Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Behavior is everything that can be registered by an observer. (includes overt actions)

Mental processes cannot be observed directly, hence we observe the effect that these
mental processes have on one’s behavior.

Quantitative research:
- Operates with variables
- Other definition: “the systematic investigation of data”

1. Experimental studies:
- Includes one IV (the one that is manipulated), one DV (expected to change as the IV
changes), other controlled variables.

2. Correlational studies:
- No variables are manipulated.
- Variables and the relationship between them is simply measured.

3. Descriptive studies:
- Variables aren’t investigated.
- They are approached separately.

Qualitative research:
- Focuses on in-depth study of a particular phenomenon.
- Which means, it goes beyond what we can objectively measure and focuses on constructs.

It involves a number of data collection techniques:

1. Group interviews
2. Observation
3. Focus groups
4. Interviews (Structured, semi-structured and unstructured)
5. Content analysis
6. Case studies

Laboratory vs Naturalistic observation:

- Naturalistic observation:
It is carried out in a natural setting (A place that hasn’t been arranged for purpose of study)
- Observation could be overt or covert.
- Overt: Participants are aware that they are being observed.
- Covert: Researcher does not inform members of group about his/ her presence.
- Covert observation avoids participant bias (subjects don’t know they are being observed
hence act naturally).

How to avoid making your covert research unethical?

- Inform members about research after observation session and ask for their consent prior
to using the data recorded.
Participant observation:
- Researcher becomes part of observed group.
- This allows researcher to gain firsthand experience
- It is possible that the researcher might lose objectivity of research and may get too
involved with the group.

Structured vs unstructured observation:

- Structured observations are systematical and often involve a checklist of behaviors which
the researcher is interested in observing.
- Unstructured observations involve the researcher registering whatever points they think
are noteworthy

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Credibility: How believable are the
conclusions of this research.
Transferability: The degree to which the
research findings can be applied in other
contexts/ settings.
Dependability: When the researcher has
described all factors that contributed to the
findings.
Conformability: Implying that all
information has been taken from
participants and that the researcher hasn’t
invented it themselves.
Internal Validity: Means that the variables
defined are correct.
Generalizability/ External validity: The
extent to which the conclusions can be
applied to different settings of the sample.
Reliability: Repeated use of same
instruments and finding same results.
Objectivity: Means that all sources of bias
are minimized, and personal ideas are
eliminated

How to ensure credibility of qualitative research?

- Can be done through triangulation (cross check)

Sampling:
- Process of recruiting individuals for a study.
- Types in qualitative research:
1. Purposive sampling:
- Targets a particular group of people based on the aim of the research and their prior
knowledge about the topic.
- It guarantees that the individuals chosen are somehow related to the research.
- Though it is vulnerable to error in judgment by researcher.

2. Snowball sampling:
- Research participants recruit other participants for study.
- It allows studies to occur where there is lack of participants.
- Usually impossible to determine the sampling error.
3. Convenience sampling:
- When participants comprise of people who are easy to reach out to.
- It is relatively easy to get a sample.
- Possibility of under or over representation of the population.