TRAVERSE

DEFINITION OF TERMS
TRAVERSE – A SERIES OF LINES CONNECTING SUCCESSIVE POINTS WHOSE LENGTHS AND
DIRECTIONS HAVE BEEN DETERMINED FROM FIELD MEASUREMENTS
TRAVERSING – PROCESS OF MEASURING THE LENGTHS AND DIRECTIONS OF THE LINES OF
TRAVERSE FOR THE PURPOSE OF LOCATING THE POSITION OF CERTAIN POINTS
TRAVERSE STATION – ANY TEMPORARY OR PERMANENT POINT OF REFERENCE OVER WHICH
THE INSTRUMENT IS SET UP
TRAVERSE LINES – LINES CONNECTING TRAVERSE STATIONS AND WHOSE LENGTHS AND
DIRECTIONS ARE DETERMINED
A TRAVERSE IS CURRENTLY THE MOST COMMON OF SEVERAL POSSIBLE METHODS FOR
ESTABLISHING A SERIES OR NETWORK OF MONUMENTS WITH KNOWN POSITIONS ON THE
GROUND. SUCH MONUMENTS ARE REFERRED TO AS HORIZONTAL CONTROL POINTS AND
COLLECTIVELY, THEY COMPRISE THE HORIZONTAL CONTROL FOR THE PROJECT.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRAVERSE
OPEN TRAVERSE
CONSISTS OF A SERIES OF LINES OF KNOWN LENGTHS AND BEARINGS WHICH ARE CONTINUOUS BUT
DO NOT RETURN TO THE STARTING POINT OR CLOSE UPON A POINT OF KNOWN POSITION.
CLOSED TRAVERSE
CONSISTS OF A SERIES LINES OF KNOWN LENGTHS AND BEARINGS WHICH FORMS A CLOSED LOOP
(LOOP TRAVERSES), OR BEGIN AND END AT POINTS WHOSE POSITIONS HAVE BEEN FIXED BY OTHER
SURVEYS OF HIGHER POSITION (CONNECTING TRAVERSES).

OBSERVATION OF TRAVERSE ANGLES OR DIRECTIONS

 TRAVERSING BY INTERIOR ANGLES
 TRAVERSING BY ANGLES TO THE RIGHT
 TRAVERSING BY DEFLECTION ANGLES
 TRAVERSING BY BEARINGS
  TRAVERSING BY AZIMUTHS
FIELD WORK
THE POSITIONS OF CONTROL TRAVERSE STATIONS ARE CHOSEN SO THAT THEY ARE AS CLOSE AS
POSSIBLE TO THE FEATURES OR OBJECTS TO BE LOCATED, WITHOUT UNDULY INCREASING THE WORK
OF MEASURING THE TRAVERSE. ESTABLISHING TOO MANY POINTS WILL INCREASE THE TIME AND
COST OF THE SURVEY, BUT TOO FEW POINTS MAY NOT PROVIDE SUFFICIENT CONTROL FOR THE
PROJECT; THE JUDGMENT OF AN EXPERIENCED SURVEYOR IS NECESSARY WHEN ESTABLISHING
TRAVERSE STATIONS.
TRAVERSE CORRECTIONS
 DEFLECTION ANGLE TRAVERSE
 INTERIOR ANGLE TRAVERSE
 OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE
 CLOSE COMPASS TRAVERSE
- COMPASS RULE
- TRANSIT RULE
DEFLECTION ANGLE TRAVERSE
Ed = Σδ - 360°
ed = ± Ed/n
δcorrected = δ + ed

WHERE:

Ed = TOTAL ANGULAR ERROR

ed = ANGULAR CORRECTION
n = NUMBER OF ANGLES
δ = DEFLECTION ANGLE (TO THE RIGHT: +, TO THE LEFT: - )
δcorrected = CORRECTED DEFLECTION ANGLE
INTERIOR ANGLE TRAVERSE
Ei = Σγ – [(n-2)180°]
ei = ± Ei /n
γcorrected = γ + ei

WHERE:

Ei = TOTAL ANGULAR ERROR

ei = ANGULAR CORRECTION
n = NUMBER OF ANGLES
γ = INTERIOR ANGLE
γcorrected = CORRECTED INTERIOR ANGLE
EXAMPLE
A FOUR-SIDED LOT WAS SURVEYED WHEREIN THE SURVEYOR USED THE SIDE AB AS THE ASSUMED
NORTH. DATA GATHERED DURING FIELDWORK ARE AS FOLLOWS:
δA = 91D 10M (R)
δB = 87D 07M (R)
δC = 90D 00M (R)
δD = 91D 03M (R)
SKETCH THE FOUR-SIDED LOT AND CHECK WHETHER THERE IS A TRAVERSE CORRECTION OR NOT.
ANSWER: Ed = -40M; ed = +10M
AN IRREGULAR PENTAGONAL LAND AREA WAS SURVEYED WITH TRAVERSE STATIONS LABELED A TO
E, WITH DETERMINED INTERIOR ANGLES AS 92°11’, 132°12’, 87°05’, 123°51’, AND 107°41’,
RESPECTIVELY. SKETCH AND DETERMINE THE TRAVERSE CORRECTIONS FOR THE LAND AREA.
ANSWER: EI = +3D; eI = -36M
TYPES OF COMPASS SURVEYS
 OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE
AN OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE CONSISTS OF A SERIES OF LINES OF KNOWN LENGTHS AND MAGNETIC
BEARINGS WHICH ARE CONTINUOUS BUT DO NOT RETURN TO THE STARTING POINT OR CLOSE UPON
A POINT OF KNOWN POSITION. TO DETECT LOCAL ATTRACTION, BOTH FORWARD AND BACK
BEARINGS SHOULD BE TAKEN ON ALL LINES. THE LENGTH OF EACH LINE SHOULD BE MEASURED TWICE
AND THE MEAN RECORDED AS THE LENGTH.
 CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE
A CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE CONSISTS OF A SERIES OF LINES OF KNOWN LENGTHS AND MAGNETIC
BEARINGS WHICH FORMS A CLOSED LOOP (LOOP TRAVERSES), OR BEGIN AND END AT POINTS WHOSE
POSITIONS HAVE BEEN FIXED BY OTHER SURVEYS OF HIGHER POSITION (CONNECTING TRAVERSES). IT
IS CUSTOMARY TO START AT SOME CONVENIENT CORNER WHEN MAKING A SURVEY ENCLOSING AN
AREA, AND TO TAKE BEARINGS AND MEASURE DISTANCES IN A PARTICULAR ORDER AROUND THE
FIELD.
ADJUSTMENT OF OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE
IN A COMPASS TRAVERSE THERE ARE LIKELY TO BE DISCREPANCIES BETWEEN THE OBSERVED
FORWARD AND BACK BEARINGS OF LINES DUE TO ERROR IN OBSERVATIONS OR LOCAL ATTRACTION.
WHEN ADJUSTING AN OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE, THERE ARE TWO IMPORTANT STEPS TO PERFORM:
FIRST IS TO DETERMINE THE WHICH AMONG THE TRAVERSE LINES IS FREE FROM LOCAL ATTRACTION,
AND SECOND IS TO PERFORM THE ADJUSTMENT OF SUCCESSIVE LINES BY STARTING FROM EITHER
END OF THE SELECTED LINE.
ADJUSTMENT OF CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE
THE ADJUSTMENT OF A CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE IS SIMILAR TO THE ADJUSTMENT OF AN OPEN
COMPASS TRAVERSE EXCEPT THAT IN A CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE THE EFFECTS OF
OBSERVATIONAL ERRORS ARE CONSIDERED. THE FOLLOWING ARE THREE IMPORTANT STEPS
PERFORMED DURING ADJUSTMENT:
STEP 1: COMPUTING AND ADJUSTING THE INTERIOR ANGLES
STEP 2: SELECTING THE BEST LINE THAT IS UNAFFECTED BY LOCAL ATTRACTION
STEP 3: ADJUSTING THE OBSERVED BEARINGS OF SUCCESSIVE LINES
TRAVERSE (PART 2)
LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE
IN THE PREVIOUS LESSON, WE SPOKE OF THE NEED FOR THE SURVEYOR TO CHECK THE
SURVEY MEASUREMENTS TO ENSURE THAT THE REQUIRED ACCURACIES WERE ACHIEVED
AND TO ENSURE THAT MISTAKES WERE ELIMINATED. CHECKING CAN CONSIST OF REPEATING
THE MEASUREMENTS IN THE FIELD, AND/OR CHECKING CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED USING
MATHEMATICAL TECHNIQUES. ONE SUCH MATHEMATICAL TECHNIQUE INVOLVES THE
COMPUTATION AND ANALYSIS OF LATITUDES AND DEPARTURES.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
LATITUDE
IT IS THE NORTH/SOUTH RECTANGULAR COMPONENT OF A LINE. IT IS EITHER ALSO CALLED NORTHING
OR SOUTHING.
(+ FOR NORTH, - FOR SOUTH)
DEPARTURE
IT IS THE EAST/WEST RECTANGULAR COMPONENT OF A LINE. IT IS EITHER ALSO CALLED AS EASTING
OR WESTING.
(+ FOR EAST, - FOR WEST)
PRINCIPLE OF TRAVERSING
CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING STATEMENT:
“If you start at one corner of a closed traverse and walk its lines
until you return to your starting point, you will have walked as
far north as you walked south and as far east as you have
walked west”
THEREFORE, THE CONDITION FOR A CLOSED TRAVERSE IS:
Σ latitudes = 0 and Σ departures = 0
ERROR OF CLOSURE
THUS:
ERROR IN LATITUDE, EL = Σ latitudes
ERROR IN DEPATURE, ED = Σ departures

ERROR OF CLOSURE, 𝐸𝐶𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑈𝑅𝐸 = √𝐸𝐿 2 + 𝐸𝐷 2

𝐸𝐶𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑈𝑅𝐸
PRECISION = 𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐼𝑀𝐸𝑇𝐸𝑅

EXAMPLE
BASED ON THE PRELIMINARY AZIMUTHS AND LENGTHS TABULATED FROM TRAVERSE FIELD WORK,
CALCULATE THE LATITUDES AND DEPARTURES, LINEAR MISCLOSURE, AND RELATIVE PRECISION OF
THE TRAVERSE.

TRAVERSE ADJUSTMENT
FOR ANY CLOSED TRAVERSE, THE LINEAR MISCLOSURE MUST BE ADJUSTED (OR DISTRIBUTED)
THROUGHOUT THE TRAVERSE TO “CLOSE” OR “BALANCE” THE FIGURE. THIS IS TRUE EVEN
THOUGH THE MISCLOSURE IS NEGLIGIBLE IN PLOTTING THE TRAVERSE AT MAP SCALE. THERE
ARE SEVERAL ELEMENTARY METHODS AVAILABLE FOR TRAVERSE ADJUSTMENT. THESE
INCLUDE COMPASS RULE AND TRANSIT RULE.
COMPASS RULE
 ALSO KNOWN AS “BOWDITCH”
 THE “BOWDITCH RULE” WAS DEVISED BY NATHANIEL BOWDITCH, SURVEYOR, NAVIGATOR
AND MATHEMATICIAN, AS A PROPOSED SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM OF COMPASS TRAVERSE
ADJUSTMENT, WHICH WAS POSTED IN THE AMERICAN JOURNAL THE ANALYST IN 1807.
 THE COMPASS RULE ASSUMES THAT FIRST, ANGLES AND DISTANCES HAVE THE SAME ERROR
AND SECOND, ERRORS ARE ACCIDENTAL
THE COMPASS RULE STATES THAT:
“The error in latitude (departure) of a line is to the
total error in latitude (departure) as the length of the
 line is to the perimeter of the traverse”
THEREFORE:
𝑒𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐷 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
=
𝐸𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐷 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠
THEREFORE:
CORRECT LATITUDE = LATITUDE OF LINE ± 𝑒𝐿
CORRECT DEPARTURE = DEPARTURE OF LINE ± 𝑒𝐷
EXAMPLE
GIVEN IN THE ACCOMPANYING TABULATION ARE THE OBSERVED DATA FOR A TRAVERSE OBTAINED
FROM A TRANSIT-TAPE SURVEY. DETERMINE THE LATITUDES AND DEPARTURES OF EACH COURSE AND
BALANCE THESE QUANTITIES BY EMPLOYING THE COMPASS RULE. ALSO, DETERMINE THE LINEAR
ERROR OF CLOSURE, BEARING OF THE SIDE OF ERROR, AND THE RELATIVE ERROR OF CLOSURE.
TABULATE VALUES ACCORDINGLY.

COURSE LENGTH BEARING COURSE DISTANCE BEARING

AB 495.85 m N 05°30’ E DE 1,020.87 m S 12°25’ E

BC 850.62 N 46°02’ E EF 1,117.26 S 83°44’ W

CD 855.45 S 67°38’ E FA 660.08 N 55°09’W

ANSWER KEY

ERROR OF CLOSURE = 24.6875 m

BEARING OF THE SIDE OF ERROR = S 47°3’46” W

RELATIVE PRECISION = 1/200

COURSE ADJUSTED ADJUSTED COURSE ADJUSTED ADJUSTED

LENGTH BEARING LENGTH BEARING

AB 494.0206 m N 5°18’41” DE 1023.4389 S 12°10’25”

E m E

BC 846.4209 N 46°1’42” EF 1121.6894 S 83°33’54”

E W

CD 853.6940 S 67°22’33” FA 660.7771 N 55°25’34”

E W
TRANSIT RULE
 THE TRANSIT RULE IS ANOTHER METHOD OF ADJUSTING THE TRAVERSE SIMILAR TO THE
COMPASS RULE. THE MAIN DIFFERENCE IS THAT WITH THE TRANSIT RULE, THE LATITUDE AND
DEPARTURE CORRECTIONS DEPEND ON THE LENGTH OF THE LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE OF
THE COURSE RESPECTIVELY INSTEAD OF BOTH DEPENDING ON THE LENGTH OF THE COURSE.
 THE COMPASS RULE ASSUMES THAT ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS ARE MORE PRECISE THAN
THE LINEAR MEASUREMENTS AND THAT ERRORS IN TRAVERSING ARE ACCIDENTAL
THE TRANSIT RULE STATES THAT:
“The error in latitude (departure) of a line is to the
total error in latitude (departure) as the length of its latitude (departure)
line is to the arithmetical sum of all latitudes (departures) of the traverse”
THEREFORE:
𝑒𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐷 |𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 (𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)|
=
𝐸𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐷 |Σ 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 (𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)|
THEREFORE:
CORRECT LATITUDE = LATITUDE OF LINE ± 𝑒𝐿
CORRECT DEPARTURE = DEPARTURE OF LINE ± 𝑒𝐷
EXAMPLE
USING THE DATA FROM THE TABLE FOR COMPASS RULE EXAMPLE, BALANCE THE TRAVERSE BY USING
THE TRANSIT RULE. TABULATE VALUES ACCORDINGLY.

COURSE LENGTH BEARING COURSE DISTANCE BEARING

AB 495.85 m N 05°30’ E DE 1,020.87 m S 12°25’ E

BC 850.62 N 46°02’ E EF 1,117.26 S 83°44’ W

CD 855.45 S 67°38’ E FA 660.08 N 55°09’W

ANSWER KEY
ERROR OF CLOSURE = 24.6875 m
BEARING OF THE SIDE OF ERROR = S 47°3’46” W
RELATIVE PRECISION = 1/200

COURSE ADJUSTED ADJUSTED COURSE ADJUSTED ADJUSTED

LENGTH BEARING LENGTH BEARING

AB 492.9819 m N 5°30’07” E DE 1026.2512 m S 12°16’56” E

BC 845.8503 N 46°2’36” E EF 1123.3421 S 83°43’52” W

CD 852.1942 S 67°24’22” E FA 661.2598 N 55°27’04”

W

COMPASS RULE VS TRANSIT RULE

COURSE COMPASS RULE TRANSIT RULE

ADJUSTED ADJUSTED ADJUSTED ADJUSTED

LENGTH BEARING LENGTH BEARING

AB 494.0206 m N 5°18’41” E 492.9819 m N 5°30’07” E

BC 846.4209 N 46°1’42” E 845.8503 N 46°2’36” E

CD 853.6940 S 67°22’33” E 852.1942 S 67°24’22” E

DE 1023.4389 S 12°10’25” E 1026.2512 S 12°16’56” E

EF 1121.6894 S 83°33’54” W 1123.3421 S 83°43’52” W

FA 660.7771 N 55°25’34” W 661.2598 N 55°27’04” W

AREA OF A CLOSED TRAVERSE

DOUBLE MERIDIAN DISTANCE
 IS A METHOD OF CALCULATING THE AREA OF A CLOSED TRAVERSE
 THE MERIDIAN DISTANCE OF A LINE IS DEFINED AS THE SHORTEST DISTANCE FROM THE
MIDPOINT OF THE LINE TO THE REFERENCE MERIDIAN
 TO EASE THE PROBLEM OF SIGNS, A REFERENCE MERIDIAN IS USUALLY PLACED THROUGH THE
MOST WESTERLY TRAVERSE STATION
DOUBLE MERIDIAN DISTANCE METHOD
WHEN THE REFERENCE MERIDIAN IS TAKEN THROUGH THE MOST WESTERLY STATION OF A CLOSED
TRAVERSE AND CALCULATIONS OF THE DMDS ARE STARTED WITH A COURSE THROUGH THAT
STATION, THE DMD OF THE FIRST COURSE IS ITS DEPARTURE. APPLYING THESE RULES FOR THE
TRAVERSE IN THE FIGURE:
DMD of AB = departure of AB
DMD of BC = DMD of AB + departure of AB + departure of BC
THE AREA ENCLOSED BY TRAVERSE ABCDEA MAY BE EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF TRAPEZOID
AREAS (SHOWN BY DIFFERENT COLOR SHADINGS) AS
AREA = E’EDD’E’ + C’CDD’C’ - AB’BA - BB’CC’B - AEE’A
THE AREA OF EACH FIGURE EQUALS THE MERIDIAN DISTANCE OF A COURSE TIMES ITS
BALANCED LATITUDE.
FOR EXAMPLE, THE AREA OF TRAPEZOID C’CDD’C’ = Q’Q x C’D’, WHERE Q’Q AND C’D’ ARE THE
MERIDIAN DISTANCE AND LATITUDE, RESPECTIVELY.
THE DMD OF A COURSE MULTIPLIED BY ITS LATITUDE EQUALS DOUBLE THE AREA. THUS, THE
ALGEBRAIC SUMMATION OF ALL DOUBLE AREAS GIVES TWICE THE AREA INSIDE THE ENTIRE
TRAVERSE. SIGNS OF THE PRODUCTS OF DMDS AND LATITUDES MUST BE CONSIDERED. IF THE
REFERENCE LINE IS PASSED THROUGH THE MOST WESTERLY STATION, ALL DMDS ARE
POSITIVE. THE PRODUCTS OF DMDS AND NORTH LATITUDES ARE THEREFORE PLUS AND
THOSE OF DMDS AND SOUTH LATITUDES ARE MINUS.
AREA OF A CLOSED TRAVERSE
DOUBLE PARALLEL DISTANCE METHOD
 BY USING THE LATITUDES OF THE SUCCESSIVE COURSES INSTEAD OF THE DEPARTURES,
PARALLEL DISTANCES CAN ALSO BE COMPUTED IN A MANNER SIMILAR TO MERIDIAN
DISTANCES.
 THE PARALLEL DISTANCE OF A LINE IS DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE FROM THE MIDPOINT OF
THE LINE TO THE REFERENCE PARALLEL OR THE EAST-WEST LINE
DOUBLE PARALLEL DISTANCE METHOD
USING THE SAME TRAVERSE IN THE SAMPLE OF DOUBLE MERIDIAN DISTANCE METHOD,
DPD of AB = latitude of AB
DPD of BC = DPD of AB + latitude of AB + latitude of BC
THEREFORE, THE DPD OF A COURSE = DPD OF PRECEDING COURSE + LATITUDE OF PRECEDING
COURSE + LATITUDE OF THE COURSE ITSELF
DOUBLE PARALLEL DISTANCE METHOD
THE DPD OF A COURSE MULTIPLIED BY ITS DEPARTURE EQUALS DOUBLE THE AREA. THUS, THE
ALGEBRAIC SUMMATION OF ALL DOUBLE AREAS GIVES TWICE THE AREA INSIDE THE ENTIRE
TRAVERSE. SIGNS OF THE PRODUCTS OF DPDS AND DEPARTURES MUST BE CONSIDERED.
EXAMPLE
 USING THE DATA TABULATED, DETERMINE THE AREA OF THE CLOSED TRAVERSE USING
DOUBLE MERIDIAN DISTANCE METHOD.

AREA OF A CLOSED TRAVERSE

AREA BY OFFSETS FROM A STRAIGHT LINE
TRACTS OF LAND ARE NOT ALWAYS BOUNDED BY STRAIGHT LINES AND IT IS OFTEN NECESSARY TO
DETERMINE AREAS THAT ARE SOMETIMES BOUNDED BY IRREGULAR LINES OR CURVES. FOR
INSTANCE, A PROPERTY BOUNDARY MAY BE REPRESENTED BY THE CENTERLINE OF A STREAM OR IT
MAY BE BOUNDED BY A WINDING ROAD. IT WOULD NOT BE FEASIBLE FOR SUCH CASES TO RUN A
TRAVERSE ALONG THE BOUNDARY LINES. TO PLOT THE BOUNDARY, IT IS OFTEN MORE PRACTICAL TO
ESTABLISH A LINE CONVENIENTLY NEAR THE IRREGULAR OR CURVE BOUNDARY AND MEASURE
OFFSET DISTANCES FROM THE BASE LINE TO THE BOUNDARY.
OFFSETS
- SHORT DISTANCES MEASURED PERPENDICULAR TO A REFERENCE OR BASE LINE
- THEY ARE USUALLY TAKEN AT REGULAR INTERVALS IF THE CURVE BOUNDARY DOES NOT
VARY SIGNIFICANTLY
TWO RULES/METHODS:
1. TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
2. SIMPSON’S ONE-THIRD RULE
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
THE ASSUMPTION MADE IN USING THE TRAPEZOIDAL RULE IS THAT THE ENDS OF THE OFFSETS IN THE
BOUNDARY LINE ARE ASSUMED TO BE CONNECTED BY STRAIGHT LINES, THEREBY FORMING A SERIES
OF TRAPEZOIDS. WHEN THE OFFSETS ARE FAIRLY TAKEN CLOSE TO EACH OTHER AND WHEN THE
CURVES ARE FLAT, NO CONSIDERABLE ERROR IS INTRODUCED IN THIS ASSUMPTION. IN EACH
TRAPEZOID, THE ADJACENT OFFSETS ARE TAKEN AS THE BASES AND THE COMMON INTERVAL
BETWEEN THE OFFSETS AS THE ALTITUDE. THE AREA OF THE WHOLE TRACT OF LAND IS EQUAL TO
THE AREA OF THE TRAPEZOIDS.
AREA OF CLOSED TRAVERSE = SUMMATION OF ALL TRAPEZOID AREAS
IT WILL BE NOTED THAT THE FIRST AND LAST OFFSETS OCCUR ONLY ONCE AND THE OTHER
INTERMEDIATE OFFSETS OCCUR TWICE; ALSO, THE INTERVAL BETWEEN OFFSETS OCCURS AS A
FACTOR IN EVERY TERM. BY FACTORING OUT THE OFFSET, AND SIMPLIFYING THE EQUATION, THE
AREA IS OBTAINED BY THE FOLLOWING EQUATION:
ℎ1 +ℎ𝑛
𝐴 =𝑑 ( 2
+ ℎ2 + ℎ3 + ℎ4 + ℎ𝑛−1 )

SIMPSON’S ONE-THIRD RULE

SIMPSON’S ONE-THIRD RULE IS BASED ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT THE CURVED BOUNDARY CONSISTS
OF PARABOLIC ARCS, WHERE EACH ARC IS CONTINUOUS OVER THREE ADJACENT OFFSETS THAT ARE
EQUALLY SPACED. BECAUSE OF THIS ASSUMPTION, THE RULE IS ONLY APPLICABLE WHEN THERE IS AN
ODD NUMBER OF OFFSETS AND IF THEY ARE EQUALLY SPACED. WHEN THERE IS AN EVEN NUMBER OF
OFFSETS, THE PORTION OF ALL BUT THE PART BETWEEN THE LAST TWO OFFSETS MAY BE
DETERMINED BY USING THE RULE, AND THE REMAINING PORTION IS THEN DETERMINED SEPARATELY
BY ASSUMING IT TO BE A SINGLE TRAPEZOID.
𝑑
𝐴 = 3 (ℎ1 + ℎ𝑛 + 2 ∑ ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑑 + 4 ∑ ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 )

Note:
ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑑 NO LONGER INCLUDES ℎ1 AND ℎ𝑛
AREA BY COORDINATES
RECTANGULAR COORDINATES DEFINE THE POSITION OF A POINT WITH RESPECT TO TWO
PERPENDICULAR AXES. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY USES THE CONCEPTS OF A Y-AXIS (NORTH–
SOUTH) AND AN X-AXIS (EAST–WEST), CONCEPTS THAT ARE OBVIOUSLY QUITE USEFUL IN
SURVEYING APPLICATIONS. IN UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM) GRID SYSTEMS,
THE EQUATOR IS USED AS THE X-AXIS, AND THE Y-AXIS IS A CENTRAL MERIDIAN THROUGH
THE MIDDLE OF THE 6° ZONE IN WHICH THE GRID IS LOCATED (SEE CHAPTER 9). FOR SURVEYS
OF A LIMITED NATURE, WHERE A COORDINATE GRID HAS NOT BEEN ESTABLISHED, THE
COORDINATE AXES CAN BE ASSUMED. IF THE AXES ARE TO BE ASSUMED, VALUES ARE CHOSEN
SO THAT THE COORDINATES OF ALL STATIONS WILL BE POSITIVE (I.E., ALL STATIONS WILL BE
IN THE NORTHEAST QUADRANT).
 TO SIMPLIFY COMPUTATION, THE AREA CAN BE REDUCED TO AN EASILY REMEMBERED FORM
BY LISTING THE X AND Y COORDINATES OF EACH POINT IN SUCCESSION IN TWO COLUMNS,
WITH COORDINATES OF THE STARTING POINT REPEATED AT THE END. THE PRODUCTS NOTED
BY DIAGONAL ARROWS ARE ASCERTAINED WITH DASHED ARROWS CONSIDERED PLUS AND
SOLID ONES MINUS. THE ALGEBRAIC SUMMATION OF ALL PRODUCTS IS COMPUTED AND ITS
ABSOLUTE VALUE DIVIDED BY 2 TO GET THE AREA.

THEREFORE,
1 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑋3 … 𝑋𝑛 𝑋1
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = | |
2 𝑌1 𝑌2 𝑌3 … 𝑌𝑛 𝑌1
EXAMPLE
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE. A SERIES OF PERPENDICULAR OFFSETS WERE TAKEN FROM A TRANSIT LINE TO
AN IRREGULAR BOUNDARY. THESE OFFSETS WERE TAKEN 2.5 meters APART AND WERE MEASURED
IN THE FOLLOWING ORDER: 0.0, 2.6, 4.2, 4.4, 3.8, 2.5, 4.5, 5.2, 1.6, AND 5.0 meters. BY TRAPEZOIDAL
RULE, FIND THE AREA INCLUDED BETWEEN THE TRANSIT LINE, THE CURVE BOUNDARY, AND THE END
OFFSETS.
ANSWER: 78.25 sq.m.
SIMPSON’S ONE-THIRD RULE. FROM A TRANSIT LINE TO THE EDGE OF A RIVER, A SERIES OF
PERPENDICULAR OFFSETS ARE TAKEN. THESE OFFSETS ARE SPACED 4.0 meters APART AND WERE
MEASURED IN THE FOLLOWING ORDER: 0.5, 1.4, 2.5, 5.6, 8.5, 7.4, 3.8, 5.1, AND 2.3 meters. BY
SIMPSON’S ONE-THIRD RULE, COMPUTE THE AREA INCLUDED BETWEEN THE TRANSIT LINE, THE
RIVER’S EDGE AND LINE OFFSETS.
ANSWER: 147.20 sq.m.
COORDINATES METHOD. GIVEN THE FOLLOWING ADJUSTED LATITUDES AND ADJUSTED DEPARTURES
OF A CLOSED TRAVERSE, DETERMINE THE AREA OF THE TRAVERSE BY THE COORDINATE METHOD.
ASSUME THAT THE ORIGIN OF THE COORDINATE SYSTEM PASSES THROUGH STATION 1.
LEVELING
LEVELING IS THE GENERAL TERM APPLIED TO ANY OF THE VARIOUS PROCESSES BY WHICH
ELEVATIONS OF POINTS OR DIFFERENCES IN ELEVATION ARE DETERMINED. IT IS A VITAL
OPERATION IN PRODUCING NECESSARY DATA FOR MAPPING, ENGINEERING DESIGN, AND
CONSTRUCTION.
WHAT IS IT USED FOR?
LEVELING RESULTS ARE USED TO (1) DESIGN HIGHWAYS, RAILROADS, CANALS, SEWERS,
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS, AND OTHER FACILITIES HAVING GRADE LINES THAT BEST CONFORM
TO EXISTING TOPOGRAPHY; (2) LAY OUT CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS ACCORDING TO PLANNED
ELEVATIONS; (3) CALCULATE VOLUMES OF EARTHWORK AND OTHER MATERIALS; (4)
INVESTIGATE DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF AN AREA; (5) DEVELOP MAPS SHOWING
GENERAL GROUND CONFIGURATIONS; AND (6) STUDY EARTH SUBSIDENCE AND CRUSTAL
MOTION.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 VERTICAL LINE
A LINE THAT FOLLOWS THE LOCAL DIRECTION OF GRAVITY AS INDICATED BY A PLUMB LINE
 LEVEL SURFACE
A CURVED SURFACE THAT AT EVERY POINT IS PERPENDICULAR TO THE LOCAL PLUMB LINE (THE
DIRECTION IN WHICH GRAVITY ACTS). LEVEL SURFACES ARE APPROXIMATELY SPHEROIDAL IN SHAPE.
A BODY OF STILL WATER IS THE CLOSEST EXAMPLE OF A LEVEL SURFACE. WITHIN LOCAL AREAS, LEVEL
SURFACES AT DIFFERENT HEIGHTS ARE CONSIDERED TO BE CONCENTRIC.
 LEVEL LINE
A LINE IN A LEVEL SURFACE—THEREFORE, A CURVED LINE.
 HORIZONTAL PLANE
A PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO THE LOCAL DIRECTION OF GRAVITY. IN PLANE SURVEYING, IT IS
A PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO THE LOCAL VERTICAL LINE.
 HORIZONTAL LINE
A LINE IN A HORIZONTAL PLANE. IN PLANE SURVEYING, IT IS A LINE PERPENDICULAR TO THE
LOCAL VERTICAL.
  VERTICAL DATUM
ANY LEVEL SURFACE TO WHICH ELEVATIONS ARE REFERENCED. THIS IS THE SURFACE THAT IS
ARBITRARILY ASSIGNED AN ELEVATION OF ZERO. THIS LEVEL SURFACE IS ALSO KNOWN AS A
REFERENCE DATUM SINCE POINTS USING THIS DATUM HAVE HEIGHTS RELATIVE TO THIS
SURFACE.
 ELEVATION
THE DISTANCE MEASURED ALONG A VERTICAL LINE FROM A VERTICAL DATUM TO A POINT
OR OBJECT. IF THE ELEVATION OF POINT A IS 802.46 m, A IS 802.46 m ABOVE THE REFERENCE
DATUM. THE ELEVATION OF A POINT IS ALSO CALLED ITS HEIGHT ABOVE THE DATUM.
 GEOID
A PARTICULAR LEVEL SURFACE THAT SERVES AS A DATUM FOR ALL ELEVATIONS AND
ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.
MEAN SEA LEVEL
THE AVERAGE HEIGHT FOR THE SURFACE OF THE SEAS FOR ALL STAGES OF TIDE OVER A 19-
YEAR PERIOD AS DEFINED BY THE NATIONAL GEODETIC VERTICAL DATUM OF 1929. MEAN SEA
LEVEL WAS ACCEPTED AS THE VERTICAL DATUM FOR NORTH AMERICA FOR MANY YEARS.
HOWEVER, THE CURRENT VERTICAL DATUM USES A SINGLE BENCHMARK AS A REFERENCE.
TIDAL DATUM
THE VERTICAL DATUM USED IN COASTAL AREAS FOR ESTABLISHING PROPERTY BOUNDARIES
OF LANDS BORDERING WATERS SUBJECT TO TIDES. A TIDAL DATUM ALSO PROVIDES THE
BASIS FOR LOCATING FISHING AND OIL DRILLING RIGHTS IN TIDAL WATERS, AND THE LIMITS
OF SWAMP AND OVERFLOWED LANDS. VARIOUS DEFINITIONS HAVE BEEN USED IN
DIFFERENT AREAS FOR A TIDAL DATUM, BUT THE ONE MOST COMMONLY EMPLOYED IS THE
MEAN HIGH WATER (MHW) LINE. OTHERS APPLIED INCLUDE MEAN HIGHER HIGH WATER
(MHHW), MEAN LOW WATER (MLW), AND MEAN LOWER LOW WATER (MLLW).
INTERPRETATIONS OF A TIDAL DATUM, AND THE METHODS BY WHICH THEY ARE
DETERMINED, HAVE BEEN, AND CONTINUE TO BE, THE SUBJECT OF NUMEROUS COURT
CASES.
BENCHMARK (BM)
A RELATIVELY PERMANENT OBJECT, NATURAL OR ARTIFICIAL, HAVING A MARKED POINT
WHOSE ELEVATION ABOVE OR BELOW A REFERENCE DATUM IS KNOWN OR ASSUMED.
COMMON EXAMPLES ARE METAL DISKS SET IN CONCRETE, REFERENCE MARKS CHISELED ON
LARGE ROCKS, NON-MOVABLE PARTS OF FIRE HYDRANTS, CURBS, ETC.
 LEVELING
THE PROCESS OF FINDING ELEVATIONS OF POINTS OR THEIR DIFFERENCES IN ELEVATION.
 VERTICAL CONTROL
A SERIES OF BENCHMARKS OR OTHER POINTS OF KNOWN ELEVATION ESTABLISHED
THROUGHOUT AN AREA, ALSO TERMED BASIC CONTROL OR LEVEL CONTROL.
INSTRUMENTS AND ACCESSORIES
THERE ARE VARIOUS TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS USED IN LEVELING WORK. THE BASIC INSTRUMENT
USED, HOWEVER, IS THE LEVEL. OTHER INSTRUMENTS EMPLOYED IN LEVELING WORK INCLUDE THE
HAND LEVEL, ALIDADE, TRANSIT, THEODOLITE, ANEROID BAROMETER, AND EDM (ELECTRONIC
DISTANCE MEASUREMENT) INSTRUMENTS. ALTHOUGH THESE INSTRUMENTS MAY DIFFER
SOMEWHAT IN DESIGN, EACH CAN BE USED TO ESTABLISH A HORIZONTAL LINE OF SIGHT BY MEANS
OF A TELESCOPE FITTED WITH A SET OF CROSS HAIRS AND A LEVEL BUBBLE.
LEVEL
A LEVEL ESSENTIALLY COMPRISES A TELESCOPE ROTATABLE ABOUT A VERTICAL AXIS; IT IS USED TO
CREATE A HORIZONTAL LINE OF SIGHT SO THAT HEIGHT DIFFERENCES CAN BE DETERMINED AND
STAKEOUTS CAN BE PERFORMED.
LEVEL ROD
LEVELLING RODS ARE MADE OF WOOD, METAL OR GLASS FIBER AND GRADUATED IN METERS AND
CENTIMETERS. THE ALTERNATE METER LENGTHS ARE USUALLY SHOWN IN BLACK AND RED ON A
WHITE BACKGROUND. THE MAJORITY OF STAFFS ARE TELESCOPIC OR SOCKETED IN THREE OR FOUR
SECTIONS FOR EASY CARRYING.
TRIPOD
LEVELING INSTRUMENTS ARE ALL MOUNTED ON TRIPODS. A STURDY TRIPOD IN GOOD CONDITION IS
ESSENTIAL TO OBTAIN ACCURATE RESULTS. THE LEGS ARE MADE OF WOOD OR METAL, MAY BE FIXED
OR ADJUSTABLE IN LENGTH, AND SOLID OR SPLIT. ALL MODELS ARE SHOD WITH METALLIC CONICAL
POINTS AND HINGED AT THE TOP, WHERE THEY CONNECT TO A METAL HEAD.
TRANSIT
THE INVENTION OF THE FIRST TRANSIT HAS BEEN CREDITED TO ROEMER, A DANISH ASTRONOMER,
WHO IN 1690 USED THE INSTRUMENT TO OBSERVE THE PASSAGE (TRANSIT) OF STARS ACROSS THE
CELESTIAL MERIDIAN. A SIMILAR INSTRUMENT IS USED IN SURVEYING A CENTURY LATER. IT WAS ONLY
IN 1830 WHEN THE INSTRUMENT BECAME KNOWN AS THE ENGINEER’S TRANSIT.
THEODOLITE
THEODOLITES ARE SURVEY INSTRUMENTS DESIGNED TO MEASURE HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL
ANGLES PRECISELY. IN ADDITION TO MEASURING HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ANGLES, THEODOLITES
CAN ALSO BE USED TO MARK OUT STRAIGHT AND CURVED LINES IN THE FIELD.
TOTAL STATION
TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS COMBINE THREE BASIC COMPONENTS—AN ELECTRONIC DISTANCE
MEASURING (EDM) INSTRUMENT, AN ELECTRONIC ANGLE MEASURING COMPONENT, AND A
COMPUTER OR MICROPROCESSOR—INTO ONE INTEGRAL UNIT. THESE DEVICES CAN AUTOMATICALLY
OBSERVE HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ANGLES, AS WELL AS SLOPE DISTANCES FROM A SINGLE SETUP.
LEVELING METHODS
THERE ARE VARIOUS METHODS WHICH COULD BE EMPLOYED TO DETERMINE THE ELEVATION OF
POINTS AND THEIR DIFFERENCES IN ELEVATION. THESE METHODS MAY BE UNDERTAKEN EITHER
DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY IN THE FIELD. THE PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN EACH METHOD DIFFER IN SOME
ASPECTS. ALSO, THEY MAY DIFFER WITH RESPECT TO THE TYPE OF INSTRUMENTS USED, THE
PROCEDURE EMPLOYED, AND THE ATTAINABLE DEGREES OF PRECISION.
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
ALSO CALLED BENCHMARK LEVELING, THIS METHOD IS USED TO DETERMINE DIFFERENCES
IN ELEVATION BETWEEN POINTS (THAT ARE SOME DISTANCE FROM EACH OTHER) BY USING
A SURVEYORS’ LEVEL AND A GRADUATED MEASURING ROD. THE SURVEYORS’ LEVEL CONSISTS
 OF A CROSS HAIR–EQUIPPED TELESCOPE AND AN ATTACHED SPIRIT LEVEL, BOTH OF WHICH
ARE MOUNTED ON A STURDY TRIPOD. THE SURVEYOR CAN SIGHT THROUGH THE LEVELED
TELESCOPE TO A ROD GRADUATED IN FEET OR METERS AND DETERMINE A MEASUREMENT
READING AT THE POINT WHERE THE CROSS HAIR INTERSECTS THE ROD.
TERMS USED IN DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING:
 BENCHMARK (BM)
 TEMPORARY BENCHMARK (TBM)
- A SEMIPERMANENT POINT OF KNOWN ELEVATION
 TURNING POINT (TP)
- A POINT TEMPORARILY USED TO TRANSFER AN ELEVATION
 BACKSIGHT (BS)
- A ROD READING TAKEN ON A POINT OF KNOWN ELEVATION TO ESTABLISH THE ELEVATION
OF THE INSTRUMENT LINE OF SIGHT
TERMS USED IN DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING:
 HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT (HI)
- THE ELEVATION OF THE LINE OF SIGHT THROUGH THE LEVEL
 FORESIGHT (FS)
- A ROD READING TAKEN ON A TP, BM, OR TBM TO DETERMINE ITS ELEVATION
 INTERMEDIATE FORESIGHT (IS)
- A ROD READING TAKEN AT ANY OTHER POINT WHERE THE
ELEVATION IS REQUIRED
𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝐵𝑆 = 𝐻𝐼
𝐻𝐼 − 𝐹𝑆 = 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
EXAMPLE
GIVEN THE FOLLOWING LEVEL NOTES SHOWN.
DETERMINE THE ELEVATION OF BM-4

STA BS FS ELEV

BM-1 1.256 127.133 m

TP1 1.116 1.886

TP2 1.228 1.527

BM-2 1.189 2.246

 BM-3 1.070 2.017

TP3 1.831 2.656

BM-4 2.765

PROFILE AND CROSS-SECTION LEVELING

IN ENGINEERING SURVEYING, WE OFTEN CONSIDER A ROUTE (ROAD, SEWER PIPELINE, CHANNEL,
ETC.) FROM THREE DISTINCT PERSPECTIVES. THE PLAN VIEW OF A ROUTE LOCATION IS THE SAME AS
IF WE WERE IN AN AIRCRAFT LOOKING STRAIGHT DOWN. THE PROFILE OF A ROUTE IS A SIDE VIEW
OR ELEVATION IN WHICH THE LONGITUDINAL SURFACES ARE HIGHLIGHTED. THE CROSS-SECTION
SHOWS THE END VIEW OF A SECTION AT A STATION AND IS AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE CENTERLINE.
THESE THREE VIEWS TOGETHER COMPLETELY DEFINE THE ROUTE IN X, Y, AND Z COORDINATES.
PROFILE LEVELING
PROFILE LEVELS ARE TAKEN ALONG A PATH THAT HOLDS INTEREST FOR THE DESIGNER. IN
ROADWORK, PRELIMINARY SURVEYS OFTEN PROFILE THE PROPOSED LOCATION OF THE
CENTERLINE (cL). THE PROPOSED cL IS STAKED OUT AT AN EVEN INTERVAL. THE LEVEL IS SET
UP IN A CONVENIENT LOCATION SO THAT THE BM—AND AS MANY INTERMEDIATE POINTS AS
POSSIBLE—CAN BE SIGHTED. ROD READINGS ARE TAKEN AT THE EVEN STATION LOCATIONS
AND AT ANY OTHER POINT WHERE THE GROUND SURFACE HAS A SIGNIFICANT CHANGE IN
SLOPE. WHEN THE ROD IS MOVED TO A NEW LOCATION AND IT CANNOT BE SEEN FROM THE
INSTRUMENT, A TP IS CALLED FOR SO THAT THE INSTRUMENT CAN BE MOVED AHEAD AND
THE REMAINING STATIONS LEVELED.
THE PLOTTED PROFILE SHOULD GIVE AN ACCURATE AND USEFUL REPRESENTATION OF THE
EXISTING GROUND CONFIGURATIONS. IT IS PLOTTED ON A LINEAR SCALE WHICH SHOWS THE
CORRECT LENGTH OF THE SURVEYED LINE. THE VERTICAL IS GENERALLY EXAGGERATED WITH
RESPECT TO THE HORIZONTAL SCALE TO MAKE DIFFERENCES IN ELEVATION MORE
PRONOUNCED.
CROSS-SECTION LEVELING
CROSS-SECTION LEVELING EMPLOYS THE SAME PRINCIPLES AS PROFILE LEVELING BUT MAKES
USE OF THE END-SECTION AT A PARTICULAR STATION OF A ROAD LINE. IN ROADWORK, ROD
READINGS ARE TAKEN ALONG A LINE PERPENDICULAR TO THE cL AT EACH EVEN STATION. THE
ROD IS HELD AT EACH SIGNIFICANT CHANGE IN SURFACE SLOPE AND AT THE LIMITS OF THE
JOB. CROSS-SECTION LEVELING GIVES US THE AMOUNT OF EARTHWORKS (CUT OR FILL)
NEEDED FOR A ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECT.
THREE-WIRE LEVELING
AS IMPLIED BY ITS NAME, THREE-WIRE LEVELING CONSISTS IN MAKING ROD READINGS ON
THE UPPER, MIDDLE, AND LOWER CROSSHAIRS. FORMERLY IT WAS USED MAINLY FOR
PRECISE WORK, BUT IT CAN BE USED ON PROJECTS REQUIRING ONLY ORDINARY PRECISION.
THE METHOD HAS THE ADVANTAGES OF (1) PROVIDING CHECKS AGAINST ROD READING
BLUNDERS, (2) PRODUCING GREATER ACCURACY BECAUSE AVERAGES OF THREE READINGS
ARE AVAILABLE, AND (3) FURNISHING STADIA MEASUREMENTS OF SIGHT LENGTHS TO ASSIST
IN BALANCING BACKSIGHT AND FORESIGHT DISTANCES.
RECIPROCAL LEVELING
 EARLIER IN THIS LESSON, IT WAS ADVISED TO KEEP BS AND FS DISTANCES ROUGHLY EQUAL
SO THAT INSTRUMENTAL AND NATURAL ERRORS CANCEL OUT. IN SOME SITUATIONS, SUCH
AS RIVER OR VALLEY CROSSINGS, IT IS NOT ALWAYS POSSIBLE TO BALANCE BS AND FS
DISTANCES. IF THIS IS THE CASE, RECIPROCAL LEVELING IS EMPLOYED.
THE PROCESS OF RECIPROCAL LEVELING INVOLVES THE SETTING UP VERY NEARLY OF THE
INSTRUMENT TO THE FIRST POINT TO BE SIGHTED, WHERE A ROD IS TO BE HELD UP. A
BACKSIGHT IS TAKEN DURING THIS TIME. THEN, ACROSS THE RIVER OR VALLEY WHERE THE
SECOND POINT IS, A ROD IS HELD UP AND A FORESIGHT IS TAKEN. FROM THESE READINGS
THE DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION BETWEEN THE TWO POINTS IS CALCULATED. THE LEVEL IS
THEN TAKEN ACROSS AND SET UP VERY NEARLY WHERE THE SECOND POINT IS. NOW, A
BACKSIGHT TO THE SECOND POINT AND A FORESIGHT TO THE FIRST POINT IS TAKEN. FROM
THIS SETUP, A DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION CAN AGAIN BE CALCULATED. IT WOULD BE
SUFFICIENTLY PRECISE TO ASSUME THAT THE AVERAGE OF THE TWO QUANTITIES
DETERMINED IS THE TRUE DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION BETWEEN THE TWO POINTS.
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
THE DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION BETWEEN TWO POINTS MAY BE OBTAINED INDIRECTLY BY
MEASURING A VERTICAL OR ZENITH ANGLE AND THE HORIZONTAL OR SLOPE DISTANCE
BETWEEN THE POINTS. THIS IS CALLED TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING BECAUSE THE VERTICAL
DISTANCE IS COMPUTED USING RIGHT-ANGLE TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS.
TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING IS USED WHERE DIFFICULT TERRAIN, SUCH AS MOUNTAINOUS
AREAS, PRECLUDES THE USE OF CONVENTIONAL DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING. IT MAY ALSO BE
USED WHERE THE HEIGHT DIFFERENCE IS LARGE BUT THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE IS SHORT
SUCH AS HEIGHTING UP A CLIFF OR A TALL BUILDING. THE VERTICAL ANGLE AND THE SLOPE
DISTANCE BETWEEN THE TWO POINTS CONCERNED ARE MEASURED. SLOPE DISTANCE IS
MEASURED USING ELECTROMAGNETIC DISTANCE MEASURERS (EDM) AND THE VERTICAL (OR
ZENITH) ANGLE USING A THEODOLITE.
TWO-PEG TEST
THERE IS ALWAYS THE POSSIBILITY THAT THE LINE OF SIGHT OF A DUMPY LEVEL WILL BE INCLINED
ABOVE OR BELOW THE HORIZONTAL. SUCH A CONDITION WILL INTRODUCE CORRESPONDING ERRORS
WHEN DETERMINING DIFFERENCES IN ELEVATION. WHEN THIS ADJUSTMENT IS MADE, THE LINE OF
SIGHT IS TRULY HORIZONTAL WHEN THE BUBBLE IS CENTERED ON THE LEVEL VIAL. TO CHECK AND
ADJUST THE LINE OF SIGHT, A PROCEDURE KNOWN AS THE “TWO-PEG” TEST IS EMPLOYED.
TO PERFORM THE PEG TEST, THE SURVEYOR FIRST PLACES TWO STAKES AT A DISTANCE 60–90 M
APART. THE LEVEL IS SET UP MIDWAY (PACED) BETWEEN THE TWO STAKES, AND ROD READINGS ARE
TAKEN AT BOTH LOCATIONS. IF THE LINE OF SIGHT THROUGH THE LEVEL IS NOT HORIZONTAL, THE
ERRORS IN ROD READINGS (Δe1) AT BOTH POINTS A AND B ARE IDENTICAL BECAUSE THE LEVEL IS
HALFWAY BETWEEN THE POINTS. THE ERRORS ARE IDENTICAL, SO THE CALCULATED DIFFERENCE IN
ELEVATION BETWEEN POINTS A AND B (DIFFERENCE IN ROD READINGS) IS THE TRUE DIFFERENCE IN
ELEVATION.
THE LEVEL IS THEN MOVED TO ONE OF THE POINTS (A) AND SET UP CLOSE (E.G., AT THE MINIMUM
FOCUSING DISTANCE) TO THE ROD, AND THEN A NORMAL SIGHTING (a2) IS TAKEN. ANY ROD READING
ERROR INTRODUCED USING THIS VERY SHORT SIGHT IS RELATIVELY INSIGNIFICANT. ONCE THE ROD
READING AT A HAS BEEN DETERMINED AND BOOKED, THE ROD IS HELD AT B AND A NORMAL ROD
READING IS OBTAINED.