Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College

Laboratory Manual

SENSOR TECHNOLOGY -II

For

Second Year Students

 Author JNEC INSTRU DEPT., Aurangabad

 This manual is intended for the second year students of instrumentation in thE
subjectInstrumentation-1. Manual typically contains practical/Lab Sessions related
Measurement System fundamentals covering various aspects related the subject to enhanced
understanding.

Students are advised to thoroughly go though this manual rather than only topics
mentioned in the syllabus as practical aspects are the key to understanding and conceptual
visualization of theoretical aspects covered in the books.

Good Luck for your enjoyable laboratory sessions.

DOs and DON’T DOs in Laborary:

1. Do not handle any equipment before reading the instructions/Instruction manuals

2. Read carefully the power ratings of the equipment before it is switched on whether
ratings 230 V/50 Hz or 115V/60 Hz. For Indian equipments, the power ratings are normally
230V/50Hz. If you have equipment with 115/60 Hz ratings, do not insert power plug, as our
normal supply is 230V/50 Hz, which will damage the equipment.

3. Observe type of sockets of equipment power to avoid mechanical damage

4. Do not forcefully place connectors to avoid the damage

5. Strictly observe the instructions given by the teacher/Lab Instructor

Instruction for Laboratory Teachers::

1. Submission related to whatever lab work has been completed should be done during the
next lab session. The immediate arrangements for printouts related to submission on the day
of practical assignments.

2. Students should be taught for taking the printouts under the observation of lab teacher.

3. The promptness of submission should be encouraged by way of marking and evaluation

patterns that will benefit the sincere students.
 INDEX

1. Measurement of, Flow Using. a) Orifice, b) Venturi

2. Measurement of Flow Using Rotameter

3. Measurement of Level Using Any Two, Techniques

4. Study and Characterization of pH Meter

5. Study and Characterization of Conductivity-meter

6. Measurement of Relative Humidity by Any One Technique

7. Measurement of Density by

a) Hydrostatic head or

b) Buoyancy type methods

8. Study and Calibration of Vibrometer and Accelerometer

9. Measurement of Velocity Using Contact Method.

10. Measurement of Velocity Using Non-contact (Magnetic - Toothed Rotor,

Photoelectric) Methods

11. Measurement of Viscosity Using Any One Technique

 EXPERIMENT NO.1

FLOW MEASUREMENT
Aim: To study measurement of Flow Using a) Orifice b) Venturi.

Apparatus:
a) Orifice - 25 mm . Integral type Input : 0 -2000 LPH
Output : 0-1000 mm wc Line Size 25 NB Connectivity : 1/2” BSP
(Female)
b) Venturi - 25 mm . Conical type Input : 0 -2000 LPH
Output : 0-1000 mm wc Line Size : 25 NB
Connectivity : 1/2” BSP (Female)

Theory:
ORIFICE METER

The orifice meter is the common type of head flow measuring device for medium
and large-pipe sizes. The orifice plate inserted in a pipe line causes an increase in the
flow velocity and a corresponding decrease in the pressure . The flow pattern shows an
effec-tive decrease in the cross-section of flow beyond the orifice plate with the maximum
velocity and minimum pressure . The particular position where the velocity is maximum
and static pressure is minimum is known as VENA CONTRACTA.
The orifice plate inserted in the line is basically a thin plate of metal with a
circular opening. The orifice configurations may be concentric , eccentric, or segmented
.
The concentric orifce plate consists of a central hole in a metal plate concentric with the
circumference of the plate . The effect of the orifice plate on the flow pattern in a pipe is
shown in figure. Suppose that the manometer tubes are inserted along the pipe wall at
the positions shown in the figure , then the liquid in these tubes will rise until the pressure
due to column of liquid in each tube is equal to the static pressure at that position.
Observing the different pressure values, the pattern of the pressure changes can be
traced along the pipe length, as shown in figure. It may be noted that at the points 5 and
6 the prssure is lower than the upstream pressure, due to the increase in the velocity of
the fluid passing through the smaller area. The stream or jet cross-section decreases in
area after leaving the orifice until it reaches the point 7, where the pressure is minimum
and the velocity is maximum. This is mainly due to liquid being directed inward as it
approaches the orifice and also due to inertia effects presisting in this direction for a
distance after it leaves the orifice.
 Frame

Orifice Orifice
plate bore

Concentric Eccentric Segmental

Further, the static pressure also reaches its minimum value at the “vena -
contracta”. The distance from the orifice to this position varies with the ratio of the orifice
diameter to pipe diameter, but an average value would be half the pipe diameter. From
the vena contracta, the stream section expands until it reaches the pipe diameter at the
position 11 where it recovers to its upstream value. This would appear to be caused by
the velocity change being accompanied by considerable turbulence with the resulting
dissipa-tion of energy involving a pressure loss. For a typical value of 0.6 for the orifice to
the pipe diameter ratio , the percentage loss works out at 65% of the differential
pressure. Where such a pressure loss is a critical consideration, this point should be
borne in mind.
The pressure tappings for flow rate measurements can be taken out by a variety of
methods. For pipe sizes of 0.05 m or greater in diameter, the usual practice is to locate
tappings at distances D and D/2 in the upstream and downstream respectively , where D
is the diameter of the pipe.
Another type of tapping is the so-called corner tapping, where holes are cut obliquely
through the flange or the pipe base bringing the inside openings of the holes adjacent
to the orifice.
The materials used for orifice plates are mild steel , stainless steel , phosphor
bronze, or gun metal, depending upon the application. Gun metal , bronze , or stain
less steel is used for water metering , gun metal or mild steel for air metering, and stain
less steel for steam , sewage, fual oils , coal gas, and corrosive gases.
The main advantages of an orifice meter are its simple construction and high reliability.
The limitations are its poor accuracy , calibration which changes appreciably with wear,
high pressure loss, and possible maintenance problems with blocked tapping .
Since the pressure losses are high ,the device is not recommended for high velocities.
 D D/2
Up Down
stream stream
tap 23452345 P1 234234 P2 tap
234567 1234567
2345 2345671231234567 234
234567 1234567
2345 234567123 1234567 234
234567123
123
123
123
Flow
₃ D d
123
123
234567
234567123 234567
234567123 234567
234567
234567123 234567 234567
234567

Orifice
Plate

2 2
επD CE β 2 P
Flow Qv = ---------------------------- ----------------

4 ρ

3
where , Qv = Flow in m /hr

ρ = Density in Kg/m3

ε = Expansibility factor

1
E= ---------- where β = d /D
4
1- β

d = orifice plate bore in meter D =

Pipe diameter in meter

C = Coefficient of discharge

P = Differential pressure in Pascal

VENTURI TUBE

In application where pressure loss is not acceptable, it is preferable to use an

element possessing a gradual stream area change, such as ventuti tube.
The basic design of venturi tube comprises three sections, the converging conical section at
the upstream , cylindrical throat , and the diverging recovery outlet cone at the downstream.
Figure illustrates a standard configuration of a venturi tube . The inlet cone tapers down from
the pipe area to the throat section of a smaller area to produce the necessary increase in
velocity and decrease in pressure. The cylindrical throat provides a point of measurement of
this decrease in pressure where the flow rate is steady. The diverging outlet cone expands
from the throat to the pipe area resuting in pressure recovery. Pressure measurements are
carried out at the upstream entrance to the cone and at the throat. Tappings takes the shape
of annular chambers , and the inside surfaces and smoothly machined with holes drilled
around the circumference and at regular inter vals. This enables the pressure to be averaged
before transmission to the measuring instruments. The construction of the outlet cone is
importtant. The pressure loss due to the turbulent eddies caused by the increasing diameter
and due to friction between the fluid and the wall of the cone, affects the measurement. The
pressure loss due to turbulent eddies can be reduced by gradual expansion, while the
frictional loss can be reduced by using a sharper cone. The result is a compromise between
0 0
the two requirements. In practice, two conical angles of 5 -7 and 14 -15 with
pressure losses of 11 to 18% respectively are used , which is much lower than that of
the orifice plate, The discharge coefficient of standard type of venturi tube is about 0.99 ,
and this remains substantially constant for all values of throat -pipe diameter ratios
between 0.25 and 0.75 (m = 0.05 to 0.55). In practice, the approach to the throat is given
a currve profile by means of lining, to maintain constant discharge coefficient.
CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES :-
The construction of the venturi tube is often dictated by its application. For normal uses ,
sections are made out of gun metal , stainless steel, and cast iron. The use of gun metal
and stainless steel reduces the risk of corrosion. One advantage of the venturi tube is that
the section need not be circular -square or rectangular shapes have also been used for
many applications.

P1 P2
2
2
2
2 123
123
123
Flow 23
D d
₃
 Procedure:
Flow Measurement :
1) Using Orifice
2) Using Venturi

1) Keep the bypass valve aprox. 25% open.

2)Keep the Hand valve in series with venturi and Nozzle fully closed.

3) Close the valves S11,S12 , S31,S32 of manifold.

4) Connect DPT output to the input of square root extractor through

digital milliammeter ( I1) and digital Manometer as shown in
diagram.

Connect output of square root extractor to the input of flow indicator

through digital milliammeter (I2) as shown in diagram.

5) Make power on to motor pump. Perform the procedure forEqualising the

DP.

6) Vary the flow rate from say 300 lph to 2000 lph in proper steps as
observed on rotameter and for every flow rate take corresponding
reading.

Digital Digital Digital

Manom- Milliam- Milliam-
eter meter I1 meter I2
+ input - + - + -
4-20 mA
+ + Square + + Flow
output input output input
DPT 4-20 mA 4-20 mA
Root 4-20 mA 4-20 mA Indicator /
- - Extractor - - Totaliser

Observation Table:

Diff.Pressure Square Root Extractor Flow (LPH)

Sr. No. Flow (LPH)
Rotameter (mm) Input ( mA) Output ( mA) Flow Indicator
Digital Manometer
I1 I2

Graph: Plot the graph of,

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO.2

FLOW MEASUREMENT
Aim: To study measurement of Flow Using Rotameter.

Apparatus: Digital Milliameter, Flow Indicator / Totaliser,

a) Glass Tube Rotameter Range : 200 - 2000 Lph Line Size : 25 NB

Connectivity : 1/2” BSP (Female), Rotameter is connected in series with main
line .
b) Turbine type Flow Meter (Wheel Flow Meter) Input : 0 -2000 LPH
Output : 4-20 mA Supply voltage : 24Volt DC Line Size : 25 NB
Connectivity : 1/2” BSP (Female) Wheel Flow Meter is connected in series with
main line .

Theory:
ROTAMETER
A rotameter consists of a vertical tube with a tapered cone in chich a float assumes
a vertical position corresponding to each flow rate through tube. The conical tube is made of
glass, stainless steel, or monel, or special plastics. The rotameters are sometimes , reffered
as constant pressure drop, variable area or variable aperature meters.
flow

Fd
Glass
W
D Fu
zero posi-
tion

flow
FORCES ACTING ON A FLOAT IN A ROTAMETER

The variable area meter is analysed as follows. Consider the forces acting on the float
in the vertical column of liquid, as shown in figure. These are:
(a) The effective weight W acting on the float

W = V1 ( ρ2 - ρ1 ) ................................................(1)

Where Vf = Volume of the float, ρ2 = material density of the float , and

ρ1 = density of the liquid.

(b) Force Fd acting in a downward direction on the upper surface of the float .
Fd = P2 A f ....................................................(2)
Where P2 = Pressure per unit area on the upper surface of the float, and
A f = Surface area of the float.
(c) The force Fu acting upwards on the lower surface of the float,
Fu = P1 A f ......................................................... (3)
(d) A drag force D tending to pull the float in an upward direction (in the direction
of flow) . The value of this force depends on the float design and the
conditions of fluid flow.
The force may be represented by an equation of the form

D = K.V. K f Lf η ..................................................... (4)

Where K = a constant, v = velocity of the fluid , Lf = a dimensional function equiva-

lent to length and η = absolute viscosity of the fluid.

Under equilibrium, neglecting viscous drag effects,

Fu + D = W + Fd .................................................. (5)
If the viscous drag force effects are neglected , D = 0 , and

P1 Af = Vf (ρ2 - ρ1) + P2 A f .................................(6)

When the flow increases from an equibrilium value, an increased differential

pressure (P1 - P2 ) results and the ratio P1 / P2 increases which means that the

force P1 Af is now greater than [Vf ( ρ2 - ρ1) + P2 A f ]. Since the float is free, it will
be moved in the direction of flow.

As it moves upwards, it increases the orifice area due to the expanding sectional area
of the tube and the pressure differential falls proportionately.
The operation continues until (P2 - P1) reaches its original value, when the forces as
indicated in equation (6) are in equilibrium again. The new float position is the measure
of the new flow rate. The operation is reversed when the flow rate decreases. From Eq,
(6),
V
f

(P1- P2) = ----------- (ρ2- ρ1) ..................... (7)

 Af
Substituting this in Eq, (1)

ρ2 - ρ1
V
f

Qv = cEA 2 2g ---------( -------------) ................................ (8)

Af ρ1

Where A2 is the gap area between the float and the tube . If the displacement of the
float .

2x
θ
dx = d1 ( 1 + ----------- tan --------- ) .......................................(9)
di 2
Where dx = tube diameter at a distance x from the inlet of the tube, and

d1= diameter of the float.

Equation (8) can be rewritten as

Vf ρ2 - ρ1
Qv = KcxE 2g ---------( -------------) ................................ (8)

Af ρ1
A2
Where K = ------------- is a proportionality constant.
x
In rotameters, the velocity approach factor E is of no sigficance. Hence,

Vf ρ2 - ρ1
Qv = Kcx 2g --------- ( -------------) ................................ (11)
Af ρ1

If it is desired to obtain the mass flow Qm in gravimetric units (kg/s) instead of

volume flow , equation can be rewritten as ,

V
f ρ2 - ρ 1
Qv = Kcx ρ1 2g --------- ( -------------) ................................ (11)
A ρ1
f

Procedure:
 Flow Measurement : 1) Using Wheel Flow Meter

1) Keep the bypass valve aprox. 25% open.

2)Keep the Hand valve in series with venturi or Nozzle or orifice fully open.

3) Connect WFT output to the input of flow indicator through digital milliamme-
ter (I1) as shown in diagram.

4) Make power on to the motor pump.

5) Vary the flow rate from say 300 lph to 2000 lph in proper steps as observed
on rotameter and for every flow rate take corresponding reading.

Digital
Milliam-
meter I1
+ input -
+ + Flow
output input
WFT 4-20 mA 4-20 mA Indicator /
- - Totaliser

Sr. No. Flow (LPH) Digital Flow (LPH)

Rotameter Milliammeter Flow Indicator
I1 ( mA)

Plot the graph of,

1) Flow (Rotameter reading) against current I1.

2)Digital Milliammeter readinfg I1 against Flow indicated on flow indicator .

Graph: Plot the graph of,

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO.3

Study of Rotary Encoder.

Aim: Measurement of Angular displacement using Rotary Shaft Encoder.

Experimental Setup:

Optical Rotary Encoder

Connecting wires

CRO

Specification:

Supply voltage: 12V

Resolution: 360 PPR

Output: Push-Pull Complimentary type, A, B,& Z

Theory:

Digital transducers are devices by means of which mechanical displacement (linear

or angular) can be transduced directly into digital output by a suitable electromechanical or
electro optical arrangement. These digital transducers can be either of the incremental
type or of the absolute type. The device for angular measurement consists of a sensing
shaft attached to a disc, which is divided into a number of equal sectors on the
circumference. The sensing mechanism can be a direct electrical contact with a wiper or
brush or a photoelectric device with slots acting as optical windows. Each time, an
incremental motion of the sensor occurs, pulses are generated which are measured by a
counter. This device is called as Rotary Shaft Encoder.

Nowadays rotary shaft encoders are manufactured using optical techniques only as
it is the easier way to generate electrical signal (Pulses).

Encoding: Encoding means assignment of digital value to mechanical motion, which takes
place when the input shaft of the encoder is coupled, by means of a gear or by a flexible
coupling to the rotary element of another system.

As the shaft of an incremental encoder is turned, a pulse train is generated on its

outputs. Each pulse represents some fraction of revolution of the shaft.

Decoding: The conversion of encoded digital values to actual angular shaft position is
called as decoding. For incremental type rotary encoder, simple counter is used as decoder.
The output of rotary encoder is given to the clock input of counter.
Working and Construction:

The main inner part of the encoder is a disc made up of transparent material firmly
connected to the rotating input shaft, on which some opaque areas are photoengraved
according to a configuration depending on the type of device.

The surface of the disc is lighted by GaAsAl diodes so that the opaque areas in
motion can intercept the light source from time to time.

The photoelectric sensitive receiver is found on the other side of the light source
and I is composed of a control grating made up of an opaque platelet with some transparent
windows, and of a phototransistor system. While the phototransistor system transforms
the modulated luminous signals in impulsive electric signal, the control grating increases the
accuracy in reading out, so that the rapidity of the transition of each luminous signal is
increased. the outpu signal sensed by he system may be directly used for the reading of
the angular movement of the rotation axis through a pulse counter.

Procedure:

1. Make the Optical Encoder ON.

2. Set the pointer at 0o.
3. See that display is 0o. If not push the Reset button.
4. Move the pointer in clockwise direction. Note the reading on scale & display
reading. Repeat for other point on scale.
5. Repeat point 2,3 & 4 for anticlockwise direction.
6. Make the motor ON.
7. Keep the knob of motor in forward direction.
8. Observe the waveform on CRO for point A, B, & Z.
9. Keep the knob of motor in Reverse direction.
10. Observe the waveform on CRO for point A, B, & Z.

Observation:

1. Output voltage from Encoder = …………………

2. No. of pulses per revolution = ………………….

Sr. No. Clockwise Counter Clockwise

Scale reading Display reading Scale reading Display reading

3
 4

3. Draw waveform of output A,B & Z for Clockwise direction.

Time period of A =……………………

Time period of B =……………………

Time period of Z =……………………

Time for 1 revolution = Time period of Z =……………………

Speed of motor = …………………….rpm

4. Draw waveform of output A,B & Z for Counter Clockwise direction.

Time period of A =……………………

Time period of B =……………………

Time period of Z =……………………

Time for 1 revolution = Time period of Z =……………………

Speed of motor = …………………….rpm

5. Change the speed and repeat 3 & 4.

Conclusion:

1. Output of A lead output of B by 90o. When shaft is rotated in CW direction.

2. Output of A lags output of B by 90o. When shaft is rotated in CCW direction.
Precaution:

1. Don’t change the direction of motor directly from forward to reverse using knob.
First rest the motor.
 EXPERIMENT NO.4

DENSITY MEASUREMENT USING AIR PURGE METHOD

Aim: To study measurement of Density by Using Air Purge Method.

a) Hydrostatic head or
b) Buoyancy type methods ,

Apparatus: Air purge tube is mounted in level tank. Manometer

Theory:
This simple level measurement has a dip tube installed with the open end close
to the bottom of the process vessel. A flow of gas (usually air) passes through the tube
and when air bubbles escape from the open end, the air pressure in the tube
corresponds to the hydraulic head of the liquid in the vessel.
The air pressure in the bubble pipe varies proportionally with the change in head
pressure. Air Purge system also called as Bubbler systems are ideal for level
measurement of open channel run off systems or duct and tank situations where debris,
foam, steam, or surface turbulence makes standard methods of level measurement
impractical.
This technique of level detection is primarily employed for vessels which work
below atmospheric pressure.
A typical bubbler type level measurement device is shown in the figure below.
This arrangement basically comprises of :
1 ) A pipe i.e. a dip tube.
It usually has its open end mounted in proximity to the vessel base.
2) A purge gas: It is normally an air supply but an inert gas can also be used
specifically in areas which are susceptible to contamination or an oxidative reaction
with the medium.
“As gas flows down to the dip tube's outlet, the pressure in the tube rises until it over
comes the hydrostatic pressure produced by the liquid level at the outlet. That
pressure equals the process fluid's density multiplied by its depth from the end of the
dip tube to the surface.
1. A pressure Indicator or transmitter: It is connected to the dip tube for the purpose of
monitoring the pressure.
2. A pressure regulator / flow control valve : It is mainly needed to create a constant
flow of gas necessary for avoiding variations in calibration.
 Pressure Indicator
θ

2 Air Supply
2

θ
Air Regulator /
Flow control valve
Air purge pipe

Advantages
Following are the major advantages offered by bubbler level measurement
technique: Their design and construction is very simple.
They are very cost effective.
Disadvantages
Despite above mentioned advantages, the usage of bubbler level sensors
include few disadvantages too. They are:
Their calibration gets changed according to variations in product density.
These sensors require timely cleaning and maintenance since the tip of the
pipe can gather some of the process material which gets solidified and
blocked into the hole. They are not considered appropriate for use in non-
vented vessels.
They don’t provide much accurate results for level measurement in case of
corrosive or slurry-type applications.
SETUP :
1. Air purge tube is mounted in level tank.
2. Controlled air supply is to be connected to air purge tube through air regulator
and flow control valve.
3. Water manometer is used to measure hydrostatic pressure in air purge tube.
4. Air flow rate is to be adjusted such that just few air bubbles will be observed
coming out from dipped end of the air purge tube (bottom of the tank ). Anyway, a bubble
tube simply measures BACK PRESSURE in the system, which is pressurised by the
supply pressure.
 Please note that AIR FLOW has NOTHING to do with the actual pressure measurement:
The level indicated by the manometer is merely the back pressure of the air which is
effectively leaking out of the bottom of the 'bubbler' pipe. The higher the level in the (open
to atmosphere) tank, the higher the back-pressure of the air. If there is nothing in the tank,
there would be no back pressure at all because all of the air would be freely flowing out of
the end of the pipe - nothing opposing it or nothing causing any back-pressure. )
4) Ball valve is provided on level tank to discharge the warer.
5) Visual indication of level in tank is provided on side glass tube with scale.
PROCEDURE :
1) Arrange the setup as shown in figure.
2) Adjust air supply of aprox 1 kg/cm2 at the output of air regulator.
3) Adjust flow control valve such that just few air bubbles will be observed coming out from
dipped end of the air purge tube (bottom of the tank ).
( Initially fill the tank to adjust air flow rate.)
See that air supply is maintained constant at the output of air regulator.
4) Slowly change the water level in tank in proper steps and note the , level in tank as
observed on side glass tube and hydrostatic pressure as observed on manometer.
Observation Table:

S.No. Level in tank Manometer Reading

( cm ) (Water column in cm )

Plot the graph of level in tank as observed on side glass tube and hydrostatic pressure as
observed on manometer.

Graph: Plot the graph of,

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO.5

PH MEASUREMENT
Aim: To study of PH measurement.

Apparatus: Unit is provided with pH electrode (combination electrode), electrode stand

and glass beaker.

Theory:
Determining the PH value of an aqueous solution is one of the more important
measurements in industrial chemistry.Each aqueous solution has a cerain measure of
acidity or alkalinity, which is dependent on the concentration of hydrogen ions in it.The
higher the concentration , the higher the acidity ,and lower the PH. When the
concentration is low (very few hydrogen ions) , the PH is high and the solution is
alkaline. A PH below 7 indicate acidity.The PH is defined as the logarithm of the
reciprocal of the hydrogen - ion concentration (H+), i.e. pH =log10 1/(H+).
There are two methods for determining the number of H+ ions in an aqueous
solution : (1)colorimetry and (2) electrometry. in the first, an acid -base indicator is used,
which has a different colour in acid or base solutions.The colour change is due to a marked
difference in colour between the undissociated and ionic forms.
Such indicators are accurate only to about 30 percent.
The electrometric method is based on comparing the voltage mesured by a PH
electrode and a refence potential.
THE PH ELECTRODE :
In PH measurements ,use is made of the potential difference that exists between a metal
electrode and the electrolyte into which it is immersed. Such a potential difference also exists
between two different electrolytes. Electrolytes may be acid ,
base ,or salts.
In electrometrical PH measurements a galvanic chain is used which consists of
two electrodes that are electrically connected by one or more electrolytes .Externally,
the two electrodes are interconnected by a measuring device of very high internal
resistance . As this device draws virtually no current,the chemical constitution of the
electrolyte is not affected.
Several galvanic voltages are produced in the chain which cannot be measured
independently. In the sensor used here, there are therefore a reference electrode
and a measuring electrode.
The measuring electrode consists of a silver rod which is bonded to a glass
membrane and surrounded by a potassium chloride solution .A potential difference will
arise across the membrane which is dependent upon the difference in acidity / alkalinity
between the buffer solution inside the sensor is immersed.The potential difference is
probably caused by exchange of sodium and hydrogen ions between the glass and the
solutions.
The potential difference between the two electrodes is directly proportional to the
difference in PH of the buffer solution and the electrolyte. All other galvanic voltages cancel
one other. Because of the high transfer resistance of the measuring electrode ,and to prevent
chemical changes in the solutions, the measuring device interconnecting the two electrodes
externally must have a very high input impedance
12
of the order of 10 ohm.
The output potential of the sensor changes by about 59mV per pH unit, this is a
reasonable value which may be measured directly with a d.c. voltmeter. Because of the
temperature - dependent behaviour of the pH sensor, a temperature compensation potmeter
should be adjusted with standard pH solutions.

PROCEDURE :

1. Rinse the pH probe with distilled water. Take standard solutions of 4pH & 9 pH.
2. Connect pH probe at the input.
3. Make power on to the unit. Dip the electrode in distilled water and adjust pH
scale pot to get 7.0 reading on Dogital panel meter.
4. Immerse pH probe in 4 pH solution.
5. Adjust temp pot & Gain adjust pot to get 4.0 reading on digital panel meter
for solution of 4 pH.
6. Clean the probe with distilled water.
7. Immerse pH probe in 9 pH solution.
8. Adjust the Gain adjust pot till to get 9.0 reading on digital meter.a)Repeat steps
3 to 8 till we get optimum settings of Gain adjust pot & pH scale adjust pot.
Take any unknown value solution & measure pH of unknown solution. If
possible take sample solution of 4 to 9 pH and for each sample note the mV
output of the sensor. Tabulate the result.
 Observation Table:

S.No. pH of STD solution mV Output pH measured

on DPM

Graph: Plot the graph of,

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO.6

CAPACITANCE LEVEL TRAINER

Aim: To study the various level sensors, it’s characteristics & level measurement.

Apparatus:

1) Capacitance Level Transmitter Trainer.

2) Digital multi meter.

3) Water supply & 1Ø Electrical supply.

Theory:
One of the important parameter in industrial application is to measure
the level of liquid media stored in various dimensional vessels/storage
tanks. Measurement of level directly deals with the quantum of stock
levels and involves important role in entry/stock management at all level
of industries.

Keeping the importance of accurate and reliable level

measurement electronically, Various sensor/transducer are involved as
capacitance, differential pressure, piezo resistive, ultrasonic and radar
level sensor etc. Out of all these capacitance level measurement method
is simplest, easy and cost effective method to measure level in close
vessel. Any metal vessel forms capacitance or changes it’s capacitance
with respect to reference electrode placed in it and is proportional to
the level of media present in that vessel. Using this principle a simple
level trainer is designed for study purpose.

The setup consist of transparent vessel marked with mm

graduations, having provision for filling / topping up of water and draining
it through bottom by means of control valve. The setup is mounted on MS
fabricated SG powder painted frame. A capacitance sensor transmitter
mounted on top and two wire electrode are placed in vessel as the
probes, across which change in capacitance is sensed. The capacitance is
used in wein bridge oscillator generating variable oscillating frequency
proportional to tank level. Further the frequency is electronically
processed and proportional 4-20mA current output provided.

As the water level in tank increases the capacitance increases and

correspondingly the output 4-20mA is generated. 4mA current output
for the reference 00%mm level and 20mA for 100%mm of water level in
 the tank. The 4-20mA signal is fed to a digital level indicator where the
current signal is decoded directly in terms of water level in the tank
in“mm”, hence for 4mA digital indicator will display 00%mm and 20mA
current 100%mm as water level.

Procedure:
A ) Calibration Procedure :

1) Close the drain cock at the bottom of Level measuring Tank.

2) Fill the tank up to 300 mm level with clean water.

3) Ensure the mains supply is 230 VAC, 1Ø. Connect & turn ON the mains

supply.

4) Observe the digital level indicator reads around ‘300.0’. if not adjust

SPAN pot in such way that display reads around ‘300.0’.

Note : To access SPAN and ZERO calibration pots, Open the front facia
by unscrewing the black screws on it. Use SPAN pot to adjust max level
and ZERO pot for min level settings

5) Fill measuring tank till Level ‘50’mm.

6) Adjust ZERO pot in such way display indicates ‘50.0’ mm as level

7) Fill the level tank to 290 mm level. Wait for 2 minutes to stabilize

level.

8) Adjust SPAN pot in such way display indicates ‘290.0’ mm as level

9) Drain the level tank by adjusting drain valve at the bottom of tank.

10) Repeat the exercise three times from point 5 to 9

11) Repeat the entire exercise if required.

B ) Operation Procedure :
 1. Ensure the mains supply is 230 VAC, 1Ø.

2. Connect & turn ON the mains supply.

3. Close the drain cock at the bottom of Level measuring Tank.

4. Fill the tank up to 300mm with clean water.

5. Observe the digital level indicator reads ‘300.0’.

6. Drain the measuring tank till Level ‘00.0’mm.

7. To measure loop transmitter current select DC current 20mA range

on DMM.

8. Connect multi meter to banana sockets on indicator facia & measure

the transmitter current for level 00.0mm, which is 4.00 mA

Observation Table:
Two wire Capacitance sensor: Capacitance input for 0-300 mmWc
output @ 4-20mA.

1) Capacitance: Level in mm = (I mA measured – 4 mA) x Full range

16
Level in mm = (I mA measured – 4 mA) x 300
16

Sr. Level by Level by Capacitance sensor Level by

No. Digital indicator Current mA Calculation
mm scale
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10

Graph: Plot response curve i.e. Graph of level in mm with Current in mA.

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO.7

MAGNETIC PICK UP

AIM: To study measurement of Velocity Using Control Method, its principle of

operation & characteristics.

APPRATUS:

a) Magnetic Pickup Trainer.

b) Oscilloscope with Probes.

c) 230 V AC 1Ø, 50 Hz mains supply.

THEORY:

Inductive sensor: An inductive sensor is an electronic proximity sensor,

which detects metallic objects without touching them. The sensor consists
of an induction loop. electric current generates a magnetic field, which
collapses generating a current that falls asymptotically towards zero from
its initial level

when the input electricity ceases. The inductance of the loop changes
according to the inside it and since metals are much more effective
inductors than other materials, the presence of metal increases the current
flowing through the loop. This change can be detected by sensing circuitry
which can be given as a signal to other devices.

CALCULATION OF THE SPEED : RPM = pulses per sec x 60

No of teeth

PRECAUTIONS:

1) Ensure main supply is 230 V AC, 50 Hz, 1Ø Only.

2) Ensure the trainer is in proper condition, sensor is rigidly mounted &
placed near to gear teeth.
3) Turn the speed pot to anticlockwise ( min speed )
4) Do not short the banana sockets.
5) Do not disturb/change the scale factor /DIP switches on indicator.
PROCEDURE:

1) Keep speed pot to min speed.

2) Connect the magnetic pickup trainer to 230 V AC mains.

3) Turn on mains. The motor will slowly gain the speed.

Note : There is speed ramp up circuitry, ensures smooth start.

4) Ensure the digital indicator is ON, Motor rotates and sensor LED
Flickers.

5) Connect the oscilloscope to banana socket.

Connection details – Black - OV Ground.

- Red - Pulse O/P.

6) Observe the pulses on CRO

7) Slowly increase the motor speed.

8) Repeat step ‘ 7 ’ till full speed i.e.1500 RPM ( Pot to most clockwise )

9) Reduce the speed to min speed.

Note : Encoder generates 40 pulses/revolution.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SPEED MEASUREMENT SIGNAL CONDITIONIING CKT.

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

Sr. Actual Speed Tachometer Speed Calculated Speed Error in %

No. Indicated
(in RPM) (in RPM)
(in RPM)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Graph:

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO.8

VELOCITY MEASUREMENT

AIM: To study measurement of Velocity Using Contact & Non Contact(Magnetic-

Toothed Rotor, Photoelectric) methods, its principle of operation & characteristics.

APPRATUS:

a) Magnetic Pickup Trainer.

b) Oscilloscope with Probes.

c) 230 V AC 1Ø, 50 Hz mains supply.

THEORY:

Inductive sensor: An inductive sensor is an electronic proximity sensor,

which detects metallic objects without touching them. The sensor consists
of an induction loop. electric current generates a magnetic field, which
collapses generating a current that falls asymptotically towards zero from
its initial level

when the input electricity ceases. The inductance of the loop changes
according to the inside it and since metals are much more effective
inductors than other materials, the presence of metal increases the current
flowing through the loop. This change can be detected by sensing circuitry
which can be given as a signal to other devices.

CALCULATION OF THE SPEED : RPM = pulses per sec x 60

No of teeth

PRECAUTIONS:

1) Ensure main supply is 230 V AC, 50 Hz, 1Ø Only.

2) Ensure the trainer is in proper condition, sensor is rigidly mounted &
placed near to gear teeth.
3) Turn the speed pot to anticlockwise ( min speed )
4) Do not short the banana sockets.
5) Do not disturb/change the scale factor /DIP switches on indicator.
PROCEDURE:

1) Keep speed pot to min speed.

2) Connect the magnetic pickup trainer to 230 V AC mains.

3) Turn on mains. The motor will slowly gain the speed.

Note : There is speed ramp up circuitry, ensures smooth start.

4) Ensure the digital indicator is ON, Motor rotates and sensor LED
Flickers.

5) Connect the oscilloscope to banana socket.

Connection details – Black - OV Ground.

- Red - Pulse O/P.

6) Observe the pulses on CRO

7) Slowly increase the motor speed.

8) Repeat step ‘ 7 ’ till full speed i.e.1500 RPM ( Pot to most clockwise )

9) Reduce the speed to min speed.

Note : Encoder generates 40 pulses/revolution.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SPEED MEASUREMENT SIGNAL CONDITIONIING CKT.

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

Sr.No. Actual Tachometer Calculated Speed Error in %

Speed Speed
(in RPM)
Indicated
(in RPM)
(in RPM)

1.
 2.

3.

4.

5.

Graph:

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO.9

Flow measurement using Rotameter.

Aim: Flow measurement using Rotameter.

Apparatus: Flow measurement system, Power supply.

Theory:

Quantitative measurement of flow rates & mass flow of gasses & liquid is important in ,many
fields of engineering, especially process control. The type of fluid &its properties are the
major factors which dictate the method of measurement suitable for the purpose.

Classification of flow meters:

1) Quantity
2) Rate of flow
A quantity meter is defined as one in which fluid passing through a primary element is
accurately quantified in terms of the weight or a volume of the fluid. Examples are the
positive displacement meters, reciprocating piston, nutating discs,etc.

By contrast, the rate of flow meter can be defined as one in which the fluid passes
through the primary element in a continuous stream. The movement of the fluid has an
effect on the primary element according to some physical load, known or unknown & as a
result, the quantity of flow per unit time is defined. In practice the relationship
between the flow rate & signal obtained is always an empirical one established for the
type of device from experience and calibration. Examples include the oriface plate,
turbine and electromagnetic flow meter.

The three most important factors which form the basis for the type of device
applicable either for flow measurement or for flow metering are repeatability &
accuracy.

Flow meters can be classified under the following types, depending on the physical
principles of operations as well as the characteristics.

1) Head-type flowmeter based on differential pressure measurements

a) orifice plate b) venturi tube c) flow nozzle
d) pitot tube

2) Electromagnetic-flowmeters
3) Rotameters (variable area meter)
4) Mechanical flow meters a) +ve displacement b) turbine
5) Anemometer
6) Ultrasonic flow meter
 7) Vortex-flow meter
ROTAMETER:

A rotameter consists of a vertical tube with a tapered cone in which a

float assumes a vertical portionb corresponding to each flow rate through tube. The3
conical tube is made of glass, stainlesssteel, monel or special plastics. The rotameters are
sometimes referred as constant pressure drop, variable area or variable aperture meters.

Dia:

The variable area meter is analyzed as follows. Consider the forces acting on the
float in the vertical column of liquid, as shown in fig. These are:

a) The effective weight W acting on the float

W = VF(ρ2-ρ1) ………………(1)

Where VF=Volume of the float, ρ1=density of the liquid, ρ2= material density of the float.

b)Force Fd acting in a downward direction on the upper surface of the float.

Fd = P2AF ………………..(2)

Where P2 = Pressure per unit area on the upper surface of the float,

AF = Surface area of the float

C) The force Fu acting upwards on the lower surface of the float,

FU = P1AF ………………..(3)

d) A drag force D tending to pull the float in an upward direction ( in the direction of
the flow). The value of this force depends on the float design & the conditions of
the fluid flow.
The force may be represented by an equation of the form

D = K.V.KFLFη ………………………….(4)

Where K= a constant, V = velocity of the fluid, Lf = a dimensional function equivalent to

length , η = absolute viscosity of the fluid .

Under equilibrium, neglecting viscous drag effects,

Fu +D = W + Fd ……………………..(5)

If the viscous drag force effects are neglected, D = 0, &

 P1AF = VF(ρ2 –ρ1) +P2AF …………………….(6)

When the flow increases from an equilibrium value, an increased differential pressure

(P1 - P2) results & the ratio P1/ P2 increases which means that the force P1A F is greater
than [VF( ρ2 - ρ1) + P2AF ]. Since the float is free, it will be moved in the direction of the
flow.

As it move upwards, it increases the orifice area due to the expanding sectional area of the
tube & the differential falls proportionately.

The operation continues until (P2 - P1) reaches the original value, when the forces as
indicated in equation(6) are in equilibrium again. The new float position is the measure of
the new flow rate. The operation is reversed when the flow rate decreases. From Eq., (6),

(P1 - P2 ) = VF / AF (ρ2 - ρ1) …………….(7)

Substituting this in eq.,(1)

Qv = cEA2 2g VF / AF ( ρ2 - ρ1 )/ρ1 ………(8)

Where A2 is the area between the float & the tube. If the displacement of the float .

dx = d1( 1 + 2x / di tanθ/2) ……………………..(9)

Where dx = tube diameter at a distance x from the inlet of the tube, &

d1 = diameter of the float.

Equation (8) can be rewritten as

Qv = KcxE 2g VF/AF ( ρ2 - ρ1 )/ρ1 ……………..(10)

Where K = A2/x is a proportionality constant.

In rotameters, the velocity approach factor E is of no significance. Hence,

Qv = Kcx 2g VF/AF ( ρ2 - ρ1 )/ρ1 ……………..(11)

If it is desired to obtain the mass flow Qm in gravimetric units (kg/s) instead of volume
flow, equation can be rewritten as,

Qv = Kcx ρ1 2g VF/AF ( ρ2 - ρ1 )/ρ1 ……………..(12)

Observation Table:

Sr. Theoretical Value Practical Value

No.

Graph: Plot of graph theoretical value against practical value.

Result:
 EXPERIMENT NO.10

HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT
AIM: To study measurement of Relative Humidity , its principle of operation &
characteristics.

APPRATUS:

a) Humidity Trainer kit.

b) 230 V AC 1Ø, 50 Hz mains supply.

THEORY:

Psychrometers

In a psychrometer, there are two thermometers, one with a dry bulb and one with a wet
bulb. Evaporation from the wet bulb lowers the temperature, so that the wet-bulb
thermometer usually shows a lower temperature than that of the dry-bulb thermometer,
which measures dry-bulb temperature. When the air temperature is below freezing,
however, the wet bulb is covered with a thin coating of ice and yet may be warmer than
the dry bulb. Relative humidity is computed from the ambient temperature as shown by
the dry-bulb thermometer and the difference in temperatures as shown by the wet-bulb
and dry-bulb thermometers. Relative humidity can also be determined by locating the
intersection of the wet- and dry-bulb temperatures on a psychrometric chart. One device
that uses the wet/dry bulb method is the sling psychrometer, where the thermometers
are attached to a handle or length of rope and spun around in the air for a few minutes
Psychrometer calibration
Accurate calibration of the thermometers used is of course fundamental to precise
humidity determination by the wet-dry method; it is also important for the most accurate
results to protect the thermometers from radiant heat and ensure a sufficiently high
speed of airflow over the wet bulb. One of the most precise types of wet-dry bulb
psychrometer was invented in the late 19th century by Adolph Richard Aßmann (1845-
1918); .” In this device, each thermometer is suspended within a vertical tube of polished
metal, and that tube is in turn suspended within a second metal tube of slightly larger
diameter; these double tubes serve to isolate the thermometers from radiant heating. Air
is drawn through the tubes with a fan that is driven by a clockwork
Difficulty of accurate humidity measurement
Humidity measurement is among the more difficult problems in basic meteorology.
According to the WMO Guide, “The achievable accuracies [for humidity determination]
listed in the table refer to good quality instruments that are well operated and
maintained. In practice, these are not easy to achieve.” Two thermometers can be
compared by immersing them both in an insulated vessel of water and stirring
vigorously to minimize temperature variations. A high-quality liquid-in-glass
thermometer if handled with care should remain stable for some years. Hygrometers
must be calibrated in air, which is a much less effective heat transfer medium than is
water, and many types are subject to drif t so need regular recalibration. A further
difficulty is that most hygrometers sense relative humidity rather than the absolute
amount of water present, but relative humidity is a function of both temperature and
absolute moisture content, so small temperature variations within the air in a test
chamber will translate into relative humidity variations.
Hair tension hygrometers
Other types of hygrometers are also commonly used to determine the ambient humidity.
Such devices frequently use a human or animal hair under tension. The traditional folk
art device known as a “weather house” works on this principle. In order to see changes
that occur over time, several hygrometers record the value of humidity on a piece of
graduated paper so that the values can be read off the chart. This can be done by
placing on a surface and an instant reading will be given
Electronic hygrometer
Dewpoint is the temperature at which a sample of moist air (or any other water vapor)
at constant pressure reaches water vapor saturation. At this saturation temperature,
further cooling results in condensation of water. “Cooled mirror dewpoint hygrometers”
are the most precise instruments available. They use a chilled mirror and optoelectronic
mechanism to detect condensation on the mirror surface. The temperature of the mirror
is controlled by electronic feedback to maintain a dynamic equilibrium between
evaporation and condensation on the mirror, thus closely measuring the dewpoint
temperature.
Modern instruments use electronic means of recording the information. The two most
common electronic sensors are capacitive or resistive. The capacitive sensors sense
water by applying an AC signal between two plates and measuring the change in
capacitance caused by the amount of water present. The resistive sensors use a
polymer membrane which changes conductivity according to absorbed water. Recently,
an unbalanced AC Bridge approach[6] was adapted for low power/energy operation and
has shown to provide better measurement performance over a wide operating range. To
further increase accuracy in this same device, which combines a sensor in data logging
instrument, a calibration method utilizing a large memory array was developed to
maximize performance. In most instruments, resistive sensors can be read by common
meters or data acquisition boards. Temperature must also be measured, as it affects the
calibration of all these sensors.
 Applications
Besides greenhouses and industrial spaces, cotton Industry , hygrometers are also used
in some saunas, humidors and museums. In residential settings, hygrometers are used
to aid humidity control (too low humidity damages human skin and body, while too high
humidity favours growth of mildew and dust mite). The sling or motorized psychrometer
is used in meteorology, and in the HVAC industry for proper refrigerant charging of
residential and commercial air conditioning systems.

Psychrometers are also used in the coating industry. The application of paint is very
sensitive to humidity and dew point. With a growing demand on the amount of
measurements taken the psychrometer is now replaced by a dewpoint gauge known as
a Dewcheck. These devices make measurements a lot faster but are often not allowed
in explosive environments.
Procedure :

a) Fill wet bulb plastic container with water.

1. Dip the cotton wick in water and place on the mercury bulb of wet bulb
thermometer. Dip the other end of cotton wick in the water container.
Place Hygrometer at place where humidity is to be measure.
2. Put the Humidity sensor in chamber . Connect the sensor to display
unit. Make power on to the unit.

1. Make Air Blower on.

2. Do not pass water drops in air blower ( Keep Knob closed)
3. a) Wait for 2 - 3 minutes. And note Dry bulb and Wet bulb temperature D1 and W1
b) Also note the humidity as displayed on the unit.

4. Adjust water drops slowly ( say 2 drops in 1 second )

Wait for 2 - 3 minutes. And note Dry bulb and Wet bulb temperature D2 and W2
Also note the humidity as displayed on the unit.

5. Increase water drops slowly ( say 5 drops in 1 second )

Wait for 2 - 3 minutes. And note Dry bulb and Wet bulb temperature D3 and W3
OBSERVATION TABLE :-

S.No. Dry Bulb Temp. Wet Bulb Temp. Depression Humidity Humidity
0 0
D C W C ( W- D ) (from chart) ( As displayed
on the unit )

Calculation :

Suppose the two readings from the hygrometer are:

Dry bulb temperature : 15

degrees Wet-bulb
temperature: 10 degrees
The wet-bulb depression is: 15 - 10 = 5 degrees

From the chart, reading down from the wet-bulb depression (5) and across from the
dry-bulb temperature (15), the relative humidity is 49%.

Graph:

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO.11

CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT
AIM: To study measurement of Conductivity meter , its principle of operation &
characteristics.

APPRATUS:

a) Conductivity Trainer

b) Conductivity Cell

THEORY:

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A Conductivity cell in a measuring solutions is placed in the inverting input path of an
‘Operational Amplifier‘. When AC voltage of constant amplitude and suitable frequency
is applied to the system then for a given feed back resistance Rf the output eo is linearly
proportional to the solution I .e. gi. The conductance value is normally required to be
multiplied by the cell constant to convert into Conductivity unless provision already
exists in the instrument to compensate for the same. This provision is made in the next
part of the amplifier after conditioning is displayed on a 3½ digit display, this indicate
directly, the Conductivity of solution under measurement referred to the reference
measurement i.e. 250 C
INTRODUCTION
Digital Conductivity meter is a solid state instrument design to provide the precise
conductivity measurement. The instrument is ideal for monitoring salt contents in natural
water, Drinking water, Treated water, Waste water, Brine water, Sea water and soluble
salt in solids. A multi-position selector switch quickly sets the digital display to the
desired test range. The LED display is easy to read even in the dark. The uses of the
solid state IC circuitry makes the model versatile and is used in various lab applications
like soil analysis laboratories, swimming pools, water quality control in boiler feed water,
water works departments, fertilizer planets, petroleum refineries, transport undertakings,
breweries, textile plants, rayon &silk mills etc.
TECHINICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Range ; 200 µMhos/cm to 1000 mMhos/cm in 5 ranges., Accuracy ; + 0.3% F.S. 200
µMhos to 200 mMhos/cm, + 1% F.S 1000 Mhos/cm., Resolution ; 0.1Mhos µMhos/cm.
,Measuring Frequency ; 1000 Hz ,Temp. Compensation ; 0 to 50o c ,Cell Compensation ;
0.2 to 1.6 adjustable., Function selector ; CHECK/ COND/ CELL CONST. Digital
Display ; 3½ digit LED display.,Power Supply ; 220V + 10% 50Hz AC.,Dimensions ; L
275 x B 175 x H 75 mm., Weight ; 2kg.

CALIBRATION OF THE INSTRUMENT

1. Dip the sensor in standard solution of known conductivity at 25oc
2. Select the RANGE switch to the range of standard solution.
3. Switch the FUNCTION SWITCH to the CHECK Position and see that display
reads 1.000.
4. If not adjust display reading to 1.000 by CAL at the back of the instrument.
5. Select the function switch to Conductivity position and set the display to the
Conductivity of known solution by means of the CELL CNSTANT control.
6. Check the cell constant value mark new cell constant . if it does not match the
value on the Conductivity cell.
7. The instrument is calibrated & is ready to determine the Conductivity of unknown
solution.
Procedure:
CONDUCTIVIY MEASUREMENTS
1. Rinse the cell with solution whose Conductivity is to be measured .
2. Dip the Conductivity cell in the solution under test.
3. Set the FUNCTION SWITCH to check position .
4. Display must read 1.000, if not set it with cal control at the back panel
5. Set the cell constant control to the cell constant value of the conductivity cell
6. Set the FUNCTION switch to cond. Position
7. Connect the conductivity cell at the rear of the instrument
8. Set the temp control to the actual temperature of the solution under test
9. Bring the range switch at a position where maximum resolution is obtained
10. Red the display which shows conductivity at 25°c

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

Graph:

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO.12

MAGNETIC FLUX MEASUREMENT BY HALL SENSOR

AIM: To study the Hall sensors, it’s characteristics & magnetic flux measurement.

APPRATUS:

1) Magnetic flux measurement Trainer.

2) Hall Sensor.

3) Solenoid coils : Standard and Test coils.

THEORY:

STUDY OF HALL EFFECT SENSOR

A beam of electrons in a vacuum can be deflected by a magnetic field. Do you

suppose the drifting conduction electrons in a copper wire can also be
deflected by a magnetic field? In 1879, Edwin H. Hall, then 24 year old
graduate student of Henry A. Rowland at the John Hopkins University, showed
that they can. This Hall effect allows us to find out whether the charged
carrier in conductor carry a positive or negative charge. Beyond that we can
measure the number of such carriers per unit volume of the conductor. Most
important is the investigation and measurement of

magnetic field intensity around current carrying conductors.

Principal of Operation: The quiescent output voltage [ B = 0 mT ] is normally

one half the supply voltage. When a south magnetic pole presented to be
branded face of the Hall effect sensor, it will drive the output higher than
quiescent voltage and North magnetic pole will drive the output below quiescent
voltage. In operation, instantaneous and proportional output voltage levels are
dependent on magnetic flux density at the most sensitive area of the device.
Greatest sensitivity is obtained with supply voltage 6V, but at the cost of
increased supply current a slight loss of output symmetry. The sensor output is
capacitive coupled to an amplifier that boosts the output above the mV level.
Block Diagram of Hall effect Sensor :

Pin out : 1 Power supply 2 Ground 3 Output

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not drop, Do not tamper with probe as it is very delicate.

2. Do not keep the probe inside heated solenoid coil.
3. Avoid solenoid heating and allow the current to be passed on only while
measurement.
4. Do not short the terminals of excitation source.
5. Operate the potentiometers in gentle fashion.
6. Store the probe, solenoid and the instruments carefully.

CALIBRATION:

1. Connect the 5 pin am phenol sensor cable to the socket marked “sensor”
on the main panel.
2. Keep solenoid current source pot P1 to the most anticlockwise i.e.
minimum position.
3. Switch ON the mains power supply and Wait for warm up time of about 5
to 10 minutes
4. Set the magnetic field density display to 00.0 by adjusting zero pot P2.
5. Connect the coil marked “standard” for calibration of the set up, to the
excitation terminals on the front panel.
The Standard coil has the following data

Turns N = 1600. Length of the coil L =19.2 cms. and Resistance R=27.3
ohms.

We have, B = 4 π ( N / L ) A

B = 4 x 3.14 x 10-7 x (1600 / 0.192 ) x 0.4

= 12.56 x 10-3 x 0.8333 x 0.4

 B = 4.14 milli-tesla

Hence exciting solenoid coil with 400 mA current, the magnetic flux
developed B is 4.1 mT.

6. Adjust the standard solenoid coil current to 400 mA by adjusting pot P1

7. Insert the sensor inside the solenoid around centre point where max flux
density is observed.
8. Adjust flux density indication to 4.1 mT on DPM with adjusting Max pot
P3.
9. Adjust the current to 200mA, observe the flux density displaying 2.0
mT. Please note that the B is directly proportional to the excitation
current in the coil.
10. The set up is ready calibrated for flux density measurement. Now do not
disturb the MIN pot P2 and MAX pot P3.

PROCEDURE:-
1. Remove the standard solenoid from the excitation terminals.
2. Note : keeping the excitation current passing through the coil
continuously, may
damage the coil or the excitation source permanently

3. Connect the coil marked “ Coil under Test ” to the excitation terminals
on the front panel. calculate value of B for current excitation of 400 ma.
4. Adjust the coil current to 400 mA by adjusting pot P1.
5. If required, adjust the flux density display to 0.00 by pot P2. Do not
disturb pot P3.
6. Insert the sensor inside the solenoid around centre point where max flux
density is observed.
7. Observe the flux density displayed and is matching with the calculated
one.
8. Adjust the current to 200mA, observe the flux density displayed is half
of the density at 400mA.
9. Calculate value of B for different mA and check for the flux density
displayed on the DPM..

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

Sr.No. Current in mA Magnetic flux in mTesla

 Measured on By calculation

Digital display

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

CALCULATION:

B = 4 π( N / L ) I

A ) Coil under test : Coil no.1

L=30 cm, N=1640, I= 269mA

We have, B = 4 π ( N / L ) I

B = 4 x 3.14 x 10-7 x (1640 / 0.3 ) x 0.269

B = 1.85 mT

Now adjust MAX pot P3 to get an indication of 1.8 on the left hand side
of the DPM

And change the value of current and check for the value of B indicated
and calculated.

Do not disturb the ZERO ADJUST pot.

B) Coil under test : coil no.2

Ensure zero & do not disturb MAX pot .

L=0.20cm , N=1040 , I= 405mA

B= 2.65 mT

You must get an indication of 2.65 or 2.85.

You can again check for other values of current.

Please note that above formulae are true for air core inductors only.
GRAPH:

CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 13

LEVEL MEASUREMENT

AIM: To study the Level Measurement using Ultrasonic level sensors

it’s characteristics

APPRATUS:

THEORY:

Ultrasonic level sensors are used for non-contact level sensing of highly
viscous liquids, as well as bulk solids. They are also widely used in water treatment
applications for pump control and open channel flow measurement. The sensors
emit high frequency (20 kHz to 200 kHz) acoustic waves that are reflected back
to and detected by the emitting transducer. Ultrasonic level sensors are also
affected by the changing speed of sound due to moisture, temperature, and
pressures. Correction factors can be applied to the level measurement to improve
the accuracy of measurement. Turbulence, foam, steam, chemical mists (vapors),
and changes in the concentration of the process material also affect the
ultrasonic sensor’s response. Turbulence and foam prevent the sound wave from
being properly reflected to the sensor; steam and chemical mists and vapors
distort or absorb the sound wave; and variations in concentration cause changes in
the amount of energy in the sound wave that is reflected back to the sensor.
Stilling wells and wave guides are used to prevent errors caused by these factors.
The working principle of a typical Ultrasonic level sensor is illustrated in the figure
below. In this design, the level sensor is located at the top of the tank in such a
way that it sends out the sound waves in the form of bursts in downward direction
to the fluid in the tank under level measurement. As soon as the directed sound
waves hits the surface of the fluid, sound echoes gets reflected and returned back
to the sensor.
Ultrasonic level
sensor

Ultrasonic pulse
beam
23456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
Level Tank
123456789012345678901234
123456789012345678901234
 Level Measurement using Ultrasonic level sensors

Short points A & B

+ Ultrasonic level for displaying level in cm
12 Volt sensor on indicator
DC Supply
_ 4 - 20 mA output
_ +
+ V+
mA _
_ _ A1
+
+
A B V-
4 - 20 mA
sensor
output R1

P1 ZERO
ADJUST
GAIN
V+ θ V- Ra
θ ADJUST
R3 P2
Ra V+
V+ _
_
Ra A3
R2 A2 + Vout2
+ VOUT1 V-
V- θ
Ra
+5V P3
Reference

R1 = 250 ohm R2 = 10 K R3 = 10 K
P1 = 5 K Pot P2 = 1K Pot P3 = 5 K Pot
A1 , A2,A3 = LM 324 Ra = 10K
V + = + 12 Volt V- = - 12 Volt
A3 : As the output is in reverse form, it is to be subtracted to get actual level in cm
P3 : Set for 3 V , to get level for 2 meter tank.
PROCEDURE :

1) Connect the sensor to display unit. Make power on to the unit.

2) Callibration :

Add water in process tank till scale reading is zero.

Adjust ZERO ADJUST potmeter for zero reading on display.

Add water in process tank upto 200 cm level and observe the display

reading.If it is not showing 200 cm , adjust GAIN ADJUST potmeter to get

proper reading on display.

REFERENCE pot meter is to be adjusted for required tank level. For example , if

tank level is 5 meter , set it for 5 .0 volt reference OR for tank level of 2 meter

set it for 3.0 volt)

3) Measurement :
Slowly add the water in process tank in proper steps and every time note the
display reading. Also measure the output current .
Repeat the step 3 for discharging the tank from maximum to zero in proper
steps and note the output current and display reading.
OBSERVATION TABLE :-

S.No. Water level Display Output Cur-

(cm) Reading rent ( mA)

Graph:
Plot the graph of input level (X-axis) against output (cm).
 EXPERIMENT NO. : 12

MEASUREMENT OF SPEED

AIM: To Measure Speed Non -Contact Type Tachometer

APPRATUS: Speed measurement Trainer kit, Contact Type Tachometer, CRO etc.

CALCULATION OF THE SPEED : To verify the actual speed of the motor and speed
shown on display, speed calculation from CRO waveform is done as follows:

1. The wheel whose speed of rotation is under measurement has 8 slots.Thus

for one revolution the wheel gives 8 pulses
2. Take the CRO, connect it’s –ve probe at TP6 and +ve probe at TP4. At this
point you will get a square wave whose frequency depends upon the speed
of motor.
3. SPEED = ( 60 / Time required for 8 pulses) RPM.
4. Time required for 8 pulses = no. of divisions for 8 pulses * time scale

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Don’t disturb or touch the flanged wheel fixed to the shaft of the motor.
2. Don’t remove the aluminium foil which is attached to the teeth of the
wheel because if you remove the foil then the photoreflective pick-up
transducer will not work properly.

CALIBRATION: Make the power on by using the PON switch on kit.

Zero Adjustment: Rotate the speed varying pot in anti clockwise direction so that
the motor stops rotating, and read the display reading. Display should show 0000
RPM. If not then adjust ZERO pot so that display shows 0000 RPM.
Span Adjustment: Now rotate the speed variation pot in clock wise direction so
thet the motor comes in the range of 1800 to 1900 RPM.Measure the actual
speed of the motor using CRO.If reading on display does not equal actual speed
then adjust SPAN pot so that display equals calculated reading.

Repeat the above steps two to three times.

PROCEDURE: After successful completion of zero and span adjustment:

1. Adjust the speed pot such the the speed of the motor is low.
2. Calculate the speed of motor using equation given above and enter in the
observation table.
3. Read the display reading and enter in the observation table.
4. Increase the speed of the motor by using the speed variation pots in the
steps of 100 RPM.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SPEED MEASUREMENT SIGNAL
CONDITIONIING CKT.

MAGNETICPIC COMPARAT
K UP X’DUCER OR 2

SELECTOR
SWITCH

1 P/ 2 W
MOTOR

PHOTOREFLECTI COMPARAT
VE X’DUCER OR 1

MONOSTABLE AVERAGER AMPLIFIER

DISPLAY
MULTIVIBRATOR
OBSERVATION TABLE :-

Sr.No. Calculated speed Observed speed

(RPM)
(RPM)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.