SS 102N Notes 1

Unit 1
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES AND ETHNICITY

Sociological Perspectives: (Henslin, 2010)

1. Functionalism – views society as a whole unit, made up of interrelated parts that work
together. When all the parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in a normal state or in
an equilibrium/harmony. It suggests also that whenever we examine a smaller part, we need
to look for its functions and dysfunctions to see how it is related to the larger unit.
2. Conflict Theory – suggests that society is composed of groups that are competing with one
another for scarce resources
3. Feminist perspective – argues that women have been systematically oppressed and that
men have been historically dominant as proved by the institutionalization of patriarchy, an
ideology which posits that sexual differences are related to differences in the male/female
character, behavior, and ability justifying a gendered division of social roles and inequality in
access to rewards, positions of power, and privilege; therefore, this perspective aims to
locate the sites of social inequities and how to address such as well as highlight the
participation of women in the varied dimensions of social life
4. Symbolic Interactionism – views society as composed of symbols that people use to
establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another;
argues that the labels we learn affect the way we perceive people. Labels cause selective
perception; that is, they lead us to see certain things while they blind us to others. We shake
off evidence that doesn’t fit.

Ethnic Groups and Minorities (Giddens, 1994): Definition of Terms

Ethnicity – refers to cultural practices and outlooks that distinguish a given community of
people: language, history, ancestry (real or imagined), religion, and styles of dress or
adornment; these differences are wholly learned

Culture - the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of
society or a social group that encompasses not only art and literature, but lifestyles, ways of
living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs (UNESCO)

Minority group – as understood in sociology, a minority group has the following features:
1. Its members are disadvantaged, as a result of discrimination against them by others.
Discrimination exists when rights and opportunities open to one set of people are denied to
another group
2. Members have some sense of group solidarity, of belonging together. Experience of
being the subject of prejudice and discrimination usually heightens feelings of common loyalty
and interests – tend to see themselves as ‘a people apart’ from the majority.
3. Usually to some degree physically and socially isolated from the larger community;
tend to be concentrated in certain neighborhoods, cities or regions of a country; little
intermarriage between those in the majority and members of the minority group

Indigenous Peoples (the politically correct term for minority ethnic groups) - are descendants of
the original people or occupants of lands before these lands were taken over or conquered by
others. Many indigenous peoples have maintained their traditional cultures and identities (e.g.,
way of dressing, language and the cultivation of land) and therefore have a strong and deep
connection with their ancestral territories, cultures and identities. The 370 million indigenous
 SS 102N Notes 2

peoples around the world contribute to enriching the world’s cultural and linguistic diversity.
(UNESCO)

The UNDRIPS adopted Martinez Cobo’s “working definition” of indigenous peoples:

Indigenous communities, peoples and nations are those which, having a historical
continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories,
consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those
territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are
determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral
territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples,
in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system … an
indigenous person is … one who belongs to these indigenous populations through self-
identification as indigenous (group consciousness) and is recognized and accepted by
these populations as one of its members (acceptance by the group). This preserves for
these communities the sovereign right and power to decide who belongs to them, without
external interference.

Indigenous Cultural Communities/Indigenous Peoples — refer to a group of people or

homogenous societies identified by self-ascription and ascription by others, who have
continuously lived as organized community on communally bounded and defined territory, and
who have, under claims of ownership since time immemorial, occupied, possessed and utilized
such territories, sharing common bonds of language, customs, traditions and other distinctive
cultural traits, or who have, through resistance to political, social and cultural inroads of
colonization, non-indigenous religions and cultures, became historically differentiated from the
majority of Filipinos. ICCs/IPs shall likewise include peoples who are regarded as indigenous on
account of their descent from the populations which inhabited the country, at the time of
conquest or colonization, or at the time of inroads of non-indigenous religions and cultures, or
the establishment of present state boundaries, who retain some or all of their own social,
economic, cultural and political institutions, but who may have been displaced from their
traditional domains or who may have resettled outside their ancestral domains (RA 8371)
Marginalization – the controls some peoples traditionally exercised over their local
societies (and their own lives) are taken from them, such that their remaining autonomy of
action does not conflict with the wider system (Eder, 1993)
Deculturation – a restriction of social relations, little or no cultural replacement and few
new cultural forms developing from local sources of technological and economic growth (Eder,
1993)

Ethnic Antagonism, Prejudice and Discrimination (Giddens, 1994)

Prejudice – opinions or attitudes held by members of one group about another; involves
holding preconceived views about an individual or group, often based on hearsay rather than
direct evidence, views which are resistant to change even in the face of new information
Discrimination – actual behavior towards another; the activities which serve to disqualify
the embers of one grouping from opportunities open to others
The Attitudes of Majority Groups. Merton (as cited in Giddens, 1994) identified four possible
attitudes of the dominant groups towards the minority groups:
1. All-weather liberals – unprejudiced towards minorities and avoid discrimination, even
when it may be personally costly like losing his job or be physically attacked
 SS 102N Notes 3

2. Fair-weather liberals – consider themselves unprejudiced but will ‘bend with the wind’ if
costs are involved
3. Timid bigots – hold prejudices against minorities but because of legal pressure or
financial interests act in an egalitarian way
4. The active bigot – holds strong prejudices against other ethnic groups and practices
discrimination against them

Read the materials in Appendix A

General Factors (Giddens, 1994)

1. Ethnocentrism – a suspicion of outsiders, combined with a tendency to evaluate the
cultures of others in terms of one’s own culture
2. Closure – the process whereby groups maintain boundaries separating themselves
from others; the devices include the limiting or prohibiting of intermarriage between the groups,
restrictions on social contact or economic relationships like trading, and the physical separating
of groups from one another
3. Allocation of resources – inequalities in the distribution of wealth and material goods
results when one ethnic group/s is/are in a position of power over another ethnic group or when
an ethnic group emerges as economically dominant over others

Historical Perspectives on the Correlation between Colonialism and Racism (Giddens, 1994)
1. Opposition between white and black as cultural symbols was deeply rooted in
European culture. White had been associated with purity, black with evil – having dark or deadly
purposes, malignant; pertaining to or involving death, deadly; baneful, disastrous, sinister …
indicating disgrace, censure, liability to punishment. These symbolic meanings tended to
influence the Europeans’ reactions to blacks when they were first encountered on African
shores … although the more extreme expressions of such attitudes have disappeared today.
2. The coinage and diffusion of the concept of ‘race’ itself. The notion of ‘race,’ as
referring to a cluster of inherited characteristics, comes from European thought of the 18th and
19th centuries. Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau proposed that three races exist: the white,
black and yellow. The white race possesses intelligence, morality and willpower superior to
those of the others, and these inherited qualities underlie the spread of western influences
across the world. He further argued that the blacks are the least capable of three races, marked
by an animal nature, lack of morality and emotional stability. It did not help that English poet
Rudyard Kipling popularized in his poem the White man’s burden – a justification of White
imperialism. And in 1913, a German scientist, Dr. Eugen Fischer, who later served Hitler,
published the results of his 2-month field work in South-West-Africa measuring his mixed-race
subjects from head to foot and scrutinizing their physiognomies. He concluded that “the
bastards are racially superior to pure negroes but inferior to pure whites. There might therefore
be a useful role for people of mixed race as colonial policemen or lower officials. But any further
racial mixing should be avoided.” Such argument had a strong influence on Hitler’s Mein Kamp
where he argued about the superiority of the Aryan Race. (Ferguson, 2011)
3. Exploitative relations which the Europeans established with non-white peoples. The
slave trade could not have existed were it not widely held by Europeans that blacks belonged to
an inferior, perhaps even subhuman, race. Racism helped justify colonial rule over non-white
peoples, and the denial to them of the rights of political participation which were being won by
whites in their European homelands. xxx racism played an important part in the group closure
whereby Europeans were the rulers, and non-whites the ruled.
 SS 102N Notes 4

Global Patterns of Intergroup Relations (Henslin, 2010)

1. Genocide – the dominant group tries to destroy the minority group; systematic killing of
one category of people by another; Ethnic cleansing – a policy of eliminating a population;
includes forcible expulsion and genocide
2. Population Transfer – indirect transfer is achieved by making life so miserable for
members of a minority that they leave “voluntarily”; direct transfer occurs when a dominant
group expels a minority
3. Internal Colonialism – dominant group exploits minority groups for its economic
advantage; dominant group manipulates the social institutions to suppress minorities and deny
them full access to their society’s benefits
4. Segregation – separation of racial or ethnic groups; allows the dominant group to
maintain social distance from the minority and yet to exploit their labor as menial workers
5. Assimilation – process by which a minority is absorbed into the mainstream culture;
forced assimilation – the dominant group refuses to allow the minority to practice its religion, to
speak its language, or to follow its customs; permissible assimilation – allows the minority to
adopt the dominant group’s patterns in its own way and at its own speed
6. Multiculturalism (Pluralism) – permits or even encourages racial-ethnic variation; the
minority groups can maintain their separate identities, yet participate freely in the country’s
social institutions, from education to politics

Unit References

Bacdayan, A.S. (2001). Ambivalence toward the Igorots: An interpretive discussion of a colonial legacy. In Towards understanding
peoples of the Cordillera: A review of research on history, governance, resources, institutions and living traditions . Volume
1. UP College Baguio: Cordillera Studies Center. SC-Cor 959.917 N213

Doyo, M.C.P. (2015). Macli-ing Dulag: Kalinga chief: defender of the Cordillera; with an anthropological study by Nestor T. Castro.
Quezon City: The University of the Philippines Press

Eder, J.F. (1993). On the road to tribal extinction: Depopulation, deculturation, and adaptive well-being among the Batak of the
Philippines. Quezon City: New Day Publishers. F305.89921 Ed28

Giddens, A. (1994). Sociology. Second Edition. UK: Blackwell Publishers

Henslin, J.M. (2012). Sociology: A down-to-earth approach. 10th Edition. New York: Allyn & Bacon
 SS 102N Notes 5

Unit 2
ROOTS OF PHILIPPINE CULTURE: FILIPINO
INDIGENOUS CULTURAL COMMUNITIES
The indigena (native or indigenous) peoples of the Philippines were conveniently
classified by the Spanish colonizers into two groups – indios and tribus infieles (infidel tribes).
The indios were those who were Christianized and accepted the Spanish policy of reduccion –
(abandoning their dispersed settlement and residing in a nucleated settlement area that was
accessible to the Spanish friars.) The tribus infieles, on the other hand, were the non-
Christianized Filipinos and who rejected the policy of reduccion (Thomas, 2016) by nurturing
their culture in the highlands and remote coastal areas that were hardly accessible to the
Spanish friars and administrators. These infieles would later on be labeled as tribal or primitive
Filipinos, cultural minorities, and now indigenous cultural communities or indigenous peoples.
The term “indigenous” is given a new and narrower meaning contrasted from the general usage
of the word indigena that originally referred to all the natives of the country during the Spanish
colonial era.
The meaning of the term “Filipino” also evolved. Before the 1880s, “Filipino” was used to
refer to those who were born of Spanish parentage in the Philippines. But in the late 1880s and
1890s, some of the ilustrados in their scholarly writings started using the term as a label of
collective identity applicable to all the people of the Philippines transcending their linguistic,
religious, and physiological differences. (Thomas, 2016)
Thomas explained that one of the ilustrado writers, Trinidad Hemenegildo Pardo de
Tavera (of Spanish lineage), referred to the people who were first encountered by the Spanish
in the country as Filipinos and were of Malayan origin. For Pedro Paterno (Tagalog-Chinese
mestizo), aside from extolling his Tagalog civilization and implying that it was the center of a
broader Filipino civilization as well as arguing the parity between the Tagalog and Spanish
cultures, he postulated that the Aetas were the “racial and cultural ancestors of the Tagalog” -
they (Aetas) being the descendants of the first wave of Malayan migrants while the Tagalogs
were the descendants of the second wave of Malayan migrants - more advanced, adaptive, and
whose language, beliefs, habits, and customs later prevailed over the inferior descendants of
the first wave of migrants. Those who did not want to mingle with the new migrants retreated to
the harshness of the mountains and were excluded from the benefits of the Filipino-Christian
civilization. Their isolation in the mountains preserved their traditions and made them stuck in
the past. Compounded by their inbreeding, they became unable to transform themselves unlike
their Tagalog counterparts. Paterno also theorized that the lack or slow social transformation
among the Aetas who retreated to the mountains could manifest not only their perception that
there is nothing in the Christian civilization that is appealing to them but also the perception that
European civilization is deceitful - hypothetical teaching of morality, justice, liberty, and
wellbeing if viewed against the reality of slavery, anarchy, and compulsory payments to a ruler
that were imposed in the country. (Thomas, 2016) Paterno added:
The study of the Ita was valuable for the progress of the advanced peoples of the
Philippines because it would help them recognize what they needed to change or leave
behind. For the advanced Filipino peoples to fulfill their promise, they had to ‘know to
adapt their ancient traditions to progress’ and ‘succeed in harmonizing their ancient
habits and customs with new ideas.’ (Thomas, 2016, p.83)
If the Aetas were perceived to suffer from a lack of ability to transform themselves, which
is implied to be inherent in them, Isabelo de los Reyes argued against such “idea of innate racial
ability – or inability” and the idea of promoting cultural change through racial mixture. He
 SS 102N Notes 6

contends that cultural change results from civilizational contact. As regards filiation of the
different ethnic groups in the country, he theorized that there are only two root races (Negrito
and Malay) in the country before the arrival of the Spaniards. Of the two, the “Filipino-Malays”
constitute the large and multilingual group that is spread out all over the archipelago. It is
because of this idea that while he found filiation with the Tagalogs and Bicolanos, among
others, he also found filiation with “half-civilized neighbors, the Igorots and Tingguians – kinship
of languages, traditions, and other ethnological proofs.” (Thomas, 2016, p. 89).
What the three aforecited ilustrados similarly aimed to achieve in their scholarly writings
was to “search for the Filipino past – a product of, and a stimulus to, nationalism” (Schumacher,
1996, p.105). Schumacher commented that de los Reyes did not glorify the pre-Spanish
Filipinos because his intent was to look at the Filipino past as a source of national identity,
implying the existence of a Filipino nation, while being open to culture change.
A nation is defined by Anderson (2016) as:
an imagined political community … imagined because the members … will never know
most of their fellow members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each
lives the image of their communion … imagined as a community, because regardless of
the actual inequality and exploitation that may prevail in each, the nation is always
conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship. (pp. 6-7)
This definition of a nation suggests a need to discover and nurture the variables that
promote the cohesion of a larger community and this is where Paterno’s suggestion becomes
relevant and which suggestion was echoed by Nick Joaquin (2004):
There are Filipinos upon whom no alien religion or culture was imposed, and whose
hearts must, therefore, possess the aboriginal purity we yearn for – uncorrupted,
undistorted, unravished …Our pre-Hispanic culture was not annihilated; it has survived;
and there are pre-Hispanic Filipinos among us … verify what we were before the coming
of Spain and Christianity. The thing to do … see for ourselves what we would have been
if we had been left alone, to go and confront the Filipinos whom no foreign religion or
culture has depraved, so that, by learning what we might have been, we may know what
we are. (p. 78)

Paterno’s and Nick Joaquin’s suggestion of studying the Filipino past through the culture
of the indigenous peoples provides the rationale for this Unit that attempts to present the
similarities and differences among the selected indigenous cultural communities.

Locating the Mujer Indigena

If the residual culture of the indigenous communities is a window to their precolonial
culture, then it would be safe to infer that their societies were basically egalitarian. Women were
not given a subordinate position. They had freedom and power, a big contrast from their
counterparts in Spain. The Spaniards were hostile to this and they used well-selected doctrines
of the Catholic Church to marginalize or subordinate the mujer indigena or Filipinas. Brewer
(cited in Woods, 2017) “argues that the Spaniards introduced ‘the repressive hypothesis of
Catholic sexual morality’” – the passive image of the Virgin Mary was promoted as the model of
a Filipina. Brewer further argued:

Traditionally there has been a diminution of the status of the women associated with
both institutionalized hierarchical religions and the formation of the State. In the
Philippine Archipelago, the introduction of Spanish colonialism came inextricably linked
with Catholicism. Indeed the two were co-determining factors that brought and delivered
 SS 102N Notes 7

a concomitant concentration of power, authority and control into male hands. In this
process, the male supremacy and rationalism of Catholicism provided the logic that
instituted a transformation of sexual relationships. (p. 243)
Phelan (cited in Woods, 2017) added that:
The Filipinos were no mere passive recipients of the cultural stimulus created by the
Spanish conquest. Circumstances gave them considerable freedom in selecting their
responses to Hispanization. Their responses varied all the way from acceptance to
indifference and rejection. The capacity of the Filipinos for creative social adjustment is
attested in the manner in which they adapted many Hispanic features to their own
indigenous culture. Preconquest society was not swept away by the advent of the
Spanish regime. Rather, indigenous culture was transformed during the seventeenth
century, in some cases profoundly so and in other cases only superficially. Significant
though these changes were, a substantial degree of continuity between the preconquest
and the Hispanic regime was preserved. (p. 246)
As some of the indigenous ethnic communities of indigenous peoples in the Philippines
are Christianized, the succeeding tables attempt to show how indigenous women are continuing
or reclaiming their freedom and power.

Classification of Indigenous Ethnic Communities

Guided by the dominant features that were common to the diverse indigenous cultural
communities but unique to them if compared to the other indigenous groups as documented by
different scholars who did their scholarly works in varied times, Jocano (2000) categorized the
Philippine indigenous communities into five types - pisan (band), puro, ili, magani, and banwa.
Pisan type. The indigenous ethnic communities that are classified under this type
include, among others, the Aeta, Agta, Ata, Ati, Baluga, Batak, Dumagat, and Mamanua.
Jocano summarized the characteristics of this type, as follows:
l. absence of agriculture beyond inefficient gardening and shifting cultivation;
2. no full-time occupational or craft-specialists;
3. little trade, mostly barter with other ethnic groups;
4. no social stratification other than simple ranking;
5. no central political authority nor elaborate legal system;
6. absence of community-wide annual magico-religious festivities and full-time religious
functionaries; and
7. absence of institutionalized warfare. (pp. 67-68)

To understand these characteristics and some changes that occurred, Table 1 shows a
comparison of the selected IP groups under this type.

Table 1
Socio-political Organizations of the Aeta, Agta, Dumagat, Batak, and Mamanua

Aspects of IP Mamanua
(hinterlands and mountain ranges
Socio-political Aeta Agta Dumagat Batak bordering the provinces of Surigao del
Organizations Norte and Agusan del Norte in
northeastern Mindanao [Masinaring,
2011])
Qualities of Influential, wise Informal leadership Respected and revered;
Leaders n.d. and experienced n.d. defined by kinship, hunting skills; consult
elders; young age, experience, with other elders;
leaders not charisma, and shaman or doctor could
hindered (Buendia et knowledge of survival be tapped to rule (Buendia et
al., 2006) al., 2006)
skills and traditions
(Cola, 2007)
 SS 102N Notes 8

Table 1 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio-political Aeta Agta Dumagat Batak Mamanua
Organizations
70s: traditional Not hereditary but
How the political structure n.d. n.d. n.d. selected: chieftain,
Leader/s is/are was created by council of elders (Buendia et
Chosen the State – al., 2006)

appointed a
tribal chieftain
and formed a
tribal council
(elders in the
village) –
function limited
to Aeta
concerns: peace
& order,
interpersonal
relations, justice;
decisions
concerning non-
Aetas and
unresolved
cases by tribal
council –
barangay
captain and
council (Rovillos,
2000)
Resource Bataan: Hunting and No Subsistent economy: foraging, hunting and
Utilization and dislocation gathering; permanent Fishing, hunting, swidden farming but
Management several times Food exchanges: source of foraging, handicraft now into wet farming as
from the vast non-domestic living; making, collection of introduced by migrant
mountains – protein foods (wild specialize in non-timber forest settlers because they
hunting grounds pig, deer) and root crops – products and wage cannot roam around as
(1927, 1972); lowlanders’ camotes, labor complement the most of the areas are
forest provides domestic cassava, farming effort (Cola, 2007) already occupied by
them food, carbohydrate ube and Locate their settlers;
shelter, refuge in foods (corns, yam, gabi; settlement within more of a food gatherer
times of war and manioc) (Eder, 1993) resorted to reasonable walking than a land tiller; into
sickness; Owned and planting distance of lowland farming and gather
medicinal plants tilled the land vegetables; communities for rattan on the sides
for ailments – themselves; others wild orchids exchange and labor (Masinaring, 2011)

headache, were tenants and sold to relationships; effect – land is not an item
stomachache, traded their labor lowlanders depletion of food in the to be owned but a
malaria and with partners; (Buendia et al.,
settlement area as source of life to be
2006)
diarrhea; some – trade their labor their exchange shared with everyone
(Masinaring, 2011)
swidden farmers for manufactured relationships prevent resources not
& buho (Type of and agricultural them from foraging the dominated by one
bamboo) goods (Buendia et al., remoter areas of their group; dwelling place
2006)
gatherers; territory (Eder, 1993) built are communal –
resettlement site shift
owned by those who
– taught between various constructed it (Buendia et al.,
chemical-based settlement sites; 2006)
agriculture mobility is Mamanwa Training
(Rovillos, 2000)
limited by Center – educated
though the Mamanwa teachers
program in the kinship relations
teach reading and
Protected Area - have access to writing to their
was designed resources only Mamanwa students with
for them not with in areas the hope that they will
them, they inhabited by grow up and follow
supported in the relatives; live through the Mamanwa’s
process – quest for dignity and
together in
representation in self-determination
the Protected residential (Masinaring, 2011)
Area groups - three
Management and fifteen
Board, closely related
 SS 102N Notes 9

Table 1 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio-political Aeta Agta Dumagat Batak Mamanua
Organizations
volunteers house-holds (Minter
patrolling & et al., 2014)

monitoring illegal
activities,
education
campaign and
conservation
activities (Rovillos,
2000)
Worldview Gather only consider the Natural ecosystems Believes that the
Relevant to what they need; springs, waterfalls, n.d. have spirits with Supreme Being has
Resource Use disease – form rivers, and dominion over various given all the blessings
& Management of punishment mountains as resources (Cola, 2007) for everyone to share
(Buendia et al., 2006)
for a wrongdoing sacred grounds;
by a supreme or consider as taboo
lesser anito all areas within a
(spirit): small half-kilometer
pox – cut down range from known
a tree or killed burial sites so as
an animal not to offend the
belonging to a spirits that are
spirit; illness – known to inhabit in
cutting a those places;
bamboo that abhor the idea of
offended the being used as
spirits that living museums for
owned it (Rovillos, tourists to gaze
2000)
upon (Castro, 2005)
Factors of Increasing cost Encroachment of Illiterate – Sedentary settlement: Entry of outside dwellers
Culture Change of chemical abusive lack of created social resulted to deprivation of
and or inputs; taken enterprising priority on tensions; deprivation land (Buendia et al., 2006)
Continuity advantage of landowners (Buendia education; of traditional activities entry of logging and
et al., 2006)
lowland traders Reasons: as they are tied to mining companies;
who buy their Eco-tourism; look at labor and exchange 1950s – Bisaya settlers
products at farm many Protected education as arrangements with started to sell the lands
gate prices; Area threat to lowlanders; emulation cleared by the logging
entry of small- Superintendents their close of lowland company; lost lands
scale logging; (PASus) - failed to family ties; consumption - through fraudulent
delay in the recognize the role location of replacing their means and drove some
delivery of the of Agtas in schools; traditional diet; of them to beg in urban
livelihood Protected lack financial Lowlanders’ areas (Masinaring, 2011)
component of Area management provision; encroachment into the
(Castro, 2005) not paid
the Racial Basic land reservations or immediately upon
Conservation of discrimination, Education: agricultural lands delivery of the rattan,
Priority lack of farming, cleared by the Bataks; food expenses incurred
Protected Areas government fishing, Relative while waiting are
Project – representation and hunting, impotency: attempts of deducted from the
problem – low respect resettlement; payment (Masinaring, 2011)
process of educational partici elders (Buendia intrusions of outsiders
obtaining bank pation;
et al., 2006)
– authoritarian, some
loans plus high troubled by an are free loaders,
interest; land armed cheat, fail to
grabbing by conflict between reciprocate the
lowland the Armed Forces Batak’s time and
professional and of the Philippines hospitality (Eder, 1993)
politicians; (AFP) and the High incidence of
Reservation Act New People’s diarrhea; children
gave them Army (NPA) since don’t go to school as
stewardship the 1970s, and they move with their
over the Bataan during which they parents to look for
Natural Park were recruited and food (Cola, 2007)
while ownership victimized by both no schools were
belongs to the parties (Minter et al., built exclusively for
State (Rovillos, 2000) 2014) them, encouraged to
enrol in the nearest
 SS 102N Notes 10

Table 1 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio-political Aeta Agta Dumagat Batak Mamanua
Organizations
Intrusion of government’s lowland school (Eder,
1993)
Factors of modern emphasis of the
Culture Change medicine, Agta’s role as Minimal access to
and or popular culture, environmental health services (Eder,
1993)
Continuity institutional stewards - a task Depopulation due
religions (Rovillos, for which they are to food scarcity and
2000)
not equipped and various diseases –
Sporadic not compensated -
intervention of measles, cholera,
masks the influenza, malaria,
government line government’s lack
agencies (Rovillos, tuberculosis,
2000)
of political will to respiratory infections,
Adaptive enforce the law and gastrointestinal
(Minter et al., 2014)
character of their participate in infections (Buendia et al.,
2006)
culture: new the Sierra Madre
ways are added Park’s meetings
to their but their ideas and
knowledge not issues were often
necessarily not reflected in the
abandoning old minutes of the
ways – like
meetings (Minter et al.,
roaming the 2014)
forests in times Deprived of
of food scarcity welfare services
(Rovillos, 2000)
from the
government;
hence, vulnerable
to diseases; death
could be due to
parasites,
infectious
diseases and
malnutrition (Buendia
et al., 2006)
schools were
aimed at orienting
them with the
national culture
but failed (Buendia et
al., 2006)
Ascribed and No rigid division In the marriage Egalitarianism – roles Helpful to assuage the
Changing of labor – ceremony, a n.d. were traditionally anger of the headman –
Status of clearing the discussion was complementary; problem oftentimes
Women land, hunting, done among the relative equality in referred to the women
fishing (men); families on how social skills, mobility, first (Buendia et al., 2006)
weeding, caring each would assist earning power, and
for the crops in the exploitation child care
(women and of resources responsibility;
children) (Rovillos, wherein both Sedentary settlement:
2000)
would benefit in males speak the
Women are this merger; lowland language;
encouraged to function of more skilled than
form a group of extended family – women in handling
ten, obtain loans entire clan help in market and purchases
for a group the management hence no or limited
livelihood to and utilization of participation in the
sway them away resources (Buendia et market economy (Eder,
from the forests al., 2006) 1993)
(Rovillos, 2000)
Agta women
trade meat, fish,
and other
subsistence goods
directly with
lowland traders
(Eder, 1993)
 SS 102N Notes 11

Table 1 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio-political Aeta Agta Dumagat Batak Mamanua
Organizations
Justice System Done by the Experienced Meeting of elders; Headman presides and
tribal chieftain hostility from the n.d. culprit is counselled renders punishments;
and tribal council lowlanders; (Eder, 1993)
ostracism – common
(Rovillos, 2000)
intimidation was punishment (Buendia et al.,
2006)
rampant (Buendia et al.,
2006)
no recognized
leader - some
elderly - do serve
as providers
of advice or
mediators in
conflicts (Minter et al.,
2014)

Note: Entries were directly quoted from the cited sources where you can read the details.
Legend: n.d. – no data

Puro type. Included under this group are the Dibabawun, Ibanag, Kalanguya, Ilongot,
Itawis, Itbayat, Mangyan groups in Mindoro, Ke-ney, Magahat, Mansaka, Matigsalug, Subanun,
Tiboli, and Teduray. They are characterized by:
1. the practice of swidden agriculture as the major source of subsistence;
2. the presence of part-time craft specialists;
3. the presence of trade with other ethnic groups;
4. an emerging stratification based on accumulated material culture;
5. the absence of a truly central political authority;
6. the presence of community-wide annual magico-religious festivities;
7. the presence of religious functionaries;
8. a strong emphasis on custom laws as the basis of settling disputes; and
9. the absence of warfare, except in family feuds which often involve several
communities. (Jocano, 2000, pp. 97-98)

Table 2 attempts to illustrate some of these characteristics in five selected indigenous

communities.

Table 2
Socio-political Organizations of the Kalanguya, Mangyan, Mansaka, Subanen,
and Teduray

Aspects of IP Kalanguya/Ikalahan Mangyan Mansaka Subanen Teduray

(ancestral domain: 20 barangays in (Mindoro: eight groups - (Pantukan, Maragusan, (Zamboanga del Sur, (North Upi, Datu Odin Sinsuat,
Socio- the town of Sta. Fe & Aritao, Nueva Alangan, Bangon, Buhid, Mabini, Maco, Mawab, and Zamboanga del Norte, Firis in Maganoy, Dohon in
political Vizcaya, 4 brabgays in the town of Hanunuo, Iraya, Ratagnon, Nabunturan, Compostela Sibugay, and parts of Talayan Awang, Slongon, and
Carangaln, Nueva Ecija, one Tadyawan, Tau-buid) Valley) Misamis Occidental) Tuduk Tawantawan in
Organizations barangay in San Nicolas, Maguindanao; and along the
Pangasinan) Tran river (Tampada Balig) and
in the province of Sultan Kudarat
- Lebak and Ezperanza)
Qualities of Capacity to Industrious, Ability and Elder – skill to
Leaders n.d. convince and helpful, popularity – persuade and
influence people concerned with families in the influence; good
(Buendia et al., 2006)
his family and community speaker with
Able to guide community; come and go but knowledge of
communal policy provides due notice is customary law (Buendia
without being proud guidance on given to the et al., 2006)
or aggressive (Gibson, good attitudes, headman as Timuay: Ability
2015)
livelihood, regards the to lead;
stability, and change (Buendia et Kefedewan:
sound health; al., 2006) articulate speaker,
resolves family does not show
 SS 102N Notes 12

Table 2 continued

Aspects of IP Kalanguya/Ikalahan Mangyan Mansaka Subanen Teduray

Socio-
political
Organizations
problems; well- Belongs to favouritism,
Qualities of informed on a ruling family knowledgeable in
Leaders indigenous laws but title is not customary law,
and cares for the automatically patient, has a
environment; transferred – superb memory (Sevilla
& Lacson, 2007)
imposes need to qualify:
sanctions on shown Elected local
erring members consistently the officials – expected
(Buendia et al., 2006)
power of good to provide for the
a thorough judgement, needs of their
knowledge of ability to make constituents as in
the Mansaka’s good and crucial older times;
customary laws, decisions, deliberately
his financial conversant of conferred the timuay
capacity, the laws and title (Sevilla & Lacson, 2007)
wisdom, practices of the
decision-making tribe Buendia et al.,
ability, and his 2006)
being articulate
and a good
mediator
(Masinaring, 2011)
How the Formal leaders are Chief leader – Matikadong - Timuay – Father – head of
Leader/s elected but traditional chosen by voting or not elected; believed that his family – basic unit of
is/are Chosen leaders (Council of consensus – leadership authority is from their government;
Elders) are still confirmed by the surfaced based the Magbabaya - Kefeduwan –
respected (Buendia et al., governor; on above-cited supreme being; leader of the council
2006)
Had in the past qualities; political leader of elders and
non-Mangyan assisted by that combines spokesman of the
leaders imposed by family members civil and village;
the colonial or elders (Buendia et religious Timuay –
al., 2006)
government for easy authority; highest rank and
manipulation (Buendia et Mangkatado Power is honor given to the
al., 2006) ngs (elders) and shared with a tribal chieftain;
have their the community council of elders; Timuay Labi –
respective tribal choose the assisted by a supreme chieftain –
laws which are matikadong,. saliling (deputy) highest leader of the
carried out by the through or masalag tau Timuay Justice
Council of the consensus (big or important Governance; chairs
(Masinaring, 2011)
Elders who are man); the meetings of the
elected community Holds office supreme council of
leaders (Fansler, 2009) until he dies or chieftains (Minted sa
formal leaders as long as he Inged) and the same
are elected enjoys the members who chose
people’s support the supreme
(Buendia et al., 2006)
chieftain by
Successor consensus; assisted
is not formally by the assistant to
installed – the supreme
people naturally chieftain,
go to who they administrative
consider to be officer, and sectoral
worthy as a new representatives
leader (Buendia et al., (Buendia et al., 2006)
2006)
Formal
leaders are
elected
according to the
Ph national law
By inheritance – being the eldest son of
the timuay; being personally chosen by
the timuay (Lacson & Sevilla, 2007)
 SS 102N Notes 13

Table 2 continued

Aspects of IP Kalanguya/Ikalahan Mangyan Mansaka Subanen Teduray

Socio-
political
Organizations
70% of their territory: Shifting cultivators; In the past, land Balian – Governed by the
Resource watersheds, raise pigs, hunt could be economist of the principle of
Utilization grasslands, tamaraw, wild pigs, accessed by tribe; he communal
and bushlands; gather wild plants anybody; determines the ownership of
(Buendia et al., 2006)
Management Forest resources: tiger nobody time for planting everything in the
grass, cogon, rattan, Adherence to monopolized and performs community (Buendia et
oak, trees, timber traditional medicines ownership – the ritual in al., 2006)

trees, flora, and varied for illnesses; suffers even open to opening a Livelihood
wild life; from dirty outsiders (Buendia kaingin; sets the programs –
Some of the land: rice surroundings, lack et al., 2006)
requirements for emphasize food
and corn; cattle of water and proper Food offering to the security through
grazing, gardening sanitation – gathering and spirits or diwatas food production
(beans, tomatoes, inevitability of farming was (Buendia et al., 2006) without the use of
carrots, sweet peas, diseases (Buendia et al., their major inorganic chemicals;
gabi, ginger), solar
2006)
livelihood materials –
subsist on rice, producing corn, environment friendly
dryer, recreational bananas, sweet
(Garming, 2007) palay, and root so that resources in
Documentation potato, taro, and crops (Buendia et al., the forests, rivers
and quantification of other root crops; 2006)
and seas will not be
the carbon stocks of chew betel nut to From shifting depleted (Buendia et al.,
their forests; linkages assuage hunger and cultivation to 2006)

with international as a form of new farm Deprived of

research organizations socializing; been technology that modern
and potential carbon practicing is dependent on communication and
buyers abroad (Villamor & sustainable swidden petro-chemical transportation
Lasco, n.d.) farming with fire- based inputs – facilities; only heavy
Need to secure a breaks & fallowing – became duty, four-wheel
permit from KEF to but no longer suppliers of vehicles can reach
clear an area of a practiced due to vegetables; the communities; for
forest to farm; land scarcity; crafts many work in some – horse and
since 1974, fruit- making, work in foreign-owned motorized banca;
processing venture lowlanders' rice banana Susceptible to
from guava to other fields; practice plantations varied diseases –
fruits – for local and beadwork (Fansler, 2009) (Masinaring, 2011)
commonly: diarrhea,
international markets; Literacy affected Roads were malaria, skin
other ventures through by: abuse of school problematic – no diseases;
KEF: organic children; lack of other vehicle Aggravated by
vegetable production, teachers and except their overall poverty,
orchid growing, schools; far location motorcycle can a five to seven hour-
furniture of schools (Buendia et al., pass through; travel to reach the
manufacturing, bottled 2006) one jeepney nearest health
water business – Missionaries: put irregularly station but
tapping water from a up primary and traversed the inadequately
clean mountain spring elementary schools; road – high cost supplied and not
inside their reserve helped address land of fare; have a regular
(Dolom & Serrano, n.d.) disputes, medical Poverty, high health personnel;
PAFID under assistance, cost of Low educational
Pastor Rice: organized concerns on transportation – levels: poverty
and helped them education (Buendia et al., deprives them of deprives the children
2006)
negotiate the consultation with to go beyond
community-based doctors for their elementary/seconda
forestry agreement illnesses; ry levels; lack of
with the DENR – Lack of educational facilities
protecting their clean water; and services needed
ancestral domain; Children: to harness their
1973: Kalahan influenza, productive skills;
Educational coughs, severe No indigenous
Foundation Inc. (KEF) colds, formal education
– promote education, pneumonia, institutions –
protect the malaria, typhoid succeeding
environment and fever, diarrhea generations of
ancestral domain, and malnutrition; timuay, kefedewan,
provide sustainable Adults:tuberculo or beliyan (shaman)
forest-based sis, leukemia, are taught informally
livelihoods, improved hepatitis B, and by the elders –
 SS 102N Notes 14

Table 2 continued

Aspects of IP Kalanguya/Ikalahan Mangyan Mansaka Subanen Teduray

Socio-
political
Organizations
watersheds and pneumonia learning by doing
(Buendia et al., 2006) (Buendia et al., 2006)
Resource biodiversity; provided
Utilization a legal personality to High
and negotiate with the illiteracy rate
Management DENR community- despite existing
based forestry high school,
management vocational,
agreement (Villamor & Lasco, college: lack of
n.d.) teachers,
Kalahan Academy teachers teach
– a fruit of the only thrice a
concerted effort of the week as they
community (free labor, have to go home
woods from their to their families,
forest) and donations long distance of
from private persons the school from
and organizations; the community –
now financed by KEF’s children not
income generating physically fit for
projects and some long distance
private organizations; walk aggravated
Academy – instill by lack of food
cultural pride; for lunch;
preparations for higher disenfranchised
education or during elections
vocational courses; because of
inculcation of Ikalahan illiteracy (Buendia et
al., 2006)
history, mores and
traditional practices;
high school subjects
on forest ecology (Dolom
& Serrano, n.d.)
Worldview Belief: woman built the Buid (Past): land Magbabaya as Laws were Consider their
Relevant to first rice field –got not subject to well as the based on their environment an
Resource seeds to plant and private ownership spirits Daragpo conscience; extension of their
Use & prayed to forest spirits but belonged to the and Layoyo (the yardsticks – pro- lives and bodies –
Management for continuous spirits of the earth – deities of God, pro-people, deem it necessary to
irrigation of the rice as long as not harvest) are pro-environment preserve and
field – blessing given offended – land – invoked in a (Carino, Regpala, & de
Chavez, 2010)
maintain people’s
to the woman as freely available to thanksgiving closeness to and
culture-bearer signifies whoever wanted to ritual with the good relationships
taking good care and farm it; person owns plea of driving with the
productivity = only what s/he away hunger environment; not to
(Masinaring, 2011)
sustained preservation planted and when do anything that will
of the watershed the last productive destroy the
(Garming, 2007)
cultigen was environment (Buendia et
Forest is litteng = harvested, all the al., 2006)
everything is there = claim to the plot Kefiyo fedew –
their concept of quality lapsed; taboo to “peace of mind” –
and abundant life flatten the earth, use foundation of justice
(Garming, 2007)
of plow and water and economic
“land ownership” – systems – each
right to be the main buffalo; construction
of large settlements must have access to
steward xxx earned by the pursuit of
an individual xxx – believed to attract
a variety of evil genuine happiness
through investing labor (Carino, Regpala, & de Chavez,
xxx and planting spirits; not to plant a 2010)

permanent crops xxx tree whose life

served as a regulatory
mechanism for
“controlled” ownership,
xxx code of conduct
not to sell one’s
inheritance xxx sell,
she/he should offer it
expectancy is longer
than that of a planter
(Gibson, 2015)
Spirits of the earth
are angered by the
violations of certain
agricultural taboos,
by the existence of
 SS 102N Notes 15

Table 2 continued

Aspects of IP Kalanguya/Ikalahan Mangyan Mansaka Subanen Teduray

Socio-
political
Organizations
first to her/his siblings discord within a
Worldview xxx blood relatives xxx household, by the
Relevant to any member of the marriage of those
Resource community xxx forbids who are too closely
Use & xxx selling xxx or too distantly
Management outsiders (Daguitan, 2010) related; Anger –
withdrawing
protection from
growing crops and
children (Gibson, 2015)
Strongly
condemns any
display of violence
and aggression, and
any attempt to
establish ties of
dependency and
domination within
the society (Gibson,
2015)
(Buid at present):
want a land title -
security from being
dispossessed by the
Christians (Gibson, 2015)
Sharing
(everyone present
receives a share)
with no reciprocity -
dyadic exchange
are avoided to do
away with
competition (Gibson,
2015)
Factors of 1970s: plan to 1950s, 1960s Land disputes – First inhabitants Short-changed in
Culture establish a vacation episode of land rampant and in of Zamboanga, their dealings with
Change and resort in their ancestral rights clashes; worst cases at originally plain scheming and wily
or Continuity domain; fake titles of lands reserved for the expense of settlers, but lowland middlemen
relatives of schools and their lives; lands when the and women (Buendia et
al., 2006)
government officials community were were bought at a Muslims came,
(Dolom & Serrano, n.d.)
taken by migrant cheap cost; they had to Became
Tinoc & Tocucan: settlers who fled hired as laborers secure their landless,
roads, commercial during the Japanese and underpaid livelihood and impoverished, and
vegetable gardens, time and tolerated (Buendia et al., 2006)
established underpaid
indebtedness (Daguitan, by political leaders territories in farmworkers of
2010)
for political gains varied places lowland landlords in
(Buendia et al., 2006)
while resisting the mountains they
Buid: growth of the numerous consider as their
large settlements, incursions (Buendia ancestral domain;
land scarcity, market et al., 2006) Forests - largely
economy – Non-Subanun usurped by illegal
accumulations of land grabbers or loggers destroying
wealth and power who prevent the their watersheds,
(Gibson, 2015)
Subanun to get threatening their
forest products; swidden farms as
Intermittent the soil became soft
conflicts (tribal and vulnerable to
wars) with other soil erosion;
groups that Many cash
violated their economy-integrated
territory (Buendia et Teduray who suffer
al., 2006)
from low income buy
Logging by food that are
intruders; entry considered “filling”
of Canadian but have negligible
 SS 102N Notes 16

Table 2 continued

Aspects of IP Kalanguya/Ikalahan Mangyan Mansaka Subanen Teduray

Socio-
political
Organizations
mining firm – nutritional value
(Buendia et al., 2006)
included Mt.
Canatuan – a Caught in armed
sacred conflicts; long
mountain; history of
awarded 2 government neglect
months before and poverty (Carino,
Regpala, & de Chavez, 2010)
the pas-sage of
IPRA, NCIP
recognizes the
firm’s prior right
Carino, Regpala, & de
Chavez, 2010)
Ascribed and Belief: woman built the Politics – sphere of Patriarchal Tribal Principle of equality
Changing first rice field; favour men; women are society – sons government is of all human beings
Status of given by the gods; discriminated in their are privileged patriarchal (Buendia suggests respect for
et al., 2006)
Women blessing given to the participation in over daughters the rights of both
woman as culture- debates (Buendia et al., in terms of women and men in
2006)
bearer (Garming, 2007) inheritance the outcomes of
Buid: adult men (Buendia et al., 2006)
proceedings
and women – women presided by the
encouraged to assume broad kefedewan in the
attend community leadership roles, adjudication
assemblies but can also be process;
women tend to play called participation of
a less active role matikadong – women in various
(Gibson, 2015)
handle important social and political
tasks in the activities of the
community and community is
are not totally justified by their
dependent on special role in
the men (Masinaring, production and
2011)
Balyan - a reproduction – their
female, serves distinctive capacity
as a mediator to give birth to the
between the next generation of
Divine Beings Teduray (Buendia et al.,
2006)
and the people; Participated in
serves as the peace summits as
herbalist or the they are the most
medicine woman affected in times of
- gets her armed offensives of
knowledge of warring forces;
medicinal herbs actively advocated
through her respect and
dreams and promotion of human
from other rights, elimination of
balyans, who act discrimination
as mentors against women;
(Masinaring, 2011)
Ended the piloted a 3-hectare
practice of model of organic
having a duway farm; embarked on
(second wife); at income-generating
present, young initiatives: making
Mansaka soap, organic
women work as fertilizers; continuing
house help in leadership and other
town areas and skills training (Carino,
Regpala, & de Chavez, 2010)
cities (Masinaring,
2011)
 SS 102N Notes 17

Table 2 continued

Aspects of IP Kalanguya/Ikalahan Mangyan Mansaka Subanen Teduray

Socio-
political
Organizations
Tongtong – covers Elders in the family Matikadong Sources of Kefeduwan or Tribal
Justice petty and most played crucial role in investigates, conflicts: Justices – mandated
System heinous crimes; starts arbitrating between consults with the damage to to see that the rights
when the offended conflicts; adultery, leaders, and property; breach and feelings of the
party of any of his/her robbery – given enforces of contract; protagonists in the
relative calls the harsh penalty (Buendia penalties to homicide, case are respected
et al., 2006)
attention of the prevent tribal seduction and satisfied; each
lallakay (elders); Buid: tradition of war (Buendia et al., followed with Teduray has free
overall decision of the mediation and the 2006)
pregnancy, rape, access to their
lallakay is through working out of a abortion, services which are
consensus (Garming, 2007) consensus in which adultery, unpaid (Buendia et al., 2006)
no one loses face assault, slander,
(Gibson, 2015)
witchcraft, theft, Peace loving, avoids
Buid: tultulan conflict – retreat to
(collective forcible entry of
dwelling; the mountains as
discussion) to they have no access
resolve marital Bisala – process
of mediation to legal aid provided
dispute; any by good lawyers;
member of the where kinship
ties play an have limited access
community may to mediation
come and important role;
punishment mechanism under
participate – the Philippine justice
function: public corresponds to
the nature of the system (Buendia et al.,
arena where the 2006)
couple air their crime; serious
accumulated crimes like Emphasizes “win-
grievances against murder are win” situation – aims
each other = endorsed to the for reconciliation;
reconciliation or barangay or kefeduwan is a
separation; ends municipality healer of the heart
with a fanurukan – depending on and mind; refrains
ritual done – sign to the decision of from imposing cruel
the spirits of the the aggrieved punishment – death
earth that harmony party and the is replaced with fine
(Masinaring, 2007)
was restored, not to timuay;
endanger the lives Timuay resolves
of the children any and hears
longer (Gibson, 2015) cases; in his
absence, the
assistants
perform the task;
problems
between or
among
communities –
settled by the
leaders and the
council of each
community
(Buendia et al., 2006)

Note: Entries were directly quoted from the cited sources where you can read the details.
Legend: n.d. – no data

Ili type. This is associated with the Arumanen Manobo, Bontoc, Southern Kalinga,
Ifugao, Ibaloi, Sagada, Kankanaey, Tingguian, and Tagbanua. They are commonly
characterized by:
1. the presence of productive agriculture which combines slash-and-burn and irrigated
wet-rice cultivation in terraces,
2. the presence of full-time craft-specialists;
3. the presence of extensive trade characterized by trading-pacts;
4. the presence of a clearly defined social stratification system;
 SS 102N Notes 18

5. the presence of central authority, represented by the council of elders;

6. the presence of an elaborate legal system;
7. the presence of community-wide annual magico-religious festivities;
8. the presence of full-time religious specialists; and
9. the presence of institutionalized warfare. (Jocano, 2000, p. 128)

Four indigenous communities in the Cordillera region are chosen to illustrate some of
these characteristics as can be seen in Table 3.

Table 3
Socio-political Organizations of the Ibaloi, Sagada, Bontok, and Tinguian

Aspects of IP
Socio- Ibaloi Sagada Bontoc Tingguian
(Licuan, Lacub, Tubo, Tineg, Malibcong)
political (Kankanaey)
Organizations
Qualities of Wealthy, knowledge on Age, wise decisions, Rich in life experience, Proven their worth,
Leaders customary law and religious practice of all articulate – track integrity, have a strong
applied it, rich in life’s cultural traditions (Comila, 2007) record of good sense of justice (Buendia et al.,
2006)
experiences; articulate Elected: abilities & judgment in previous
(Buendia et al., 2006)
what they had done in the cases, fair as
past, their character, and evidenced by past
achievements (Comila, 2007) case, holder of good
war record – not an
absolute necessity,
wealthy (Prill-Brett, 2015)
How the Tongtong council - Amam-a (council of Amam-a (elders) by Lallakay (council of elders)
Leader/s impanama (wise Elders) – chosen by the
virtue of seniority and
is/are Chosen men/elders) – not experience in life community (Buendia et al., 2006)
elected (Buendia et al., 2006)
general pattern of land rights in the Cordillera is primus occupantis (i.e., the first to occupy the land by clearing
Resource it and investing some improvements). Titles are embedded in rituals and are orally transmitted - further
Utilization reinforced through continuous occupation (Prill-Brett, 2003)
and important characteristic of land ownership in the Cordillera - non-alienation of lands to individuals or
Management groups who do not belong to the community; land transfers rule: land is first offered to the immediate family,
then to close kin, before it is finally offered to other members of the community (Crisologo-Mendoza, L. & Prill-Brett, J. , n.d.)
shifting cultivation, productive land is acquired by clearing a portion of a forest through the slash-and-burn
Commented [ml1]:
method; governed by usufruct rights - cultivator has exclusive ownership rights to the crops produced; cultivate
for several years until the soil becomes depleted of nutrients; land is kept fallow for several years for
regeneration; Pasture or grazing lands generally belong to community members who have common ownership
rights over the land, as in the case of Ibaloy and Bontok communities (Crisologo-Mendoza, L. & Prill-Brett, J. , n.d.)

Communal land rights (all villagers); corporate land rights (members of a Customary law –
descent group); individual land rights (Buendia et al., 2006) communal and joint
ownership of the ili;
member can cultivate any
part, bequeath to
descendants, donate or
use as dowry but such
transfer be made public –
lallakay and kin group in a
ceremony;
Lapat (prohibit)
system – Council
prescribes how members
use, protect, preserve
natural resources after
consultations with
household heads; Sirip
(watchers) assigned a
particular forest zone and
a river he frequently
passes by to guard an
implement lapat rules
(Buendia et al., 2006)
 SS 102N Notes 19

Table 3 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio- Ibaloi Sagada Bontoc Tingguian
political (Kankanaey)
Organizations
Being one with mother earth and the environment; of survival and mutually nurturing relationship; animist
Worldview superstructure and spirituality that gives high respect and value to nature – tree/forests, water and any source
Relevant to or body of water, mountains/agriculture; and with viable indigenous practices in sustainable use of and
Resource management of land and resources. (Solang, 2017)
Use & Penganan – reserved Inayan – a term applied to combination of pine Ili (home village) – seen as
Management portion of parents’ an action that is considered and mossy forest in expanded form of the
property, like rice fields to be universally wrong barangay Dalican household, implies
– as social security to be (Comila, 2007); caution against serves as complete control and
inherited by the child or violating cultural norms and sanctuaries for wild sovereignty of the villagers
relative who takes care taboos (lawa) (Solang, 2017) flora and fauna over the entire territory
of them until they die; Ayew – resources are endemic to the (Buendia et al., 2006)

Sale of inherited land scarce – calls for municipality – Principles underlying

gives priority to kinsmen responsible stewardship: do governed by the lapat system:
unless no kin is not monopolize and waste customary laws: stewardship over natural
interested or can raise anything ) (Solang, 2017) lumber is harvested resources; communal
the amount – if the kin Ipeyas nan Gawis for the construction ownership and collective
who bought it will sell it (share the good) – whatever of houses for the responsibility;
in the future, the offer is good for the benefit of all, community member sustainability (Buendia et al.,
2006)
will be to the member of in all aspects of ili life should only; not allowed to
the same kin group (Prill- be shared (Solang, 2017) sell nor trade
Brett, 1992)
Kasiyana – value that harvested lumber
community counsels for a positive outside the
members are attitude amidst crisis community (Municipality of
increasingly placing (personal, disaster, Bontoc, 2018)
emphasis on documents pestilence, etc) ) (Solang, 2017) selective in
as proof of land Fetad/Betad – mass adopting agricultural
ownership (Prill-Brett, 1992) mobilization and collective practices introduced
legal pluralism – action for defense of territory from the outside;
different legal and life like tribal war in the choose new
conception (customary past; development practices which they
vs national law) and in aggression at present, are able to adapt to
which people use these community contingency – the existing
conceptions in various house or forest fire, accident agricultural system;
purposive strategies – – drowning or during rituals reinforce the
whichever law favors disasters ) (Solang, 2017) coordination of
their claim (Prill-Brett, 1992) Individually owned lot – agricultural activities
should be sold to immediate that must be
or distant relatives – ward off accomplished within
non-Sagadans from owning a specific time
lands unless married to a frame; industry is
local folk (Carino, Regpala, & de highly valued –
Chavez, 2010) laziness is frowned
upon (Prill-Brett, 2015)
Superimposition of national law over customary law on resource management, that is, government declared all
Factors of forested areas as public land, originally managed as the common property of a certain community - now
Culture perceived to be an “open access” resource accelerating conversion of the mossy forests into commercial
Change and vegetable farms; encouraged some members of neighboring villages to encroach into the traditional territory
or Continuity or domain of another to exploit their resources = increase in cases of conflict over resources and boundary
disputes; individuals take advantage of the uncertainty of the current land tenure situation to expand their
landholding and use state legal instruments to privatize common property; increasing degradation of the
environment and the loss of biodiversity - open competition for resources between the community and
government-favored individuals or corporations, and as a result the resource is not allowed to regenerate since
there is no incentive to prevent its depletion. (Prill-Brett, 2003)
Chemical based “green revolution”: golden kuhol and chemical based fertilizer and pesticide inputs
destroyed terraced rice field biodiversity as traditional source of food; mining applications, agricultural
liberalization (Solang, 2017)
tilt toward individual ownership of common resources as new livelihood opportunities emerge: cultivation of
nontraditional crops and cash crops - temperate vegetables, coffee, citrus, and fruit trees on indigenous
corporate and communal lands (Crisologo-Mendoza, L. & Prill-Brett, J. , n.d.)

Application of American
land tenure policies –
registration, titling, forest
reserves and public
Teachings from the new
religions clashed with the
Isagada rituals; eroded the
Integrated Social
Forestry Program
(25-year stewardship contract to
maximize land productivity,
enhance ecological balance,
Cellophil Resources
Corporation (CRC):
logging concession and
paper mill; Abra River

Table 3 continued
Aspects of IP
Socio- Ibaloi
political
Organizations
parks; mining laws –
Factors of prohibited the harvest of
Culture timber in mining areas;
Change and tourism and urbanization of
or Continuity Baguio - construction of
national roads; vegetable
industry = eroded the Ibaloy
cattle enterprise (Tapang Jr., 1985)
Displacement of Ibalois:
1950s - 300 Ibaloi families –
construction of Ambuklao &
Binga dams; unfulfilled
promises relevant to their
relocation in Palawan & Nueva
Vizcaya; Marcos Park, Taloy
Sur - 81 subsistent Ibaloi
farmers; Loakan - Baguio
Export Processing Zone (Carino &
Resabal Jr., 1990)
Expropriation of some of
their lands for military
reservations, airport, dams,
export processing zone,
among others; mining; logging
(Prill-Brett, 1992)
Ascribed and Customarily, wife’s parafernal
Changing or inherited property cannot be
Status of sold by the husband without
Women the wife’s knowledge and
consent; widower does not
inherit from the dead spouse,
if there are no children,
property should go back to the
person/s from whom the
individual inherited (Prill-Brett, 1992)
Justice Tongtong (judicial process
System administered by the na-
ama/elders) – an olnong
(gathering) is called by the
tongtong council with
witnesses from both sides;
ultimate resolution rests on the
party that can argue more
convincingly (based on
evidence); at present,
community conflicts are
referred to the Lupong
Tagapayapa which include
among its members some
elders of the community (Prill-
Brett, 1992)
Note: Entries were directly quoted from the cited sources where you can read the details.
Legend: n.d. – no data
Sagada
(Kankanaey)
influence of the dap-ay
in socio-political
activities;
Tourism, education,
practicality;
Migration – financial
aid & new ideas (Comila,
2007)
Money changed
the rules of local
politics (before, poor
man can run) (Comila,
2007)
Advent of
advanced
communication
technology (Comila, 2007)
Banks foreclosure
of tax declared lots
used as loan
collaterals; DENR’s
prevention of
harvesting timber
unless a permit is
issued (Carino, Regpala, & de
Chavez, 2010)
No longer tied to
household chores –
educational pursuit,
entrepreneurs (Comila,
2007)
Dap-ay – multipurpose
institution where
elders settle conflicts;
venue where elders
discuss and agree
through consensus
other concerns
affecting the
community (Carino, Regpala,
& de Chavez, 2010)
Less contentious
cases are settled by
the amam-a in the
dap-ay; most cases
are referred to the
Lupong Pambarangay; (Buendia et al., 2006)
conflicts revolve
around boundary
disputes or water
sources; peden is
resorted to when both
parties agree to end a
conflict (Comila, 2007)
SS 102N Notes 20
Bontoc Tingguian
improve the living conditions of forest
polluted by chemicals
occupants and communities)
in
used in milling paper
Malibcong: few applied – and by the mine waste
reasons: one can’t apply from Lepanto (Solang,
for stewardship over 2017)
lands they own via Social unrest that
native titles and lands resulted from the
owned by the entire operation of the CRC
village; implementers which, with the
failed to recognize and assistance of the
impress to the villagers military, imposed its
the program’s authority to exploit the
advantage in technology forest resources of the
development (Torres Jr., 1989) Tingguians, who
Mainit Village – countered: burned
targeted for mining (Caluza, CRC properties and
2016)
forest concession
areas, others joined
the armed groups (Torres
Jr., 1989)
women confronted
mining engineers, n.d.
staged hunger strike
against the survey of the
Mainit village, a target
area for corporate
mining (1975, 1980)
(Caluza, 2016)
Sexual equality (Prill-
Brett, 2015);
Bontoc Women
Brigade – since 2003,
capitalizing on the
villagers’ respect for the
elderly – patrols at night
(Pilotin, 2018)
Dialogue and consensus Misbehaviour &
at the level of the clan misdemeanour –
and Council of Elders settled by the lallakay;
(Muncipality of Bontoc, 2018)
wrong doers are fined
Pinakarsu (go- or ordered to shoulder
betweens) – settle the food of the elders
intervillage conflicts; who settled the case;
peace pact system land disputes –
controls inter-village and successful settlement
inter-region is formalized in a
relationships; peace peace pact (bedeng –
pact holder is boundary) or kalon
responsible for policing (agreement); lapat
boundaries so no one is justice extends
killed within their territory counselling to the
offender to reform and
be reintegrated; where
disputes are not
settled – elevated to
municipal courts (Buendia
et al., 2006)
 SS 102N Notes 21

Magani type. The Agusan Manobo, Apayao-Isneg, Gaddang, northern Kalinga, and
Mandaya are classified under this type. And they are characterized by:
1. the presence of efficient and productive agriculture;
2. the presence of full-time craft-specialists;
3. the presence of elaborate custom laws;
4. the presence of a central political authority assumed by warrior groups;
5. the presence of community-wide magico-religious ceremonies;
6. the presence of extensive trade with other ethnic groups;
7. the presence of full-time religious functionaries; and
8. the presence of institutionalized warfare. (Jocano, 2000, p. 148)

Exemplifying some of these characteristics are the Manobo and Mandaya in Mindanao
and the Isneg and Kalinga groups of the Cordillera region as shown in table 4.

Table 4
Socio-political Organizations of the Agusan-Manobo, Apayao-Isneg, Kalinga, and
Mandaya

Aspects of IP Agusan Manobo Apayao-Isneg Kalinga Mandaya

(original inhabitants - towns of San (Davao Oriental, the towns of Compostela
Socio- Francisco, Rosario, Bunawan, Veruela, and New Bataan in Compostela Valley
political Loreto, La Paz, Talacogon, Sta. Josefa, and some areas of Davao del Norte)
and Trento in Agusan del Sur; first
Organizations people of Agusan del Sur, Datu
Mandabon of Johnson, Loreto, Agusan
del Sur)
Qualities of Practices what he says Able to settle Mombagbaga (spokesman):
(Masinaring, 2011)
Leaders disputes; have some wealthy, mengol n.d.
wealth (Prill-Brett, 1995) (headtaker), articulate;
Pangats: wealth, lineage,
family connections with
other pangats, personality,
cooperativeness, fairness,
oratorical ability, record of
having settled cases,
reputation as a pugnacious
man (Prill-Brett, 1995)
In the past,, tattooing
successful warriors (chest,
back) during victory feasts –
as the body’s protective
armor from malevolent
spirit; politically, determinant
whether one becomes a
pangat (tribal elder) and or
puchon (peace pact holder)
(Salvador-Amores, 2013)
How the Kamenglan – bravest Ap-apu (leader) Datuship –
(Davao del Norte)
Leader/s n.d. of the head hunters Pangats (pact holders) – conferred by appointment
(Prill-Brett, 1995) (Buendia et al., 2006)
is/are Chosen office is inherited; selected
by a long, informal process -
grow in popular influence
and recognition –
subsequently elevated to
the rank (Prill-Brett, 2015)
Farming - source of From swidden Banao Bodong Association:
Resource subsistence; plant root cultivators to wet rice declares - Banao tribe of n.d.
Utilization crops, rice and corn for production (de Raedt, Kalinga collectively owned
1995)
and consumption; conduct the gold resources within
Management rituals: pama to ask Banao ancestral territory;
permission from the regulate the indiscriminate
spirits to open a field for exploitation of natural
farming; himon to mga resources in preservation
duma when they for the forthcoming
perceive signs of the generation (Fiag-oy, 2010)
spirits’ approval; and

Table 4 continued
Aspects of IP
Socio- Agusan Manobo
political
Organizations
taphag before the actual
Resource clearing to invoke the
Utilization spirits’ protection against
and accidents and to bless
Management the farm implements that
will be used; the baliga
or pabulig (working
together) during planting
and harvest - those who
participate in harvesting
the crops, and even
those who are not there,
are given a share
(Masinaring, 2011)
Worldview presence of the spirits
Relevant to around them - be
Resource recognized and
Use & respected; human beings
Management should maintain a
harmonious relationship
with these spirits,
whether these spirits are
good or bad = makes
the Manobo very
respectful of nature
(Masinaring, 2011)
believe the alimokon
(turtle dove) to be the
messenger of Mother
Earth. It warns people of
what is to come (Masinaring,
2011)
SS 102N Notes 22
Apayao-Isneg Kalinga Mandaya
Requirements: only
gold traders with retorts
(equipment that keeps the mercury from
escaping during the amalgamation process)
may engage in business
inside the mining
community; construction of
tailings ponds not to pollute
water systems; use of
cyanide is prohibited; timber
for the tunnels requires
permits from the BBA;
burning of forestland for
swiddens - not allowed;
gathering of forest products
is limited to Banao tribe
members; miners who
establish “kampo” or shacks
in Gaang are required to
plant at least five trees a
year within the vicinity;
replace trees used in tunnel
construction, tunnel owners
are required to engage in
reforestation activities (Fiag-oy,
2010)
BBA Funds: from fees and
penalties – fees: from those
who enter the mining site as
miners, traders,
storeowners and haulers;
registration fees imposed on
tunnels and equipment - ball
mills, generators &
chainsaws; Penalties:
violations - illegal cutting of
trees, smuggling of liquor
and illegal entry;
Troublemakers; habitual
violators are banned from
entering the mining area
(Fiag-oy, 2010)
Banao: interconnection keep their close
n.d. between the material and relationship with nature
spiritual worlds - resources and a reverence to
are to be shared with the Magbabaya (Almighty);
spiritual world and must be ancestors defended the
taken care of (Fiag-oy, 2010) land and cared for the
means to acquire earth; strongly believed
houses and agricultural that life should never be
lands especially outside the wasted; beliefs, laws and
territory; major source of practices nurture life and
financial support for most ensure that nature, the
Banao going to college; source of life, will not lose
saga-ok - tunnel owners its balance and
give students some sacks of soundness (Masinaring, 2011)
gold ore instead of the latter
spending time digging for
ore - ball mill owners allow
students the use of their ball
mills and other equipment
for free (Fiag-oy, 2010)
 SS 102N Notes 23

Table 4 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio- Agusan Manobo
political
Organizations
policy against abusive
Factors of fishing but not observed
Culture by migrant settlers who
Change and compete with them in
or Continuity fishing and marketing
what they caught;
not yet been granted
their ancestral domain
title - there are Ilonggo
settlers who registered
their names among other
claimant groups (Masinaring,
2011)
Apayao-Isneg
Education: shift in
leadership from
elderly men to young
and middle-aged
persons (Prill-Brett, 1995)
Kalinga
Chico River Dam projects
that led to the death of
Macliing Dulag;
militarization; logging
concession given to
Cellophil Resources
Corporation (Carino, Regpala, & de
Chavez, 2010)
Mandaya
colonization have
alienated them from their
culture;
influences of schools,
mass media – television
estranged their children
from their own culture and
tradition (Masinaring, 2011)
forest denudation by
logging companies;
excavation of burial
grounds by antique
collectors; excluded from
decision making in
declaring a part of their
ancestral domain as a
“protected zone” as
habitat for the monkey-
eating eagle preventing
them to disturb the area
through their economic
activities despite the fact
that it had been the
logging companies that
denuded their forests
(Masinaring, 2011)

Ascribed and Southern Kalinga: male and balyan - heal the sick
Changing n.d. n.d. female tattoo practitioners – through panawagtawag
Status of skill is transferred not (prayer) and the use of
Women necessarily to a descendant herbal medicines, the
but to a person with keen knowledge of which is
interest in tattooing (Salvador- inspired by her dream;
Amores, 2013)
anyone who dreams of a
In the past, tattooing had
cure, (he or she) will be
high economic return; the source of healing for
customarily, one who wants anyone who sought to be
to be tattooed performs a cured; balyan serves as
paranos (butchering of a the mediator between the
chicken or pig); cost was people and the spirit
high – tattoos on both arms world and the Magbabaya
(women) or chest (men): (Almighty) - done through
medium-sized pig, bundles rituals (Masinaring, 2011)
of rice, silver coins, bahag
and kain, and beads (price
equivalent of a pig or
carabao; signify endurance
of pain, wealth, identity
(Salvador-Amores, 2013)
Tattooed women (daughters
and female first cousins of
successful warriors) –
signify membership in a
renowned clan of warriors
(Salvador-Amores, 2013)
Butbut tribe: tattooing
women – rite of passage for
a young one - integrated
into the adult community,
signify readiness to assume
adult roles – marriage,
childbirth, other forms of
social relations; not to be
ostracized; represents
beauty, strength, character,

Table 4 continued
Justice Pursuit of harmony
System guides the igbujag in
conflict resolution;
Aggrieved party can
demand indemnification
for the speedy solution to
a problem;
Pangayao is resorted to
when nothing else works
to solve a conflict; the
bagani that executes the
pangayao (as last resort)
undergoes a ritual of
cleansing, with the
prayer that good triumph
over the evil; leaders of
the two communities
work together to prevent
pangayao (Masinaring, 2011)
Resolution by
vendetta is temporary;
peace-making is often
the more permanent
solution to feud since it
seals all grievances
unless renewed with the
commission of a new
crime by the other party;
penalty – compensation,
exile, or flight (Torres III, 2014)
Note: Entries were directly quoted from the cited sources where you can read the details.
Legend: n.d. – no data
Traditional: a go-
between to arbitrate
the dispute; fine
imposed – paid
directly – injured
person/family;
Peace pacts for
trading and
exchanging social
obligations with
families (Prill-Brett, 1995)
discipline, fortitude,
other similar traits (Salvador-
Amores, 2013)
Gaang, Banao: women’s
involvement - tasks related
to ore processing: crushing,
grinding, washing and
amalgamation; belief that
women should not enter the
tunnels as the gold will be
difficult to find if women are
around; most women work
as entrepreneurs and
haulers, few women are
engaged in gold trading;
BBA discourages pregnant
and lactating mothers, from
residing in Gaang due to
health hazards from ore
processing (Fiag-oy, 2010)
Budong – political institution
that enables the resolution
of intervillage or inter-region
conflict (Buendia et al., 2006)
Pangats – make peace
when trouble arises;
8 general articles of
their treaties/bodong:
Statement of boundaries;
responsibilities of pact-
holder; each region to
respect the neutrality of the
other; guarantee of
hospitality to visitors; pact-
holders’ responsibility in
cases of illness involving
co-pact citizens; assistance
extended to trading
partners; responsibility in
theft cases; responsibility in
collecting debts (Prill-Brett, 1995)
SS 102N Notes 24
Ancient
(Davao del Norte)
Mandaya: matikadong –
elderly, respected,
obeyed; their advises –
basis of crucial decisions;
acted as judges, as
mediators - peaceful
processes in preventing
bloodshed (Buendia et al., 2006)
(Davao Oriental) Mangkatadong
– resolves problems
based on customary
standards of justice and
morality; upon receipt of
complaint, he starts to
validate and plan the next
course of action;
punishment determined
by the nature and gravity
of the offense;
punishment ranges from
fine to death (dalikop)
(Masinaring, 2011)
Dalikop for rape &
incest: mangkatadong
consults elders, inform
offender’s family/clan –
aggrieved family executes
the dalikop (Masinaring, 2011)
Council of elders
consulted by baganis:
petitions to redress a
mistake or take revenge
via warfare (pangayaw);
size of war captives or
forest area to take;
settlement of intra-domain
disputes; selection of
bagani successor from his
first wife’s sons;
transmission of
commoners’ demands,
needs, and grievances
(Buendia et al., 2006)
 SS 102N Notes 25

Banwa type. This covers, among others, the communities of the Manuvu, Coastal
Bagobo, B’laan, Higaonon, and Cotabato Manobo, with the following characteristics:
1. the presence of an economic base which is anchored on the combination of
productive land use and extensive trade;
2. social stratification is marked; division of labor is clear-cut and specialists in different
areas of activities (industrial metal art crafts) are accorded with appropriate statuses);
3. the family is not center to all activities; it functions only as one of the important
institutions in society;
4. group identification to common alliances and loyalties emanates from the office of the
datu, which is assisted by a council of elders;
5. group norms are based on an elaborate legal system that provides the different units
with basic interpersonal, interfamilial, and interdistrict rules of conduct with respect to
economic, political, and religious activities;
6. authority and governance are supported by a magicolegal set of rules that functions
as the framework for leadership;
7. the presence of elaborate community-wide rituals and ceremonies are participated in
by majority of the people and are differentiated from other types of socio-religious
activities;
8. occupational specialists are present; and warfare is highly institutionalized. (Jocano,
2000, p. 178)

Several indigenous communities in Mindanao are classified under this type. Five of them
are listed in Table 5 to validate some of these characteristics.

Table 5
Socio-political Organizations of the Manuvu, Bagobo, B’laan, Higaonon, and Maranao

Aspects of IP Manuvu Bagobo B’laan Higaonon Maranao

(areas in southern Bukidnon, (interior of Southeastern (concentrated in the (mountainous areas of the (Lanao del Sur, large portion of Lanao
Socio- northeast Cotabato, and Mindanao specifically in the provinces of Sultan provinces of Agusan, Misamis del Norte, some part os Zamboanga de
political northwest Davao provinces) west and northwest of Davao Kudarat, South Oriental, and Bukidnon Sur, Maguindanao, Misamis Oriental,
Gulf and southwestern, southern Cotabato, North [Masinaring, 2011]) Cagayan de Oro City[Torres III, 2014])
Organizations and eastern portion of Mount Cotabato, and Davao del
Apo; Calinan, Toril, Baguio Sur [Masinaring, 2011])
Districts of Davao City, towns of
Sta. Cruz & Bansalan, City of
Digos in Davao del Sur and in
Makilala, Magpet, Tulunan, & in
Kidapawan, North Cotabato
[Masinaring, 2011])
Qualities of Datu: age (1st Leadership qualities Fulong, Articulate in Political and religious
Leaders requisite), of the matanum; datus/elders: customary laws titles – generally
(Masinaring, 2011)
intelligence, magani or bagani - articulate & ascribed and open only
courage, wealth, takes charge in ability to judge not only judge to individuals who
extent of his securing peace and cases involving and arbitrate descend from the
influence over his order in their village conflicts disputes but also original holder of the title
subjects; (Masinaring, 2011) assist the baylan (grar) (Torres III, 2014)
Elders: (shaman) in
Intelligence, religious
integrity, ceremonies (Torres III,
2014)
prudence (Buendia et
al., 2006)
How the Datu or chieftain Matanum Datu/matadong – Sultan – heads the
Leader/s (legislator, judge, (traditional leader); anointed (Masinaring, pyramidal governing
2011);
is/are Chosen commander-in- structure: below the
chief) assisted by sultan is the council of
council of elders; elders and title holders
Prerogative of the Taritib: specifies the
incumbent datu to order of succession of
choose his the descendants;
successor Salsila: traces the
(brother, son, traditional ruling families
cousin) whom he who have the right to
trained (Buendia et al., assume office (Buendia et al.,
2006) 2006)
 SS 102N Notes 26

Table 5 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio- Manuvu Bagobo B’laan Higaonon Maranao
political
Organizations
Chosen matanum - Toos - prospected
Rituals n.d. obliged to plant a leader marked n.d.
Relevant to bamboo seedling in with a red
the Choice a secluded place, handkerchief to
and pouring it with a identify & set him
Ascension to man’s blood so that apart for the task
Power of a the Tigbanwa (the of becoming a
Leader spirit that guides datu;
matanum), may Pagoop – a
dwell in it (Masinaring, pandalawit
2011)
(prayer) to their
maulin-ulin
(spirits), invoking
their guidance and
asking them if the
marked man could
become the
rightful leader;
Pamungkas -
hands of the datu
are smeared
(pamalasan) with
the blood of a
chicken to cleanse
him of impurities;
feet are smeared
with the blood of a
pig to drive away
bad luck;
Dumalongdong -
biggest gathering
of datus from
different towns or
communities –
during which the
new datu is
installed in a mass
ordination;
Masikampo
(highest leader of
the Council of
Datus) administers
and presides the
ritual of
dumalongdong,
part of the ritual,
the newly-installed
datus are given
their respective
tasks (Masinaring, 2011)
Resource agriculture system signed an camote (sweet Agriculture – principal
Utilization & n.d. relates closely with agreement with potato) - their pursuit;
Management nature - take into Dole staple food, Weaving; blacksmithing
account the signs of Philippines to valued more than seem – monopoly –
the seasons - grow humay (rice) Tugaya people (Torres III,
2014)
nature-friendly pineapples - because it
farming methods = allowed to use (camote) sustains Operate retail outlets,
their harvest large the land but set them all year restaurants, other
enough till the next aside 70 round; Rice consumer services (Torres
III, 2014)
cropping season hectares for production is only
(Masinaring, 2011)
pineapple seasonal (Masinaring,
recognize land growing - 2011)
and education as minimum of used to
crucial agents in three years; planting rice, corn,
 SS 102N Notes 27

Table 5 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio- Manuvu Bagobo B’laan Higaonon Maranao
political
Organizations
reviving their culture Dole Ph coffee, abaca,
- education - opened the guiyong (Buendia et al.,
2006)
promote cultural road from
heritage without Barangay swidden or
alienating them from Landan to Sitio sedentary farming,
their roots (Masinaring, Amgu-o fishing, hunting;
2011)
because of the family – unit of
project (Masinaring, subsistence;
2011) hunglos – work
lack of together in
potable water clearing,
in Amgu-o - harvesting or
asked the felling trees (Torres III,
2014)
government to
provide them - lack of access
no response; to basic services:
election time - nearest barangay
remind the health center is 21
politicians what kilometers away
they promised; from Sitio Log
Japanese- Deck;
funded Yamog Except for the
Foundation in hall where the
South Cotabato community held
put up a water their meetings, no
supply system other government
in sitio Amgu-o projects ever
- 2.5 kilometer reached sitio Log
pipe from Ba Deck; water
Landan river to system given only
the community, by Tabang-
eight faucets in Mindanao, a
the community private outreach
(Masinaring, 2011) project;
Abundant existing literacy
Life Church program initiated
established the by Catholic priests
B’laan Dalil from Cagayan de
Christian Oro (Masinaring, 2011)
Academy - delivery of
culture- services and
sensitive welfare was
school with considered poor;
elementary and not all villages
high school have water
levels; tried to system; still resort
put up a to traditional cure
college but did for their illnesses
not pass the even after
standards of consultation at the
the health center
(Buendia et al., 2006)
Commission on
Higher
Education
(CHED) -
required the
school to
provide for
computer
facilities but
there is no
electricity
(Masinaring, 2011)
 SS 102N Notes 28

Table 5 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio- Manuvu Bagobo B’laan Higaonon Maranao
political
Organizations
predominantly believe that the Animists; Islam provides general
Worldview n.d. Christians; take D’wata (God) recognize a principles for the
Relevant to pride in their lives in the hierarchy of deities conduct of religious,
(Torres III, 2014)
Resource traditional religion - upper portion social, cultural,
Use & Sandawa Sarili Langis (SSL);
of Amtotong culture is too economic, political, and
Management believe that Mount (Mt. Matutum), sacred to be legal affairs (Torres III, 2014)
Apo is Apo consider it brought to the Awidan – reciprocity
Sandawa, - a sacred; the open without system – obligates one
sacred mountain Molo (evil one seeking the to distribute a part of
where who takes bad guidance of whatever benefit he
Mandarangan or the souls) resides Magbabaya (God) receives and to assist a
Bagobo warlord, in the lower and the Maulin- relative who is
lives. (Masinaring, 2011) portion; ulin (Spirits of the confronted with a
joining SSL to not make Ancestors) - problematic situation
continue their noises to avoid failure to say the (Torres III, 2014)
struggle towards untoward pandalawit
self-determination; incidents - a lot (prayer) will bring
selling ancestral of spirits live in about illness to the
lands to outsiders the mountain; respondents of the
be stopped (Masinaring, spirits can research (Masinaring,
2011) 2011)
either help or
harm
depending on
the peoples’
personal
relationship
with them
(Masinaring, 2011)
B’laan
weaver, invoke
the spirits of
the lutay
(abaca); design
called kumang
(diamonds in
form) are
interrelated;
various designs
- animals are
depicted in the
tabih for their
praiseworthy
qualities:
python -
medicinal
benefits;
crocodile -
being fierce;
lizard - making
itself invisible
when a
stranger is
nearby; believe
that a long time
ago, the
crocodile lived
among them,
taking the form
of a man who
married one of
their
kinswoman
(Masinaring, 2011)
 SS 102N Notes 29

Table 5 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio- Manuvu Bagobo B’laan Higaonon Maranao
political
Organizations
Colonization of land – worsened by the central State and local government officials’ neglect of the poor in rural
Factors of communities, accompanied by political repression, militarization and discrimination towards Muslims and
Culture indigenous people in the countryside (Torres III, 2014)
Change and Continued economic exclusion of Muslim Mindanao from the Philippine economic growth since the
or Continuity country’s recovery from the 1997 financial crisis (Torres III, 2014) (Torres III, 2014) (Torres III, 2014)
Waves of Attitude of From 1966: Traditional political
n.d. colonization – some Christian logging companies system – undermined by
religious orders; settlers who came - Poblete the Ph system of
plantation economy disrespect the logging, Tan governance – council
with migrant sacredness of Singko, then the elders reduced to
workers-settlers their mountain; Bautista symbolic leaders (Buendia et
(Buendia et al., 2006) al., 2006)
experience companies
late ‘80s and from a (Masinaring, 2011) 1980s: fish
early ‘90s: among Maranao Different population reduced –
the IPs who trader; land religious sects introduction of new
protested against grabbing by came, contributing species, construction of
the geothermal newcomers to the disunity of a dam at its outlet, Agus
project of the and settlers – the Higaonon; Hydro-Electric Plant I
(Torres III, 2014)
Philippine National B’laan had no money was also
Oil Company introduced (Masinaring, Gun smuggling and
titles; 2011) proliferation of loose
(PNOC) that tapped sought
the geothermal Some local firearms (Torres III, 2014)
assistance officials in
energy from Mt. Apo from MILF - led
(Masinaring, 2011) Malitbog had been
strong influences to militarization eyeing the
of the culture of of their place potentials of
(Masinaring, 2011)
mainstream realized chromite mining in
Filipinos - make it that: contract Mount
difficult to transmit growing buried Pangabolan in
cultural heritage to them deeper sitio Log Deck
(Masinaring, 2011)
the younger into debts;
generation; only the new leader
productivity of allowed mining
older generation one hectare
remain to practice firms into their
pineapple farm ancestral domain
their old customs is much less (Masinaring, 2011)
and beliefs (Masinaring, than that of a
2011)
one hectare
planted with
assorted crops;
produce of a
one hectare
land planted
with various
crops is
equivalent to
the yield of five
hectares
planted with
pineapple
(Masinaring, 2011)
Not participate SSL - woman weaver of Datu for Weaving Weaving – mats and
Ascribed and nor interfere in presides the tabih, wants to or Tagahabol (a malong – done solely by
Changing political matters; celebration; only teach the youth post always women (Torres III, 2014)
Status of role – household she can see and her skills in reserved for a Hold auxiliary titles:
Women chores – child read the text directly weaving woman); Bai a Labi (equivalent of
(Masinaring, 2011)
rearing, tending to coming from the elders (both father sultan); Potri Maamor or
the farm after – bottle that contained and mother) teach Bai - inherit matrilineally
planted by men the oil - text teaches their children - be – function – settle
(Buendia et al., 2006)
moral values to the good persons; problems related to
Bagobo (Masinaring, 2011) bai mangangapog women’s affairs (Buendia et
al., 2006)
- one who
prepares the Highly regarded as
ingredients peace advisers; women
needed for a ritual leaders serve as
(Masinaring, 2011) facilitators, counselors,
 SS 102N Notes 30

Table 5 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio- Manuvu Bagobo B’laan Higaonon Maranao
political
Organizations
& advisers; assigned to
Ascribed and resolve cases: rape,
Changing battering of women,
Status of child abuse, marital
Women problems, also:
attempted
murder/homicide, land
disputes, physical
injuries, and theft (Torres III,
2014)
First occurrence of
rido, serve as shields,
because they are spared
from retaliatory attacks –
women are respected
and not to be hurt,
according to custom;
first one to initiate the
settlement since they
are among the most
affected whenever rido
breaks out. Men usually
hid when there is rido,
so women are forced to
take over the roles of
men as negotiatiors and
financial providers for
the family (Torres III, 2014)
Women of power,
wealth, and with higher
education (like Princess
Tarhata Alonto) had
been effective mediators
(Torres III, 2014)
Chieftain’s Datu invites another sadyandi - pact (Rogongon, Iligan Council of Elders
Justice decision is fully datu to settle to eliminate City): after the presided by the Sultan in
System respected – disputes within his hostilities settlement, both conflict resolution (Buendia
subordinates – territory if he can’t between parties perform a et al., 2006)

always loyal, resolve it by himself conflicting peace ceremony Phangokuman –

never attempting (Buendia et al., 2006)
groups - invoke to restore good traditional court – head –
to betray him or spirits to relations (Torres III, Sultan: acts as mediator;
undermine his witness the 2014) assisted – datus & some
authority (Buendia et ceremony - (Hagpa, learned men particularly
al., 2006)
both parties Bukidnon): land the ulama; Venue:
make a little and marriage house of sultan,
incision on their conflicts – solved sometimes – mosque;
left chest to through Mediation – main mode
take a drop of negotiation and of settling disputes –
blood, put into mediation; murder frequently results in
a glass of wine, – through bangon intermarriages (Torres III,
2014)
drinks from the (culprit pays an
amount of money Some disputes are
glass to signify settled by the sultan,
his agreement; and gives a
carabao to the datus, and sometimes
matfu (curse, through the cooperation
i.e., the victim’s family –
livelihood & of public officials (Torres III,
stomach of the 2014)
violator will believed that the Traditional Forms of
burst) to violate spirit of the victim Punishment:
what is agreed enters the animal enslavement &
on (Masinaring, 2011) = no more retribution (murder,
fulong imprisonment – adultery, rape);
(council of believed that man compensation and fine;
elders) settles by nature is good, death penalty does not
conflicts, if not given a chance, exist under the laws of
resolved, can mend his way; the sultan (Torres III, 2014)
 SS 102N Notes 31

Table 5 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio- Manuvu Bagobo B’laan Higaonon Maranao
political
Organizations
elevate to the datus abolished Major Causes of Rido
Justice datu of the death penalty; (clan conflict – not present in all
System clan; datu of where one party is Maranao areas): politics;
the community non-Higaonan – pride/
resolves major barangay justice maratabat; retaliation;
conflicts; applies (Torres III, 2014) accident; drug related
dispute cases (Torres III, 2014)
settlement – unresolved disputes
negotiations pose dangers for
among the everyone in the
fulong – sttled community – bangsa
when offender affiliations, friendship,
gave material links of obligation are
things (horses, dispersed widely (Torres III,
2014)
gongs) to the
victim; failure to Consequences of
pay – Rido: financial burdens;
contributions property loss; transfer of
from relatives residency; non-
and the fulong performance of religious
(Masinaring, 2011) obligations due to
constant hiding;
disruption of children’s
academic life; emotional
instability resulting from
constant fear and
tension (Torres III, 2014)
Reasons for failure in
settling Rido: both
parties did not cooperate
or without s recognized
leader; blood money
was not raised;
aggrieved bent on
retaliation; aggressor
are hard headed;
instigation by a third
party for non-resolution;
biased mediators (Torres III,
2014)
Effective mediators:
arsenal of power and
influence in the
community in terms of
material resources and
following; relationship to
the disputants – at
times a part of their
wealth is used to fill in
the amount that the
aggressor fails to raise
for the blood money and
other expenses (Torres III,
2014)
Effective mediators:
arsenal of power and
influence in the
community in terms of
material resources and
following; relationship to
the disputants – at
times a part of their
wealth is used to fill in
the amount that the
aggressor fails to raise
 SS 102N Notes 32

Table 5 continued

Aspects of IP
Socio- Manuvu Bagobo B’laan Higaonon Maranao
political
Organizations
for the blood money and
Justice other expenses (Torres III,
2014)
System
Swearing before the
Qur’an by the feuding
families – given
emphasis in the ritual for
conflict resolution –
makes them aware of
the sanctity of the
process (Torres III, 2014)

Note: Entries were directly quoted from the cited sources where you can read the details.
Legend: n.d. – no data

Unit References

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Manila. http://www.mangyan.org/content/philippine-halo-halo-mangyans-mindoro
 SS 102N Notes 33

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Masinaring, M.R.N. (2011). Understanding the Lumad: A closer look at a misunderstood culture. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation.
http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all-resources/category/8-books?download=917:understanding-the-lumad-revised-edition.
Also F306.095997 M378

Minter, T., van der Ploeg, J., Sunderland, T., & Persoon, G.A. (2014). Limits to Indigenous Participation: The Agta and the Northern
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 SS 102N Notes 34

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 SS 102N Notes 35

Unit 3
PHILIPPINE NATIONAL LAND USE POLICIES AND THE INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES’ LAND RIGHTS
The preceding Unit had shown that the indigenous peoples adhere to the principles of
sharing and stewardship over their resources. What happened and are happening to these
principles under the colonial and postcolonial regimes is what this Unit attempts to explore and
explain.
Relevant in the discussion of land use policies and land rights are the concepts defined
by RA 8371 (The Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act of 1997):
Ancestral Domains — xxx all areas generally belonging to ICCs/IPs comprising lands,
inland waters, coastal areas, and natural resources therein, held under a claim of
ownership, occupied or possessed by ICCs/IPs, by themselves or through their
ancestors, communally or individually since time immemorial, continuously to the present
except when interrupted by war, force majeure or displacement by force, deceit, stealth
or as a consequence of government projects or any other voluntary dealings entered into
by government and private individuals/corporations, and which are necessary to ensure
their economic, social and cultural welfare. xxx include ancestral lands, forests, pasture,
residential, agricultural, and other lands individually owned whether alienable and
disposable or otherwise, hunting grounds, burial grounds, worship areas, bodies of
water, mineral and other natural resources, and lands which may no longer be
exclusively occupied by ICCs/IPs but from which they traditionally had access to for their
subsistence and traditional activities, particularly the home ranges of ICCs/IPs who are
still nomadic and/or shifting cultivators;
Ancestral Lands — xxx land occupied, possessed and utilized by individuals,
families and clans who are members of the ICCs/IPs since time immemorial, by
themselves or through their predecessors-in-interest, under claims of individual or
traditional group ownership, continuously, to the present except when interrupted by war,
force majeure or displacement by force, deceit, stealth, or as a consequence of
government projects and other voluntary dealings entered into by government and
private individuals/corporations, including, but not limited to, residential lots, rice terraces
or paddies, private forests, swidden farms and tree lots;
Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title — xxx title formally recognizing the rights of
possession and ownership of ICCs/IPs over their ancestral domains identified and
delineated in accordance with this law;
Certificate of Ancestral Lands Title — xxx title formally recognizing the rights of
ICCs/IPs over their ancestral lands;
Customary Laws — xxx a body of written and/or unwritten rules, usages,
customs and practices traditionally and continually recognized, accepted and observed
by respective ICCs/IPs;
Free and Prior Informed Consent — xxx the consensus of all members of the
ICCs/IPs to be determined in accordance with their respective customary laws and
practices, free from any external manipulation, interference and coercion, and obtained
after fully disclosing the intent and scope of the activity, in a language and process
understandable to the community;
Indigenous Political Structures — xxx organizational and cultural leadership
systems, institutions, relationships, patterns and processes for decision-making and
 SS 102N Notes 36

participation, identified by ICCs/IPs such as, but not limited to, Council of Elders, Council
of Timuays, Bodong Holders, or any other tribunal or body of similar nature;
Individual Claims — xxx claims on land and rights thereon which have been
devolved to individuals, families and clans including, but not limited to, residential lots,
rice terraces or paddies and tree lots;
Native Title — xxx pre-conquest rights to lands and domains which, as far back
as memory reaches, have been held under a claim of private ownership by ICCs/IPs,
have never been public lands and are thus indisputably presumed to have been held that
way since before the Spanish Conquest;
Nongovernment Organization — xxx a private, nonprofit voluntary organization
that has been organized primarily for the delivery of various services to the ICCs/IPs and
has an established track record for effectiveness and acceptability in the community
where it serves;
People’s Organization — xxx a private, nonprofit voluntary organization of
members of an ICC/IP which is accepted as representative of such ICCs/IPs;
Sustainable Traditional Resource Rights — xxx rights of ICCs/IPs to sustainably
use, manage, protect and conserve a) land, air, water, and minerals; b) plants, animals
and other organisms; c) collecting, fishing and hunting grounds; d) sacred sites; and e)
other areas of economic, ceremonial and aesthetic value in accordance with their
indigenous knowledge, beliefs, systems and practices; and
Time Immemorial — xxx a period of time when as far back as memory can go,
certain ICCs/IPs are known to have occupied, possessed in the concept of owner, and
utilized a defined territory devolved to them, by operation of customary law or inherited
from their ancestors, in accordance with their customs and traditions.

Table 1
Colonial Policies and Legacies that Affect the IPs’ Land Use and Tenure

Colonial
Policies/Legacies Goals/Salient Features

Regalian Doctrine considered the entire Philippine archipelago as property of the Spanish crown
except those lands that were titled to private individuals (Hermoso, 1994)
Torrens System, “all lands be registered with the State, and that private land would be issued
or Land titles under the Torrens titling system” (Tapang, 2007)
Registration Act “Privately-owned lands – by individuals and corporations – were registered
No. 496, 1902 and titled” (Danguilan-Vitug, 1993)
“Land registration system in which the government is the keeper of all land
and title records, and a land title serves as a certificate of full, indefeasible, and
valid ownership.” (http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/Torrens-system.html)
Philippine Bill of Set the ceilings on the hectarage of private individuals and corporations may
1902 acquire: 16 has. for private individuals and 1,024 has. for corporations.
The Torrens system, which the Americans instituted for the registration of
lands, did not solve the problem completely. Either they were not aware of the
law or if they did, they could not pay the survey cost and other fees required in
applying for a Torrens title. http://www.dar.gov.ph
 SS 102N Notes 37

Table 1 continued

Colonial
Policies/Legacies Goals/Salient Features
Land Registration “declared all lands subject to the Torrens system of formal registration of
Act of 1902 (Act land title and empowered the State to issue to any legitimate claimant secure
No. 496) proof of title over a parcel of land. This system turned land into a commodity that
could be traded by the exchange of a piece of paper” (http://arizonajournal.org/wp-
content/uploads/2015/11/Molintas.pdf)

Commonwealth xxx the Director of Lands shall have direct executive control of the survey,
Act 141 (Public classification, lease, sale or any other form of concession or disposition and
Land Act) management of the lands of the public domain, and his decisions as to questions
of fact shall be conclusive when approved by the Secretary of Agriculture and
Commerce. (C.A. No. 141, sec. 4)
xxx President, upon the recommendation of the Secretary of Agriculture and
Commerce, shall from time to time classify the lands of the public domain into —
(a) Alienable or disposable; (b) Timber, and (c) Mineral lands, and
may at any time and in a like manner transfer such lands from one class to
another, for the purposes of their administration and disposition (C.A. No. 141, sec. 6)

Commonwealth Section3. All mineral lands of the public domain and minerals belonging to the
Act No. 137 State, and their disposition, exploitation, development, or utilization, shall be
limited to citizens of the Philippines, or to corporations, or associations, at least
60% of the capital of which is owned by such citizens, xxx
Section 4. The ownership and the right to the use of land for agricultural,
industrial, commercial, residential, or for any purpose other than mining does not
include the ownership of, nor the right to extract or utilize, the minerals which
may be found on or under the surface.
Section 5. The ownership of, and the right to extract and utilize, the mineral
included within all areas for which public agricultural land patents are granted
are excluded and excepted from all such patents.
Section6. The ownership of, and the right to extract and utilize, the minerals
included within all areas for which Torrens titles are granted are excluded and
excepted from all such titles.

Philippine “ordered that all unregistered lands become part of the public domain, and that
Commission Act only the State had the authority to classify or exploit the same” (http://arizonajournal.org/wp-
No. 178 of 1903 content/uploads/2015/11/Molintas.pdf)

Forestry Act, 1904 “to encourage rational exploitation of the forests by installation of an appropriate
regulatory environment to prescribe fees and taxes, and to define parameters for
conversion of forest land to agriculture” (Pulhin, 2002)

Mining Law of “gave the Americans the right to acquire public land for mining purposes”
1905 (http://arizonajournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Molintas.pdf)

Public Land Acts “opened Mindanao and all other fertile lands that the State considered
of 1913, 1919 and unoccupied, unreserved, or otherwise unappropriated public lands to
1925 homesteaders and corporations, despite the fact that indigenous peoples were
living in these lands” (http://arizonajournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Molintas.pdf)

Section 9. (Jones ―Public Property and Legislation on Public Domain, Timber and Mining
Law, 1916) That all the property and rights which may have been acquired in the Philippine
Islands by the United States under the treaty of peace with Spain, xxx, except
such land or other property as has been or shall be designated by the President
of the United States for military and other reservations of the Government of the
United States, and all lands which may have been subsequently acquired by the
 SS 102N Notes 38

Table 1 continued

Colonial
Policies/Legacies Goals/Salient Features
Section 9. (Jones Government of the Philippine Islands by purchase xxx, are hereby placed under
Law, 1916) the control of the government of said Islands to be administered or disposed of
for the benefit of the inhabitants thereof xxx
Section 11, Jones xxx taxes and assessments on property, xxx, may be imposed for the purposes of
Law, 1916 the Philippine Government and the provincial and municipal governments
thereof, xxx
Forest Law 1917 xxx “establishedcommunal forests and pastures for the use of communities,
though the forest land itself remained under state control” (Pulhin, 2002)
1935 Constitution Stipulated that all forest lands belong to the state (Pulhin, 2002)

Forestry xxx “residents

of a municipality were granted the privilege to cut, collect and
Administrative remove free of charge, forest products for their personal use xxx issuance of a
Order No. 14-1 xxx permit by the Bureau of Forestry was needed xxx in order to harvest timber
(1941) in the communal forest ” xxx (Pulhin, 2002)
Notes: Entries were directly lifted from the cited sources.
Read the required reading materials (1,2, & 3) in Appendix C.

Table 2
Post-Colonial/National Land Use Policies that Affect the IPs’ Native Titles
Post-
Colonial/ Salient Features
National Land
Use Policies
PD 705 “declares all lands 18% in slope or over are automatically considered as forestland
and therefore not alienable and disposable unless released from the forest zone”
(http://arizonajournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Molintas.pdf)

PD 1559 Presidential Decree 1559 – kaingeros (slash-and-burn dwellers), squatters, cultural

minorities, and other occupants of public forests or unclassified public land shall,
whenever the best land use of the area so demands, be ejected and relocated to the
nearest government settlement area (https://www.academia.edu/1851330/Communal-Land-Management-in-the-Cordillera-Region-
chap02)

RA 7942 “facilitates the entry of large foreign and local mining corporations to enter the
(Mining Act of mineral-rich territories of indigenous peoples xxx opens up the mining sector to 100%
1995) foreign control. Most of the exploration permits applications for Financial and
Technical Assistance Agreements (FTAA) and Mineral Production Sharing
Agreements (MPSA), and mining operations cover ancestral lands of the indigenous
peoples” (http://arizonajournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Molintas.pdf)
RA 8371 “xxx recognizes the indigenous peoples’ rights to their ancestral lands and domain,
(Indigenous and specifically sets forth the indigenous concept of ownership xxx recognizes that
Peoples indigenous peoples’ ancestral domain is community property that belongs to all
Rights Act) generations xxx recognizes the customs of indigenous peoples and their right to self -
governance and empowerment” (http://arizonajournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Molintas.pdf)
RA 7586 “effectively deprived xxx, living in and around the mountain, of their right to utilize the
(National natural resources that had traditionally sustained them xxx endeavors to map and
Integrated zone areas to be preserved for ecological reasons xxx limits the entry of IPs and
Protected their economic activities into areas such as watersheds and national parks xxx
Areas [NIPAS]) effectively curtails the rights of IPs to utilize the natural resources that sustain them”
(http://arizonajournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Molintas.pdf)
Notes: Entries were directly lifted from the cited sources.
 SS 102N Notes 39

Read the required reading materials (3,4, 5, 6, & 7) in Appendix C.

Reflect on the following:

1. Factors that contribute to deforestation in the Philippines
2. How the national forestry policies affect the natural capital of the IPs and the entire Filipino
nation
3. Factors that affect the productivity of the mining industry in the Philippines
4. How the mining policy affect the natural capital of the IPs and the entire Filipino nation
5. Give a critique on the forestry and mining policies of the Philippines
6. Pros and Cons of Mining
7. Use the functionalist perspective in explaining the environmental problems in the Philippines
8. Role of the citizens in the protection of their nation’s natural capital
9. Conflict of laws

Table 3
IPs’ Experiences in Securing their Land Rights

Natural Year/ Economic Environmental Social Costs Status of Mechanisms

Groups

Capital Introduction Benefits Costs CADT/CALT to Strengthen

IP

of New Application the IP Group

Practices
Rivers teemed 1964: logging Employment Landslides Bribes and CADT was Join various
with crabs and companies became as the processed but training,
Livelihood;
(Napnapan, Pantukan, Compostela Valley)

freshwater perennial as the organization not yet educational

fish, other 1978: small- Honoraria, rains of the pro- released seminars,
edibles; scale mining scholarships company workshops on
Upland rice, 1994: for children, Rivers – tribal council land laws;
Mansaka

sweet potato, became big- travelling biologically divided the

gabi, other scale mining allowances dead; worsened community Vowed not to
root crops; without FPIC deforestation be swayed by
Forest: wild any form of
2000: banana bribes
game – deer, plantations on
wild boar 1,000 has. Of
ancestral
domain
River teemed 1980s: Environmental Many turned CADT for Helped in
with wild fish, Christian n.d. destruction their backs 4,000 has. – crafting –
crabs, religious on their own awarded in Ancestral
shrimps; groups – folk beliefs 2001 Domain
missionary Sustainable
(Manurigao, New Bataan, Compostela Valley)

Community’s school – Development

forests: deer, curriculum – and Protection
boars, evangeliza- Plan in 2003;
monkeys, wild tion though
Mandaya

chickens, unimplement-
other wildlife 1980s: ed – continue
species, and outsiders to fine tune
medicines began logging
their forests Blocked the
entry of small-
2004: mining sale miners to
activities protect their
spearheaded own small-
by a former scale mining
mayor operations
Encroach- Denudation of Schools and Delay in the
n.d. ment by n.d. ancestral media processing of n.d.
(Davao Oriental)
Mandaya

outsiders into domain estranged their CADT

their lands; the children
from their
own culture
 SS 102N Notes 40

Table 3 continued

Natural Year/ Economic Environmental Social Costs Status of Mechanisms

Groups

Capital Introduction Benefits Costs CADT/CALT to Strengthen

IP

of New Application the IP Group

Practices

n.d. Logging n.d. Fear of n.d.

companies not having
operate for titles to their
many years lands and the
deprivation of
their children
of education
resulted to
their
conversion to
(Davao Oriental)
Mandaya

Christianity
which eroded
their farming
and healing
rituals
Tradition
of sharing the
fruits of one’s
labor to a
neighbor or
even a
passer-by is
gone
Swidden Turn of the Learned to Logging wiped Disunity 1995: Organized
fields: rice, 20th century: earn as out almaciga brought DENR their ranks and
cassava, large-scale wage trees in about by granted sought
sweet logging laborers; Cabayugan some stewardship assistance
potatoes, Lowlanders developed (Cola, 2007) members rights over from PAFID
bananas and developed handcrafted who sought their ancestral
vegetables farmlands products; individual domain
Forests: Eco-tourism Honed claims and 1997:
wild fruits – industry and their trading titles; converted to
mangos, cash skills; Ruined CADC
rambutan, economy Ability to the peoples' 2004:
durian, wild (Cola, 2007) adapt to sense of awarded as
pigs, wild environment communalis CADT which
honey; rattan -al changes; m and covered their
and almaciga Realized community land, seas,
(Coron, Puerto Princesa, Palawan)

resin, palm that tourism spirit. and air above

leaves and can operate A minority and around
Tagbanwa/ua

bamboo; side by side in the groups their territory

Rivers and with environ- of service
the Sea: mental providers for
fishing using protection; tourists;
boat, hook Community- Most
and line, nets, managed interventions
and spears rattan introduced
(Cola, 2007) trading was aimed at
introduced, increasing
water supply income not
system, much on
community improving
eco-tourism; their well-
tour guide being: basic
training, education;
livelihood health and
projects – all sanitation
these services;
interventions and, trans-
in enterprise portation
manage- (Cola, 2007)
ment met
 SS 102N Notes 41

Table 3 continued

Natural Year/ Economic Environmental Social Costs Status of Mechanisms

Groups

Capital Introduction Benefits Costs CADT/CALT to Strengthen

IP

of New Application the IP Group

Practices

very modest
(Coron, Puerto Princesa, Palawan)

success as
they are not
Tagbanwa/ua

consistent
with their
survival
strategies
(Cola, 2007)

8 clean rivers 1972: logging Rivers and 1994: with the

(Tagabukid of San Diego, Sibuyan, Romblon)

and thick operations n.d. forests were n.d. help of n.d.

forests started ruined PAFID,
processed
Mining their CADC
companies and
Mangyan

entered eventually got

despite the two CADTs
CADTs

Maize is Christian Livelihood Forest cover Divisions 1995: with

grown to migrants receded developed PAFID’s n.d.
purchase rice assistance,
from the Logging Severe land NGOs prepared 6
lowlands; rice operations erosion sympathetic applications
eaten during to the NDF for CADC
Mining interfered
the planting
season in 1992: with with the land 1998: DENR
April PAFID, surveys and issued a
(Buhid, Mindoro)

document CADC to the

Mangyans

signed with
Rest of the DENR – preparation Buhid
year: Community required for
dependent on CADC 2009: NCIP
Forest finally
non-grain Stewardship application
swiddens – approved a
Agreements CADT but not
yams, sweet
potato, taro, issued due to
maniac, the
bananas unresolved
claims by
lowland
migrants

Legend: n.d. – no data

Notes: Entries were directly lifted from Carino et al. (2010); Cola (2007); Gibson (2015); Masinaring (2011).

Read the required reading materials (7,8, & 9) in Appendix C

Reflect on the following:

1. Common threats to the IPs’ land rights
2. Resulting cultural changes in the indigenous communities
3. Shortcomings of concerned government agencies and NGOs’ in securing the IPs’ land rights
4. Significant role of the civil society in securing the IPs’ land rights
5. How IPs are empowering themselves to be assertive of their rights
6. How loss of land rights results to loss of IP culture
 SS 102N Notes 42

Unit References

Carino, J., Regpala, M.E. & de Chavez, R. (Eds.). (2010). Asserting land rights. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation

Cola, R.M. (2007). The impact of ecotourism on the Batak and Tagbanua. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-
bangkok/---ilo-manila/documents/publication/wcms_124793.pdf

Crisologo-Mendoza, L. & Prill-Brett, J. (n.d.). Communal land management in the Cordillera region of the Philippines.
https://www.academia.edu/1851330/Communal-Land-Management-in-the-Cordillera-Region-chap02

Danguilan-Vitug, M. (1993). The politics of logging: Power from the forest. Philippines: Philippine Center for Investigative
Journalism.

Gibson, T. (2015). Sacrifice and sharing in the Philippine highlands: Religion and society among the Buid of Mindoro . Quezon City:
Ateneo de Manila University Press. F305.89921 G3571

Hermoso, R.R. (Ed.). (1994). Development and democracy: A people’s agenda. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila Center for Social
Policy and Public Affairs

Masinaring, M.R.N. (2011). Understanding the Lumad: A closer look at a misunderstood culture. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation.
http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all-resources/category/8-books?download=917:understanding-the-lumad-revised-edition. Also
F306.095997 M378

Molintas, J.M. (2004). The Philippine indigenous peoples’ struggle for land and life: Challenging legal texts. Arizona Journal of
International & Comparative Law. 21, (1). http://arizonajournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Molintas.pdf

Prill-Brett, J. (2015). Tradition and transformation: Studies on Cordillera indigenous culture. UP Baguio: Cordillera Studies Center.
SC-Cor 306.0959917 B7566

Pulhin, J.M. (2002). Trends in forest policy of the Philippines. College of Forestry and Natural Resources, UP Los Banos.
https://pub.iges.or.jp/system/files/publication_documents/pub/policyreport/180/03_Philippines.pdf

Raluto, R.D. (2015). Poverty and ecology at the crossroads. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University. F 201.77599 R1399

Raymundo, R.D. (2014). The Philippine Mining Act of 1995: Is the law sufficient in achieving the goals of output growth, attracting
foreign investment, environmental protection and preserving sovereignty? School of Economics, DLSU, Presented at the
DLSU Research Congress 2014. https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/pdf/conferences/research-congress-
proceedings/2014/SEE/SEE-III-026-FT.pdf

RA 8371. The Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act of 1997. https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1997/10/29/republic-act-no-8371/

Tapang, B.P. (Ed.). (2007). Cordillera in June: Essays celebrating June Prill-Brett, anthropologist. Quezon City: University of the
Philippines Press.

Tujan, A. Jr., (2002). Corporate imperialism in the Philippines. In Evans, G., Goodman, J., & Lansbury, N. (Eds.), (2002). Moving
mountains: Communities confront mining & globalization. New York: Zed Books

http://www.dar.gov.ph
 SS 102N Notes 43

Unit 4
UNDRIP, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, AND THE INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES’ SOCIO-ECONOMIC-POLITICAL RIGHTS
The struggle for the recognition and protection of the indigenous peoples’ rights had been an
uphill battle. And even with the signing of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
(UNDRIP), the IPs continue to fight for the legislation of laws relevant to the realization of the UNDRIP in
their respective countries. For IPs whose governments had enacted laws recognizing their IP rights, the
struggle is focused on raising public awareness on IP rights, organizing and or capacity building for the
IPs as well as monitoring and evaluating the implementation of relevant laws and international
agreements.
Table 1 is an overview of the conferences and declarations that laid the foundations for the
recognition of the IPs’ rights. Appendix C provides some of the details in appreciating these conferences
and declarations.
Table 2, on the other hand, is a comparison of the dominant economic model and alternative
models for development. The required readings in Appendix support the alternative models of
development in Table 2 by presenting actual cases of self-determined and sustainable development
initiatives that respect the IPs’ socio-economic-political rights.

Table 1
Pre-UNDRIP International Conferences and Declarations Relevant to IP Rights

Conferences/Declarations Relevance to IP Rights

Bodies
lateral
Multi-

Convention No. 107 (1967) Concerning the protection and integration of indigenous and other tribal
Organization
International

and semi-tribal populations in independent countries

Labor

Convention No. 169 (1989) Concerning indigenous and tribal peoples in independent countries

Basic Need Approach goal of establishing a minimum standard of living

First Development Decade five percent target minimum economic growth was set for the
(1960-1970) underdeveloped world;

to ensure a balance between economic and social development, xxx

one percent of developed countries' incomes should go to
underdeveloped nations in the form of international aid and financial
assistance xxx lowered to 0.7 percent in subsequent decades;
United Nations

massive infrastructures like highways and mega-hydroelectric dams

were built in indigenous territories in Latin America, Asia and Africa;
entry of mining, logging, and oil and gas corporations into indigenous
territories also led to their forcible displacement and militarization of
their communities

Second Development Merging of economic and social development was proposed –

Decade (1970 – 1980) favorable to the IPs

1979: Commission on central purpose of development is the realization of the potentialities of

Human Rights report on the the human person xxx respect for human rights is fundamental; the
international aspects of the opportunity for full participation xxx; the principles of equality and non-
right to development discrimination xxx a degree of individual and collective self-reliance xxx
 SS 102N Notes 44

Table 1 continued
Bodies

Conferences/Declarations Relevance to IP Rights

lateral
Multi-

1982: UN Working Group mandated to review developments concerning indigenous peoples and
on Indigenous Populations to develop international standards on indigenous peoples' rights
was established
1986: UN Declaration on Agenda of developing countries: reduce inequities of international
the Right to Development trade, the negative impacts of globalization, differential access to
technology, the crushing debt burden, and similar factors they see as
detrimental to the enjoyment of human rights and development
Report of the open-ended emphasis on the primacy of participation and the creation of
United Nations

working group (OEWG) and appropriate development policies resonates with the IPs’ assertion -
the Independent Expert right to freely determine xxx economic, social and cultural development.
Equity and social justice are also identified as key objectives of
development, and not just economic growth
1993 World Conference on indigenous peoples succeeded in pushing a recommendation for the
Human Rights in Vienna establishment of the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Peoples
Human Rights Committee interpreted Article 27 (UN Declaration on Human Rights) to include the
"rights of persons, in community with others, to engage in economic
and social activities which are part of the culture of the community to
which they belong."
1997: Committee on the recommended, among others, ‘recognize and respect indigenous
Elimination of Racial distinct culture, history, language and way of life as an enrichment of
Discrimination the State's cultural identity and to promote its preservation …’
Developing countries stated strongly that sovereignty is nothing if the
UN Conference on

1964: UNCTAD meeting world’s economic resources remain concentrated in the hands of
Development

former colonizers
(UNCTAD)
Trade and

1972: Third UNCTAD Issue of rights was brought into the development discourse – that the
meeting governments in the South have the right to development
Declaration of Cocoyoc States that the aim of development is not to develop things but to
(October 1974 symposium) develop man
Development (UNCED)

1992: Earth Summit “Recognizing and Strengthening the Role of Indigenous Peoples and
UN Conference on
Environment and

their Communities," which identified indigenous peoples as a major

group that will help bring about sustainable development

1971: authorized the UN to undertake a study on the "Problem of Discrimination Against

Sub-Commission on the Indigenous Populations”
UNESCO

Prevention of
Discrimination and
Protection of Minorities
 SS 102N Notes 45

Table 1 continued

1975: Accra to affirm the principle of incorporating a cultural dimension in

Intergovernmental development
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Conference on Cultural
Policies in Africa
1977: International NGO approved the "Declaration of Principles for the Defense of Indigenous
Conference on Nations and Peoples of the Western Hemisphere" xxx, through its
Discrimination Against Economic Commission, gave a scathing critique of development and
Indigenous Populations in the role of multinational corporations
the Americas
(UNESCO)

1981: Conference of issued a Declaration proclaiming that "ethno-development is an

UN

Specialists on Ethnocide alienable right of Indian groups" and affirming their "inalienable right" to
and Ethnodevelopment in consolidate their cultural identity and to "exercise … self-
Latin America determination."
1982: World Conference on defined development as " ... a complex, comprehensive and
Cultural Policies multidimensional process which extends beyond mere economic
(MONDIACULT) growth to incorporate all dimensions of life and all the energies of a
community, all of whose members are called upon to make a
contribution and can expect to share in the benefits."
2001: Universal Declaration highlights the link of culture and development and establishes that the
on Cultural Diversity guarantee for cultural diversity to flourish is the respect of human rights,
among others
Notes: Entries were directly lifted from, Early engagements of indigenous peoples with the international community, in Tauli-Corpuz,
V., Enkiwe-Abayao, L., & de Chavez, R. [Eds.]. [2010]. Towards an alternative development paradigm: Indigenous people’s
self-determined development. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation

Read the required reading materials (1 & 2) in Appendix D.

Reflect on the following:

1. Implications of the blue water thesis
2. ILO’s assimilationist framework
3. Initiatives of UN bodies in integrating IPs’ issues in the development discourse
4. Concept of endogenous development
5. Significance of the UN Declaration on the right to development
6. Difficulties in the implementation of the right to development
7. Invisibility of the IPs in the development discourse
8. Link between development and cultural aggression
9. Cultural right and the survival of the IPs
10. Implications of UNESCO’s definition of culture
11. Link between the elimination of all forms of discrimination and development
12. How IPs participated and the fruits of their participation in multilateral and treaty bodies

13. Security given by UNDRIP to IPs

14. Countering Huntington’s clash of civilizations/cultures
15. Significance of the mandate of the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues
16. Meaning and relevance of indigenous traditional knowledge
 SS 102N Notes 46

Table 2
Models of Development Relevant to IP Rights

Development Models
Dominant Human Ecosystem Human Rights-Based
Development Development Approach Approach to IP
Model Development
or Development with
Culture and Identity
Principles Development is Initial indicators: Biodiversity Humans to live within
equated with longevity, conservation, the limits of the natural
economic growth; education, mitigation and world, underpinned by
standard of living; adaptation to climate the values of reciprocity,
Gross Domestic change; solidarity, equilibrium
Product (GDP) is Aims to put and collectivity
the main people back at Strategy for the
measure for the center of integrated Characterized by having
wellbeing; development and management of land, a holistic approach,
enlarge people’s water and living seeking to build on
Economic and choices and resources that collective right, food
political freedoms; promote security and sovereignty
advancement conservation and and greater control and
enjoyed by Human sustainable use in an self-governance of
America and the Development equitable way; lands, territories and
industrialized Index (HDI): resources, it builds on
West became the investments in Involves taking tradition with respect for
norm for education, health account of vital ancestors, but looking
developing and skills, more ecosystem functions forward;
countries equitable and valuing the
distribution of ecological goods and Environmental, social
States are the income; services they provide and cultural costs
key actors in in all decision- should likewise be
mainly Gender making processes – accounted for in
responsible in Development for IPs, obeying the measuring a society’s
bringing about Index (GDI): laws of nature and progress
national subsequently practicing the values
economic developed to of mutual reciprocity,
development – ensure that respect for Mother
guided by the women’s issues Earth, and solidarity
Washington are addressed
Consensus
Weakness Not focused on Weak linkage
human between
development development and
environment
Note: Entries were directly lifted from, Human development framework and indigenous peoples’ self-determined development, in
Tauli-Corpuz, V., Enkiwe-Abayao, L., & de Chavez, R. [Eds.]. [2010]. Towards an alternative development paradigm:
Indigenous people’s self-determined development. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation

Read Reading Material 3 in Appendix D.

Reflect on the following:

1. Why the dominant development model is not equated with human development
2. How IP protest movements influenced the decisions of multilateral bodies (UN, WB)
3. Reasons for the Cordillera IPs’ protests against development aggression
 SS 102N Notes 47

4. Elements of neoliberalism and why these are not in consonance with human development
5. Factors of the IPs’ and developing nations’ poverty
6. Criticisms against neoliberalism or the Washington Consensus
7. How cultural identities are suppressed
8. How cultural diversity can be a factor of development
9. Concerns of the Ph IPs that are similar to the concerns of IPs in other countries
10. Significance of cultural liberty and identity
11. Indigenous Peoples’ worldviews and concept of development
12. Concept of sustainable development
13. Gains and losses of the Philippines in pursuing the dominant development model
14. Causes of environmental injustice
15. Perpetrators and victims of environmental injustice
16. Varied IPs’ terms relevant to the discourse on development
17. Indicators of IPs’ wellbeing and development

Readings (Nos. 4-12) for Modernization, Economic Development, and Indigenous Socio-Political Institutions
Reflect on the following:

1. How interventions should be done in IP areas

2. Functions of indigenous knowledge and practices in community development
3. How civil societies can be partners for community development
4. How indigenous knowledge and practices are revitalized
5. Factors of successful self-determined development
6. Balancing development and environmental justice
7. IPs’ view of environmental injustice and degradation
8. Factors of the Ikalahans’ success
9. How indigenous knowledge and practices help mitigate global climate change
10. Indigenous social capital and communal life
11. Functions of indigenous rituals

Unit References
Cordillera Disaster Response and Development Services [CorDisRDS]. (2012). Improving indigenous people’s well-being through
community organizing, training and waterworks. In Sustaining & Enhancing Indigenous Peoples’ Self-Determined
Development: 20 Years After Rio. Volume 2. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation. http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all-
resources/category/8-books

Guillao, J. (2012). The Calamian Tagbanua of Coron: Defending their identity & cultural heritage. In Sustaining & Enhancing
Indigenous Peoples’ Self-Determined Development: 20 Years After Rio. Volume 2. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation.
http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all-resources/category/8-books

Ifugao Research Development Center. (1996). The muyong system: Land ownership and forest management system among the
Tuali of Ifugao. In Bennagen, P.L. & Lucas-Fernan, M.L., 1996). Consulting the spirits, working with nature, sharing with
others: Indigenous resource management in the Philippines. Quezon City: Sentro Para sa Ganap na Pamayanan

Magata, H. (2012). Ikalahans: Owners & protectors of the Land. In Sustaining & Enhancing Indigenous Peoples’ Self-Determined
Development: 20 Years After Rio. Volume 2. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation. http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all-
resources/category/8-books

Montañosa Research and Development Center (MRDC). (2012). Micro-hydro power plant means rice surplus & income for
indigenous peoples of remote Mabaca. In Sustaining & Enhancing Indigenous Peoples’ Self-Determined Development: 20
Years After Rio. Volume 2. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation. http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all-resources/category/8-books

_________________. (2012). Energy forever for people’s wellbeing. In Sustaining & Enhancing Indigenous Peoples’ Self-
Determined Development: 20 Years After Rio. Volume 2. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation. http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all-
resources/category/8-books

________________. (2012). Role of traditional knowledge in strengthening socioecological production landscapes. In Sustaining &
Enhancing Indigenous Peoples’ Self-Determined Development: 20 Years After Rio. Volume 2. Baguio City: Tebteba
Foundation. http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all-resources/category/8-books
 SS 102N Notes 48

Tauli-Corpuz, V., Enkiwe-Abayao, L., & de Chavez, Raymond. (Eds.). (2010). Human development framework and indigenous
peoples’ self-determined development. In Towards an alternative development paradigm: Indigenous people’s self-
determined development. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation. http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all-resources/category/8-
books?start=20

_______________. (2010). UN declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples. In Towards an alternative development paradigm:
Indigenous people’s self-determined development. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation. http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all-
resources/category/8-books?start=20

_______________. (2010). Early engagements of indigenous peoples with the international community. In Towards an alternative
development paradigm: Indigenous people’s self-determined development. Baguio City: Tebteba Foundation.
http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all-resources/category/8-books?start=20