHP) to prevent
sedimentation of the calcium salts during storage. Table 1
shows the calcium salts and accompanying stabilisers in
some commercial milk products (M€unchbach and Gerstner

Table 1 Commercial calcium-fortified milk products from European and US supermarkets (data from M€
unchbach and Gerstner 2010)

Total calcium in product

Fortified product Calcium salts added Stabilisers (mg/100 mL)
Fat-free milk Phosphate Carrageenan 250
Semiskim milk 1 Phosphate Cellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, 160
trisodium phosphate
Semiskim milk 2 Milk calcium na 160
Whole milk Gluconate na 166
Milk drink 1 Citrate, lactate–gluconate, Pectin 200
sea algae calcium
Milk drink 2 Lactate–gluconate na 180
Milk drink 3 Citrate Carrageenan 160
Milk drink 4 Phosphate Guar gum, carrageenan, xanthan 130
Milk drink 5 Lactate–gluconate Disodium hydrogen phosphate 120
Yoghurt drink Citrate Guar gum 425
Low-fat yoghurt drink Citrate, phosphate, carbonate na 120
Quark drink Citrate Modified corn starch, guar gum 122
Yoghurt 1 Citrate Modified corn starch, guar gum 320
Yoghurt 2 Citrate, phosphate Guar gum, locust bean gum, corn starch 130
Evaporated milk Citrate Carrageenan 169
na, information not available.

2 © 2014 Society of Dairy Technology

Vol 67
2010). A recent article indicated that micronised calcium cit-
rate is now the preferred option for calcium fortification of
milk products (Gerhart and Schottenheimer 2013).
Omoarukhe et al. (2010) reported that addition of 30 mM
calcium to milk in the form of insoluble salts such as cal-
cium carbonate, calcium citrate or calcium phosphate did
not alter the pH or Ca2+ concentration of milk, and the forti-
fied milks were heat stable. By contrast, addition of the
same amounts of calcium as the soluble salts such as cal-
cium chloride, calcium gluconate or calcium lactate reduced
the pH, increased the Ca2+ level and rendered the milk
unstable to heat.
Calcium chloride was the most destabilising salt. Milk
became unstable to UHT treatment at lower additions of solu-
ble calcium salts compared with in-container sterilisation
(Omoarukhe et al. 2010). Only small additions of calcium
chloride (~3 mM) are required to make milk unstable to Ultra
High Temperature (UHT) treatment (Lewis et al. 2011).
Williams et al. (2005) used calcium chloride to success-
fully fortify milk to 230 mg/100 mL (~58 mM) by adding a
mixture of pyrophosphates or other chelating agents to
ensure the Ca2+ level and pH did not change. These authors
assessed the heat stability of the milk by heating at 90 °C
for 10 min and observing the milk for sedimentation, coagu-
lation or viscosity increase to >2.5 mPa.s. Another soluble
calcium salt, potassium calcium citrate (Gadocal Kâ; Gadot
Biochemical Industries Ltd, Haifa Bay, Israel), shows prom-
ise as a calcium fortifier. It does not increase Ca2+ or
decrease pH and can be used to produce heat-stable fortified
milk (Ramasubramanian et al. 2008).
In a US patent, Mallangi et al. (2000) disclosed a method
of calcium fortification of milk using a mixture of calcium
lactate and calcium carbonate stabilised with gum arabic (or
other source of glucuronic acid) and, optionally, kappa- or
iota-carrageenan. In the examples given in the patent, potas-
sium citrate was also added. After UHT treatment, the cal-
cium-fortified UHT milk was stable under refrigeration for
10 weeks without sedimentation or coagulation. However,
according to a later patent (Sher et al. 2002), the fortified
samples gelled after 2 to 2.5 months of storage at room
temperature. Replacement of the potassium citrate with
sodium hexametaphosphate produced a more stable calcium-
fortified milk (see Section Age Gelation of UHT Milk).
FOULING AND SEDIMENT FORMATION IN UHT
MILK
Major practical problems associated with the production of
UHT milk are fouling of the heat exchanger and sediment
formation. Fouling in particular has an economic impact as
it limits the run times before plants have to be stopped and
cleaned. The concentration of Ca2+ and pH have significant
effects on the rate of fouling during UHT processing and on
sedimentation in UHT milk. The relationship between ionic
© 2014 Society of Dairy Technology
calcium and pH has recently been reviewed by Lewis
(2011).
The effect of Ca2+ is exemplified with goat’s milk, which
has a naturally high Ca2+ level and is very difficult to pro-
cess under UHT conditions without modification (Prakash
et al. 2007). By contrast, cow’s milk has a much lower
Ca2+ level and can be UHT-processed for several hours with
minimal fouling. Removal of calcium from goat’s milk by
either cation exchange or chelation with phosphates or cit-
rate markedly reduced fouling during UHT processing
(Prakash et al. 2007). Reduction in Ca2+ by addition of
phosphates and citrates also reduced sediment formation in
heated goat’s milk (Zadow et al. 1983; Montilla and Calvo
1997). This was confirmed by Boumpa et al. (2008) who
studied the effect of TSC and three phosphates, sodium
hexametaphosphate (SHMP), DSHP and sodium dihydrogen
orthophosphate (SDHP), on sediment formation in UHT-pro-
cessed goat’s milk. TSC, SHMP and DSHP decreased both
Ca2+ and sediment formation; however, SDHP had little
effect on Ca2+ or sediment formation.
Fortification of cow’s milk with ionic calcium salts such
as calcium chloride greatly increases its fouling propensity.
As shown in Figure 1, the addition of as little as 0.7 mM
calcium chloride makes a marked difference to fouling dur-
ing processing at 135 °C. The addition of 0.7, 2.0 and
3.4 mM calcium chloride increased the Ca2+ concentration
in the milk by 0.21, 0.48 and 0.92 mM and decreased the
pH by 0.03, 0.06 and 0.14 units, respectively (Prakash
2007). The ethanol stability of the three fortified milk sam-
ples was reduced from 83 to 77, 68 and 57%, respectively.
Milk with an ethanol stability of <74% generally has poor
stability to UHT processing (IDF 1981).
Addition of calcium chloride to raw cow’s milk increased
sediment formation in UHT milk, even when the pH
decrease caused by the calcium chloride addition was
adjusted back to the normal pH of milk with sodium
hydroxide. However, when the pH was adjusted back with a
calcium-chelating agent, TSC or DSHP, sediment formation
was much reduced (Lewis et al. 2011). In this study, low
3500
3000
OHTC, (W/m2/K)
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000
Time (s)
Figure 1 Changes in overall heat transfer coefficient (OHTC) when raw
cow’s milk with 0 mM (9), 0.7 mM (♦), 2.0 mM (■) and 3.4 mM (▲)
added CaCl22H2O was processed at 135 °C for 4 s on a tubular bench-
top UHT system (Prakash 2007, reproduced with permission).
3
Vol 67
ethanol stability correlated with high Ca2+ and high sedi-
ment formation, and vice versa.
SEDIMENT FORMATION BY IN-CONTAINER
STERILISATION
Instability of the proteins in milk during in-container sterili-
sation causes coagulation and sedimentation. Calcium plays
a major role in this protein instability. The effects of cal-
cium removal and addition on milk subjected to such sterili-
sation are different from those resulting from UHT
processing. However, the stability of milk to in-container
sterilisation has not been extensively studied.
Chen et al. (2012) extended the investigation of Boumpa
et al. (2008) of the stability of goat’s milk with added sta-
bilising salts to a comparison of the sediment formed during
UHT and in-container sterilisation of milk with added DSHP
and TSC. They found that goat’s milk behaved differently
when subjected to these two treatments. Sediment increased
in in-container-sterilised milk with an increase in added salts
up to 12.8 mM, while for UHT-processed milk, sediment
decreased with 6.4 mM added salts, but increased with
12.8 mM added salts. Furthermore, the goat’s milk was
more sensitive to sediment formation on addition of calcium
chloride (up to 2 mM) when sterilised by UHT than by in-
container processing; that is, instability occurred at lower
concentrations of calcium with UHT compared with in-con-
tainer sterilisation. Chen et al. (2012) concluded that the
heat stability of goat’s milk can be reduced both by adding
ionic calcium and by adding too much chelating agents such
as DSHP and TSC. Similar overall trends occurred when
cow’s milk with added calcium chloride and chelating
agents was subjected to UHT and in-container sterilisation.
Control samples, taken at different times of the year,
showed good heat stability to both processes (Chen 2014).
Tsioulpas et al. (2010) found that addition of 9 mM
calcium chloride was required to produce a gel during in-
container sterilisation of cow’s milk, which is considerably
higher than that required to produce excessive sediment dur-
ing UHT treatment (2.7 mM) (Lewis et al. 2011); addition
of only 3.2 mM SHMP caused milk coagulation during
in-container sterilisation (Tsioulpas et al. 2010). A conclu-
sion from these studies is that some milk samples are better
suited to in-container sterilisation than to UHT processing,
and vice versa.
CALCIUM-INDUCED THICKENING, GELATION,
COAGULATION AND FORMATION OF CO-
PRECIPITATES
Milk proteins become unstable when heated in the presence
of ionised calcium salts. A combination of mild heat (at
40–70 °C) and addition of calcium chloride to cow’s milk
causes thickening, gelation or coagulation depending on the
4 © 2014 Society of Dairy Technology
concentration of added calcium. The changes occur mainly
through the formation of calcium-protein linkages. When
~10 mM calcium chloride is added to milk heated to
~70 °C, a thickened milk results. Such a process may have
application in improving the mouthfeel of skim milk. A pro-
cess for producing a similar product by limited rennet action
on skim milk is the subject of a US patent (Savello and Sol-
orio 1994). At higher additions of calcium chloride, ≥12.5
to 20 mM, combined with heating to ~70 °C, milk forms a
gel which is not unlike a yoghurt-type acid gel (Ramasubra-
manian et al. 2014). Such gels, particularly when flavoured,
have favourable sensory properties and have commercial
potential as a unique dairy product (Siamand et al. 2014).
At higher calcium chloride additions (>~20 mM) and
heating at ~70 °C, milk forms a coagulum with release of
whey (Ramasubramanian et al. 2012). The nature and yield
of the calcium-induced coagulum vary according to the heat
treatment used. For example, preheating the milk at 90 °C
for 10 min, which denatures most of the whey protein, max-
imises the yield and also increases the hardness and storage
modulus of the coagulum. However, UHT preheat treatment,
which also denatures most of the whey protein, leads to a
very soft coagulum and reduced protein yield (Ramasubra-
manian et al. 2013). Addition of calcium chloride to milk
causes a decrease in pH (for example, addition of 50 mM
reduced the pH from 6.6 to 5.8), but the coagulation was
shown to be not solely acid-induced as coagulation still
occurred, albeit with a reduced yield of coagulum, when the
pH was readjusted to 6.6 (Ramasubramanian et al. 2013).
On-Nom et al. (2012) studied the effect of adding cal-
cium chloride (0–25 mM) on the stability of reconstituted
skim milk powder to heating at 60–120 °C for 1 h. They
found that the highest Ca2+ levels that did not cause insta-
bility decreased with increasing temperature of heating.
For example, the threshold level, determined by the amount
of sediment obtained by centrifugation, at 60 °C was
16.2–18.0 mM, at 80 °C was <7.2 mM and at 110 °C was
3.6–5.4 mM.
The coagulum produced by a combination of added cal-
cium and heat can be dried to produce a calcium-fortified
co-precipitate powder containing both whey proteins and
casein (Southward and Aird 1978; Al-Saadi and Deeth
2011). Co-precipitate powders with different calcium con-
tents can be produced by varying the amounts of calcium
and acid added during the coagulation process (Southward
and Aird 1978). High-calcium co-precipitates containing
~2.8% calcium were produced by adding 0.2–0.3%
(14–21 mM) calcium chloride to pasteurised milk at pH 6.4
and heating at 85 °C for 8 min. A benefit of adding calcium
in producing co-precipitates is the high yield of proteins
obtained from the milk; the yield of the high-calcium prod-
uct was ~10% higher than the corresponding acid co-precip-
itate (which contains whey protein) and ~21 and 18%
higher than those of rennet casein and sulphuric acid casein
Vol 67
(which do not contain whey protein), respectively (South-
ward and Aird 1978).
RENNET-INDUCED COAGULATION
Rennet-induced coagulation is the basis for the production
of many cheese types. The coagulation occurs in two dis-
tinct phases. The first is the proteolytic cleavage of j-casein
at the Phe105–Met106 bond to produce a glycomacropeptide
and para j-casein, while the second is a calcium-induced
aggregation of the para-casein into a three-dimensional pro-
tein network. It is believed that the calcium ions neutralise
the negative charges on the casein micelles, thereby facilitat-
ing hydrophobic interactions between the micelles and for-
mation of the coagulum (Dalgleish 1992).
Removal of calcium from milk using ion exchange (Carr
et al. 2003), electrodialysis (Uchida et al. 1992) or chelat-
ing agents (Udabage et al. 2001) followed by renneting pro-
duces a noncoagulating milk which can be subsequently
coagulated on addition of calcium. Such noncoagulating
renneted milks can be concentrated and/or dried and used in
products such as processed or analogue cheeses (Carr et al.
2003; Harvey et al. 2006).
Sandra and Corredig (2013) showed that renneted recon-
stituted milk protein concentrate had a lower rennet coagula-
tion time (RCT) and increased gel firmness (as measured by
G0 , the storage modulus, after 45 min) when reconstituted in
water containing 2.72 mM calcium chloride. Furthermore,
coagulation occurs at a lower level of j-casein hydrolysis
with added calcium. Similarly, calcium chloride is routinely
added during the manufacture of renneted cheeses to
decrease the RCT and increase curd firmness. Additions up
to 10 mM decreased RCT and increased gel strength, but
high additions (>100 mM) had the opposite effect (Lucey
2011).
ACID-INDUCED COAGULATION
Because of the interaction of calcium and milk proteins dur-
ing heating, the effects of enhanced and reduced levels of
calcium on the physical properties of acid-induced gels such
as yoghurt have been investigated. The effects of the
removal of Ca2+ are complex and depend on both the
method and extent of removal. Removal by TSC resulted in
an increase in the gel strength (as given by G0 ) of set
yoghurt gels up to 20 mM TSC addition but a decrease in
gel strength with higher additions (Ozcan-Yilsay et al.
2007). However, addition of TSC up to 4 mM caused a
slight increase in the firmness (as measured by a texture
analyser) and viscosity of a stirred yoghurt, but addition of
up to 16 mM decreased firmness and viscosity (Ramasubra-
manian et al. 2008). A similar trend, but with greater effect,
was observed when calcium was removed by ion exchange;
the gel firmness and viscosity increased considerably up to
© 2014 Society of Dairy Technology
~5.6 mM calcium removal, but decreased with further
removal. Interestingly, the graininess of the yoghurt, which
was measured by the number of nodules in a certain vol-
ume, increased markedly when >~5.6 mM calcium was
removed (Ramasubramanian et al. 2008).
Addition of Ca2+ (as calcium chloride) to stirred yoghurt
increased gel firmness and viscosity up to ~2 mM addition
and decreased these properties with further addition to the
maximum added, 13.6 mM. The graininess of the yoghurt
increased with increasing calcium chloride addition from 0
to the maximum added. Curiously, a soluble nonionic form
of calcium, calcium potassium citrate (Gadocal Kâ; Gadot
Biochemical Industries Ltd), behaved quite differently from
ionised calcium salts when incorporated into stirred yoghurt.
The gel firmness and viscosity of the yoghurt showed con-
siderable increases with additions up to 50 mM, and these
increases were generally accompanied by decreased graini-
ness (Ramasubramanian et al. 2008).
WHEY PROTEIN AGGREGATION AND
GELATION
Whey proteins, in whey protein isolate (WPI) and whey
protein concentrate (WPC), form gels when heated at con-
centrations above a critical protein concentration and at tem-
peratures and for times which cause denaturation (Singh
2011). The nature of the gels is influenced by the calcium
concentration of the whey protein solution. The firmness of
the gels formed from WPI and WPC at neutral pH has been
shown by numerous authors to reach a maximum in the
range 2–20 mM Ca2+ (as calcium chloride) and then
decrease at higher Ca2+ concentrations (Lupano et al. 1992).
Similarly, in whey protein solutions at 4% (w/w), below the
critical gelling concentration, Riou et al. (2011) found that
added Ca2+ greatly enhanced denaturation/aggregation even
with small additions, for example 4 mM, and the effect
increased with increased calcium addition up to a maximum
at ~80 mM for b-Lg and ~50 mM for a-La. However, at
higher added Ca2+ levels, ~110 mM, the denaturation/aggre-
gation was partly inhibited. Riou et al. (2011) found that
the effect of added calcium on the behaviour of whey pro-
teins also varies according to the source of the whey pro-
teins. The enhanced gel firmness with low levels of added
calcium chloride is attributable to shielding the electrostatic
repulsion between proteins and forming Ca–protein bridges
in addition to the disulphide and hydrophobic bonds formed
without added calcium. When calcium is removed by dialy-
sis or rendered unavailable by chelation, firmness of the gels
is markedly decreased (Kuhn and Foegeding 1991). How-
ever, when chelating agents are added to WPC with higher
than optimum Ca2+, an increase in gel firmness can be
obtained (Smith and Rose 1994); this is presumably due to
less inhibition of aggregation by the chelating agents at high
Ca2+ reported by Riou et al. (2011).
5
Vol 67
Lactoferrin is a globular whey protein which denatures
and aggregates with heat (Brisson et al. 2007). However, in
the presence of calcium ions, its heat stability is greatly
increased. An emulsion stabilised by 1% lactoferrin to which
5–25 mM calcium chloride was added did not gel when
heated at 90 °C for 10 min, whereas a control without added
calcium ions formed a strong gel under the same conditions
(McCarthy et al. 2014). In the same study, lactoferrin was
shown to inhibit calcium-induced aggregation of b-casein.
These findings have important implications for infant formu-
lae in which both lactoferrin and b-casein are used.
Preheated whey proteins undergo ‘cold gelation’ at room
temperature in the presence of added ionic calcium (Barbut
and Foegeding 1993). Addition of low calcium levels
(~10 mM) produces clear gels, while addition of high cal-
cium levels (≥180 mM) produces cloudy gels. Preheating to
at least 70 °C for 30 min is required for such cold calcium-
induced gelation, but preheating to higher temperatures such
as 90 °C or for longer times (to 80 min) produces stronger
and clearer gels (Hongsprabhas and Barbut 1996). Cold-set
gels have been shown to have significantly higher water-
holding capacity and strength than heat-set gels (Barbut
1995).
AGE GELATION OF UHT MILK
The thickening and eventual gelation of UHT milk during
storage, often referred to as ‘age gelation’, is a major factor
limiting the shelf life of UHT milk (Datta and Deeth 2001).
The published information on the effect of calcium and cal-
cium-chelating agents on age gelation in UHT milk is scant
and somewhat confusing. Kocak and Zadow (1985) found
that addition of 0.1 and 0.3% of TSC or EDTA (Na2) to
aged raw milk before UHT processing accelerated the onset
of age gelation in the UHT milk. In contrast, addition of
SHMP at 0.05 and 0.01% markedly delayed age gelation,
by up to 6-fold. The effect of SHMP differed from that
found by Snoeren et al. (1979) that SHMP delayed gelation
in UHT milk made from good quality milk (psychrotroph
count of 2.7 9 103/mL), but not in that made from poor
quality raw milk (psychrotroph count of 2.06 9 106/mL).
The addition of 0.05% calcium chloride had a similar
effect to the addition of 0.1% SHMP; the samples did not
gel in 500 days at 25 °C, whereas the control milk gelled in
75 days (Kocak and Zadow 1985). The increased stability
of samples containing added calcium is opposite to the find-
ing of Samuelson and Holm (1966). Ellerton and Pearce
(1964) also reported accelerated age gelation in UHT
concentrated milk with added calcium.
Sher et al. (2002) patented a method of preventing age
gelation of a calcium-fortified UHT milk by adding SHMP.
In a related patent (Mallangi et al. 2000), milk was fortified
with calcium lactate and calcium carbonate together with
potassium citrate and gum arabic (see Section Skim Milk
6 © 2014 Society of Dairy Technology
Powder Stability). While the fortified milk after UHT
processing was stable under refrigeration for 10 weeks, it
gelled when stored at room temperature. When the citrate
used by Mallangi et al. (2000) was replaced with SHMP by
Sher et al. (2002), the UHT-treated fortified milk did not gel
in 6 months at room temperature. This accords with the
findings of Kocak and Zadow (1985) discussed above where
citrate accelerated gelation, but SHMP delayed it.
MILK PROTEIN CONCENTRATE (MPC)
STABILITY
MPCs are produced with a range of protein contents from
35 to 90%. Concomitant with the increased protein level of
35–90% is an increased Ca2+ content such that the differ-
ence between MPC35 and MPC90 is equivalent to ~5 mM
calcium chloride (Huppertz et al. 2014). Largely as a conse-
quence of the high Ca2+ content, MPC with high protein
content has very poor heat stability. At pH 6.7, 3.5% solu-
tions of MPC80 and MPC90 had no stability (HCT = 0 s)
to heating at 140 °C; by contrast, MPC35 with much lower
Ca2+ showed similar stability to milk (Crowley et al. 2014).
Reduction in the Ca2+ level in MPC80 by dialysis against
reconstituted skim milk powder greatly improved its heat
stability at pH 6.3–6.7.
Milk protein concentrate (MPC) has relatively poor emul-
sification ability compared with WPC and sodium caseinate,
and this has restricted its applications in food products (Ye
2011). However, partial removal of calcium from MPC by
ion exchange with potassium or sodium, chelating agents or
membrane processes such as dialysis, ultrafiltration or diafil-
tration improved both its emulsion formation and its stabili-
sation properties (Bhaskar 2008; Ye 2011). The calcium
contents of commercial reduced-calcium MPC80 samples
used by Ye (2011) were 1.34, 1.2 and 0.3%; the original
MPC contained 2.23% calcium.
Bhaskar et al. (2001, 2003) reported that removal of cal-
cium from MPC by ion exchange or membrane processes
improves its solubility. The solubility of MPC is a problem
as it decreases during storage at a rate dependent on temper-
ature and water activity (Le et al. 2011). Haque (2011)
found that MPC85 in which calcium was chelated with TSC
(0.85%) retained ~70% solubility after storage for 60 days
at 40 °C, while the solubility of the control MPC85 had
decreased to ~20%. Bhaskar et al. (2003) found that cal-
cium-depleted MPC could be reconstituted after storage
without sediment formation which occurs with unmodified
MPC and milk protein isolate (MPI).
SKIM MILK POWDER STABILITY
Stability to heat treatment is a very important property of
skim milk powders that are reconstituted and used in a vari-
ety of food products. The heat stability can be improved by
Vol 67

preheating the milk before concentration and spray drying. 350

However, powders that are produced with high-intensity heat 300

Foam half-life (min)

treatment (e.g. 90 °C for 5 min) are not suitable for some
applications, so low-heat powders are used. Reduction in cal-
cium in the milk by ion exchange or addition of TSC prior
to concentration and drying has been shown to improve the
heat stability of reconstituted low-heat skim milk powder
[25% total solids (TS)] (Faka et al. 2009). Powders pro-
duced from milk with ≤1.13 mM Ca2+ were stable. Instabil-
ity was determined by coagulation during in-container
sterilisation (15 min at 115 °C). The reconstituted reduced-
calcium skim milk powder samples had increased pH after
sterilisation; those prepared by ion exchange and TSC with
pH ≥6.54 and 6.72, respectively, were heat stable.
Tsikritzi (2011) improved the stability of medium-heat
skim milk powder reconstituted at 25% TS to sterilisation at
115 °C for 15 min by addition of 0.1–0.5% DSHP or 0.1%
TSC which reduced Ca2+. The heat stability of the reconsti-
tuted milk at 25% TS was much lower than that at 20% TS.
Interestingly, SHMP, which also reduces Ca2+ (Tsioulpas
et al. 2010), caused coagulation at about 0.4% in normal
milk.
Williams et al. (2005) produced a calcium-fortified skim
milk powder by adding calcium chloride and calcium-
chelating agents to the milk before concentration and dry-
ing. They achieved fortification of up to 8 g calcium/kg
powder. The process is suitable for producing both high-
and low-heat powders.
Vyas and Tong (2004) fortified skim milk powder with
calcium by dry mixing calcium salts [citrate, carbonate,
phosphate and lactate at 0.15, 0.18 and 0.24% (w/w)] with
the powders. They reconstituted the fortified powders to
1.75 and 3.5% (w/w) protein and assessed their heat stabil-
ity at 140 °C. The samples with citrate and carbonate had
increased heat stability, while the samples with phosphate
and lactate had no heat stability (HCT = 0 s) at that temper-
ature.
FOAMING
The ability of milk to foam and for the foam to be stable
for some time are valuable attributes, especially in the pro-
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature (°C)
Figure 2 Foam stability of reconstituted low-heat skim milk powder
containing added trisodium citrate. Control (■), 5 mM citrate (▲), 10
mM citrate (♦) (Kamath 2007, reproduced with permission).
coffee. The foam half-life was approximately halved by the
addition of 10 mM chelating agent (see Figure 2 for addi-
tion of TSC; the graphs for addition of EDTA and SHMP
were similar).
Ward et al. (1997) found that addition of up to ~10 mM
EDTA(Na2) increased both the foamability and foam stabil-
ity of reconstituted skim milk powder when whipped at
25 °C. Addition of higher concentrations of EDTA made no
further change to the foamability or foam stability. The dif-
ference between these results for foamability and those of
Kamath (2007) may be due to differences in the foaming
methods. Ward et al. (1997) attributed the improved foam-
ing properties of the milk with added EDTA to the release
of caseins from the micelle into the serum which would
increase their availability for stabilising the foam air–liquid
interface. It has been suggested that EDTA removes calcium
from a-lactalbumin and forms a molten state of this protein
which attaches more readily to the air–liquid interface
(Zhang and Goff 2004; Huppertz 2010).
Adding 10–20 mM calcium chloride had no effect on foa-
mability but, like the chelating agents, increased the foam
stability (Figure 3). Addition of 20 mM calcium chloride
increased the foam half-life at 45 and 65 °C approximately
800
700
Foam half-life (min)

duction of cappuccino coffee. For this reason, ways of 600

improving the foaming properties of milk have been sought. 500
400
Kamath (2007) investigated the effect of adding calcium
300
and calcium-chelating agents on the foamability and foam 200
stability of reconstituted low-heat skim milk powder. The 100
milk was foamed by air injection at temperatures ranging 0
from 5 to 85 °C. Addition of 5 or 10 mM TSC, EDTA or 0 20 40 60 80 100

SHMP did not alter the foamability (volume of foam Temperature (°C)

formed) at any temperature; however, each chelating agent Figure 3 Foam stability of reconstituted low-heat skim milk powder
decreased the foam stability, particularly at the optimum containing added calcium chloride. Control (■), 10 mM calcium chloride
foaming temperature of ~45 °C, but also at 65 °C, which is (▲), 16 mM calcium chloride (♦) 20 mM calcium chloride (●). (Kamath
the temperature used for foaming milk for cappuccino 2007, reproduced with permission).

© 2014 Society of Dairy Technology 7

Vol 67
threefold. Foaming at 85 °C with 15 and 20 mM calcium
chloride was not possible as the milk was unstable at that
temperature (Kamath 2007).
FORMATION OF IRON–MILK PROTEIN
COMPLEXES
Iron deficiency anaemia is one of the most widespread dis-
orders throughout the world, especially amongst women and
children in developing countries (Stolzfus 2003). Therefore,
fortification of milk with iron has attracted considerable
attention (Gaucheron 2000). However, it presents challenges
in terms of the interaction of the added iron with other milk
components and the subsequent generation of oxidised fla-
vour and the bioavailability of the iron added. To isolate the
added iron from milk components, it has been encapsulated
into liposomes and also formed into iron–protein complexes
(Gaucheron 2000; Ellis et al. 2012).
Mittal et al. (2012, 2013) removed a large proportion
(~70%) of calcium from milk by ion exchange, which disin-
tegrated the casein micelle, and then added ferric chloride to
bind to the solubilised caseins. Up to 4% iron could be
added to the calcium-depleted milk without precipitation.
The soluble ferric iron–milk protein complex can be
used for fortifying foods. The use of iron–milk protein
complexes for fortifying foods has been reviewed by Ellis
et al. (2012); the removal of calcium from milk and its
replacement with iron is a novel method of preparing such
complexes.
SUMMARY
Addition of soluble calcium salts to milk needs to be con-
sidered carefully. Calcium fortification of heat-treated milk
can be achieved with nonionic calcium salts or soluble salts
with a chelating agent.
Addition of calcium in the form of soluble calcium salts
• may increase fouling and sediment formation during UHT
processing;
• may increase sediment formation in in-container-sterilised
products;
• may cause heat-induced gelation or coagulation of milk,
depending on Ca2+ concentration;
• enhances rennet coagulation and reduces rennet coagula-
tion time;
• increases strength of acid-induced gels with small addi-
tions, but decreases gel strength with large additions;
• enhances denaturation/aggregation or gelation of whey
proteins, depending on protein concentration;
• may accelerate age gelation, but the literature is conflict-
ing; and
• enhances stability of foams formed with low addition
levels.
Removal of calcium
8 © 2014 Society of Dairy Technology
• may improve heat stability of products that have
poor heat stability (e.g. goat’s milk) at low levels of
removal. Higher levels of removal may further reduce
heat stability;
• prevents coagulation of milk by rennet;
• increases strength of acid-induced gels with low levels of
removal, but decreases gel strength with higher levels of
removal;
• inhibits age gelation when removal is by SHMP, but may
accelerate age gelation when removal is by citrate or
EDTA;
• increases heat stability of milk protein concentrate;
• increases heat stability of skim milk concentrate;
• may reduce foam stability of milk, but the literature is
conflicting; and
• enables formation of iron–milk protein complexes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Drs Sapana Kamath and Sangeeta
Prakash for providing the graphs used in this paper.
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