5.

MAGNETISM AND MATTER Class - XII 

 
Materials are classified into two types : 
(1) MAGNETIC MATERIALS 
The materials which are attracted by the magnets are called magnetic materials. 
Eg : Iron, cobalt, Nickel etc. 
(2) NON-MAGNETIC MATERIALS 
  The materials which are not attracted by the magnets are called non-magnetic materials. 
Eg : Wood, Plastic, Paper etc. 
 

MAGNETIC FIELD : 
The region around the magnet upto which the magnetic force is existed. 
 

BAR MAGNET : 
A bar magnet is generally a rectangular shaped small piece of a rod having south and north poles of same 
strength separated by a small distance. 
Bar magnet is also called as magnetic dipole.  
 

MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCES 

The path travelled by a unit north pole is called a magnetic lines of forces. 
(1) The direction of the magnetic field lines outside the magnet is from north to south pole. 
(2) Inside the magnet also the magnetic field lines are existed. Inside the magnet, the magnetic field line 
is from south to north. 
 

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCES 

(1) Magnetic  field  lines  start  at  the north pole and ends at the south pole outside and from south to north 
pole inside. 
(2) They are closed loops. 
(3) No two magnetic field lines intersect each other because at the point of intersection it should have two 
directions which is not possible. 
(4) If  the  distance  between  the  magnetic  field  lines  is  less  than  the  magnetic  field strength is more. If the 
distance between the magnetic field lines is more, then the magnetic field strength is less. 
(5) The  magnetic  field  strength  is  more  at  the  ends  of  the  magnet  (poles)  and  less  at  the  middle  of  the 
magnet. 
(6) The  tangent  at  any  point  on  the  magnetic  field  line  gives  the direction of strength of magnetic field  
at that point. 
 

REPRESENTATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD : 

Uniform magnetic field 

 
Non-uniform magnetic field 

 
The  ability  of  pole  of  the  magnetic  that  can  attract  or  repel  the  pole  of  the  other  magnetic  is called its pole 
strength. 
MAGNETIC FLUX (Ø​B​) 
The number of magnetic field lines passing through the area is called magnetic flux (Ø​B​). 
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY 
The number of magnetic field lines passing through the unit area is called magnetic flux density. 
MAGNETIC DIPOLE : 
Two equal and opposite poles separated by a small distance is called magnetic dipole. 
Bar magnet is also called as magnetic dipole. 
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT : 
It  is  defined  as  the  product  of  the  pole  strength  of  either  of  the  poles 
and distance between the magnetic poles. 
Distance  between two poles is called magnetic length and is taken as 2l. 
Let  m be the pole strength of each pole then magnetic dipole moment is 
given by  
 
is a vector quantity 
The distance of magnetic dipole moment is from south to north pole. 
SI unit ampere - meter​2​ (Am​2​) or 
Joule/Tesla (J/T) 
 
HOTS 
(1) Geometric length (actual length) of a magnet is more than the magnetic length. 
(2) Pole strength of a magnetic pole of a magnet depends on the area of cross section of the magnet. 
(3) If  a  magnet  is  cut  along  its  length,  into  two  equal  parts  then  the  pole  strength  of each pole reduces 
the  half  of  its  original  value.  Hence,  the  magnetic  dipole  moment  of  each  part  is  equal to half of its 
original value. 

 
(4) If  a  magnet  is  cut  perpendicular  to  its  length  into  equal parts, then the pole strength of each pole of 
the  magnet  remains  the  same,  but  the  magnetic  length  of  each  part  reduces  to  half  the  original 
value. Hence the magnetic dipole moment of each part is equal to half of its original value. 

 
 
COULOMB’S LAW OF MAGNETISM 
Consider two poles of pole strength m​1​ and m​2​ separated by a small distance r. 
The  force  of  attraction  or  repulsion  between  the  two  poles  is  directly 
proportional  to  the  product  of  their  pole  strength  and  inversely  proportional 
to the square of the distance between them.  
From the statement, 
F ∝ m​1​m​2​ → (1) 

 
 
From (1) & (2) 

 
 
BAR MAGNET AS AN EQUIVALENT SOLENOID : 
(Magnetic field on the axis of the solenoid) 

 
Consider  a  solenoid of length 2l. O is the centre of the solenoid and ‘O’ is its radius. Now P is a point on the 
axial line at a distance ‘r’ from ‘O’. 
To find out the magnetic field at P, consider a small strip dx at a distance ‘x’ from the center O. 
The magnetic field at P due to the small strip dx is  

 
By integrating eqn (1), we get the total magnetic field at P. 

 
2​ 2​ 3/2​ 3
Here r>>x and r>>a so [(r-x)​ + B​ ]​ ≃ r​  
From eqn (2) 

 
Multiply & Divide eqn (2) with 2𝜋 

 
  
 
HOTS : 
The  polarity  of  a  solenoid  can  be  determined  with  the  help  of  clock  rule.  Figure  (A)  and  (B)  show  that 
anticlockwise  current  in  a  face  of  the  solenoid  gives  North  polarity  to  it  and  clockwise current gives south 
polarity.  
 
THE DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD : 
(Magnetic needle in a uniform magnetic field) 
Consider  a  magnetic  needle  of  moment  of  inertia  I  is  placed  in  a  uniform 
magnetic  field  . The magnetic field   applies the force on the needle and the 
needle starts rotating. So torque is acting on the needle. 
Torque acting on the needle ​τ​ = MB Sinθ → (1) 
Restoring torque acting on the needle ​τ​ = I ∝ → (2)  
From (1) and (2) I ∝ = MB Sinθ 

 
If θ is very small Sinθ ≃ θ 

 
Wkt 

Angular acceleration  
From (3) and (4) 

   
From S.H.M we can write 

 
-ve sign represents that the angular displacement is opposite to θ. 
Comparing (5) and (6) 

Wkt  
From (7) 

   
   

⇒ Magnetic field  

Time period of rotation  

 
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A DIPOLE PLACED IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD : 
Work  done  to  rotate  a  magnetic  dipole  in  a  uniform  magnetic  field  is  stored  as  potential  energy  of  the 
magnetic dipole. 
If  a  magnetic  dipole  of  magnetic  moment  M  is  placed  at  an  angle  θ  with respect to uniform magnetic field 
of strength . 
Then torque acting on the dipole ​τ​ = MB Sinθ 
If the dipole rotates through an angle dθ, then work done is given by dw = ​τ​dθ = MB Sinθ dθ. 
Total work done to rotate the dipole from θ​1​ to θ​2​ position is given by  

 
By definition, potential energy U = W = -MB[Cosθ​2​ - Cosθ​1​]. 
If θ​1​ = 90​0​ and θ​2​ = θ then, Cosθ​1​ = Cos90​0​ = 0 
So U = W = -MB Cosθ. 
⇒ U = -MB Cosθ. ---------- (1) 
 

SPECIAL CASES : 
(1) When    are  anti  parallel  (θ  =  180​0​),  the  dipole  has  maximum  potential  energy  and  is  in 
unstable equilibrium. i.e. U = MB 
(2) When    are  parallel  (θ  =  0)  the  dipole  has  minimum  potential  energy  and  is  in  stable 
equilibrium.  i.e. U = -MB 
 

COMPARISON OF ELECTROSTATICS & MAGNETISM : 

Physical quantity Electrostatics Magnetism 

1. Constant  

2. Coulomb’s law  
3. Dipole moment P = 2l x q M = 2l x m 

4. Torque τ​ = P x E τ​ = M x B 
5. Potential energy U = -PE Cosθ U = -MB Cosθ 
6. Field on the axial line  

7. Field on the equitorial line  

 

GAUSS LAW IN MAGNETISM 

Gauss law in magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any closed surface S is always zero. 
It surface S is divided into surface element of area ΔS then net flux  

 
The flux is zero because of two reasons. 
(1) Monopoles are not existed in magnetism. 
(2) The  number  of  magnetic  field  lines  entering  into  the  closed  surface  is 
equal to the number of magnetic field lines leaving the surface. 
 

MAGNETISM OF EARTH (Geomagnetism) 

 
Magnetic axis 
The imaginary line which joins magnetic south and magnetic north is called magnetic axis. 
Geographic axis 
The imaginary line which joins geographic north and geographic south in called geographic axis. 
Magnetic meridian 
The vertical plane passing through the magnetic axis is called magnetic meridian. 
Geographic meridian 
The vertical plane which passes through the geographic axis is called geographic meridian. 
Magnetic equator 
The circle perpendicular to the magnetic axis is called magnetic equator. 
The  physical  quantities  required  to  find  the  value  of  magnetic  field  strength  of  a 
particular place are called elements of the earth’s magnetism. 
They are (i) Magnetic declination (θ) 
(ii) Magnetic inclination (or) dip (δ) 
(iii) Horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field . 
(i) Magnetic declination (θ) 
The  angle  between  geographic  axis  and  magnetic  axis  is  called  magnetic 
declination (θ). 
(ii) Magnetic inclination (or) dip (δ) 
The  angle  between  the  magnetic  field  of  the  earth  B  and  its  horizontal 
component  of  the  magnetic  field  of  the  earth  is  called magnetic inclination or 
dip (δ). 
   
(iii) Horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field  
The  component  of  total  intensity  of  magnetic  field  of  earth  in  the  horizontal 
direction  in  magnetic  meridian  is  called  as  horizontal  component  of  earth’s 
magnetic field. 
Here is the magnetic field of the earth. It is resolved into 2 components  
(1) B​H​ along x-axis 
(2) B​V​ along y-axis 
We know that 
B​H​ = B Cos δ 
B​V​ = B Sin δ 

 
and B​H​2​ + B​v​2​ = B​2​ cos​2 ​δ + B​2​ Sin​2 ​δ 
= B​2​ [cos​2 ​δ + Sin​2 ​δ] 
B​H​2​ + B​v​2​ = B​2 

 
The value of B​H​ is maximum at the equator and zero at the poles. 
 
RELATION BETWEEN MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY & MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY : 

 
Let  current  i  is  passing  through  the  solenoid.  When  current  passes  through  the  solenoid  magnetic  field  is 
developed in it. So B​0​ is the magnetic field of the solenoid. 
Now  a  small  piece  of  iron  is  placed  in  the  solenoid.  The  iron  piece  gets  the  magnetic  properties  and  its 
magnetic field strength is B​m​. 
Total magnetic field B = B​O​ + B​m​ → (1) 
Here B​O​ = 𝜇​0​M & B​m​ = 𝜇​0​M 
From (1) 
B = 𝜇​0​H + 𝜇​0​M 
B = 𝜇​0​[H + M] → (2) 
Divide eqn (2) with H, then 

   
From eqn (3), 𝜇 = 𝜇​0​[1 + 𝝀] → (4) 
Wkt 𝜇 = 𝜇​0 𝜇​
​ r 

From (4)  ​ r​ = 𝜇​0​[1 + χ] 

⇒ 𝜇​0 𝜇​
𝜇​r​ = 1 + χ 
Where 𝜇​r​ is relative permeability 
 
VARIOUS TERMS RELATED TO MAGNETISM 
Magnetic flux 
It is defined as the number of magnetic field lines passing through a surface. 
It is denoted by Ø 
SI unit - Weber (Wb) 
 
Magnetic flux density (or) Strength of magnetic field 
The  number  of  magnetic  field  lines  passing  normally  through  a  unit  area  of  a  substance  is  defined  as 
magnetic flux density (B). 
Here B​O​ = 𝜇​0​H & B​m​ = 𝜇​0​M 
From (1) 
B = 𝜇​0​H + 𝜇​0​M 
B = 𝜇​0​[H + M] → (2) 
Divide eqn (2) with H, then 

 
From eqn (3), 𝜇 = 𝜇​0​[1 + χ] → (4) 
Wkt 𝜇 = 𝜇​0​ 𝜇​r 
From (4) ⇒ 𝜇​0​ 𝜇​r​ = 𝜇​0​[1 + χ] 
𝜇​r​ = 1 + χ 

Where 𝜇​r​ is relative permeability. 

 
VARIOUS TERMS RELATED TO MAGNETISM 
Magnetic flux 
It is defined as the number of magnetic field line passing through a surface. 
It is denoted by Ø 
SI unit - Weber (Wb) 
 
Magnetic flux density (or) strength of magnetic field : 
The  number  of  magnetic  field  lines  passing  normally  through  a  unit  area  of  a  substance  is  defined  as 
magnetic flux density (B). 

 
   
Magnetisation or intensity of magnetisation (I or M) : 
The  degree  or  extent  to  which  a  substance  is  magnetised  when  placed  in  the  magnetising  field  is  called 
magnetisation or intensity of magnetisation. 
(OR) 
The magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of the substance is known as intensity of magnetisation. 
INTENSITY OF MAGNETISING FIELD (H) 
The  extent  to  which  the  magnetising  field  can  magnetise  a  substance  is  known  as  the  intensity  of 
magnetising field (H). It is a vector. 

 
⇒ B​0​ = 𝜇​0​H 
SI unit - A/m 
[The magnetic field which magnetises a substance placed in it is called the magnetising field]. 
 
Magnetic permeability (𝜇) 
The extent to which magnetic field lines can enter a substance is known as magnetic permeability. 

 
SI unit - T m/A 
 
Relative magnetic permeability (𝜇​r​) 
The  ratio  of  the  flux  density  inside  the  material  (B)  to  the  flux  density  in  vaccum  (B​0​)  is  known  as  relative 
magnetic permeability. 

 
 
HOTS : 
(1) A substance which can be easily magnetised has a large value of 𝜇. 
(2) 𝜇​r​ in magnetism is comparable to dielectric constant k in electrostatics. 
 
Magnetic Susceptibility (χ) 
It  is  the  property  of  a  substance  which  shows  how  easily  the  substance  can  be magnetised when placed in 
the magnetising field. It is denoted by ​χ​m​. 

⇒  
 
   
MAGNETISM PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 

DIAMAGNETIC  PARAMAGNETIC  FERROMAGNETIC 

(1) They  are  strongly  repelled  (1) They are weakly attracted  (1) They are strongly attracted 
by the magnets  by the magnets  by the magnets. 

(2)  When a diamagnetic material  (2) The paramagnetic material  (2) The ferromagnetic material 
is  placed  in  the  magnetic  is weakly magnetised in the  is strongly magnetised in the 
field,it  is  weakly magnetised  direction of the applied  direction of applied 
in  the  direction  opposite  to  field  magnetic field 
the applied field. 

(3)  When  it  is  suspended  in  the  (3) When it is placed in the  (3) When it is placed in the 
magnetic  field  it  slowly  sets  magnetic field it slowly sets  magnetic field, it quickly 
itself  normal  to the magnetic  itself in the direction of  sets itself in the direction of 
field.  magnetic field.  the magnetic field. 

 
   

(4) The magnetic field lines  (4) Most of the magnetic field  (4) All the magnetic field lines 
cannot pass through them  lines can pass through these  can pass through them. 
materials 

   
 

(5) Its magnetic field strength is  (5) The magnetic field strength  (5) Its magnetic field strength is 
less  is less but more than  high 
diamagnetic materials 

(6) Magnetisation (M) has small  (6) Magnetisation (M) has small  (6) Magnetisation (M) has a 
negative value  positive value  large positive value  

(7) Susceptibility has a small  (7) Susceptibility has a small  (7) Susceptibility has a large 
negative value.  positive value.  positive value. 
i.e. ​χ​m​ < 1.  i.e. ​χ​m​ > 1.  i.e. ​χ​m​>> 1. 

(8) They do not obey Curie’s  (8) They obey Curie’s law  (8) They obey Curie’s law 
law. 

(9) Permeability is always less  (9) Permeability is more than  (9) Permeability is much more 
than unity  unity  than unity 
𝜇 < 1  𝜇 > 1  𝜇 >> 1 
 
CURIE’S LAW 
Statement 
The  magnetic  susceptibility  of  a  ferromagnetic  substance  is  inversely  proportional  to  its  absolute 
temperature. 

 
Consider  a  solenoid  made  up  of  a  ferromagnetic  substance.  When  current  passes  through  the  solenoid, 
magnetic field B​0​ is developed in it. 
Intensity of magnetisation  

 
C is proportionality constant called as Curie’s constant. 
Wkt, B​0​ = 𝜇​0​H → (2) 

Sub (2) in (1)  

   

   
If  we  increase  the  temperature,  at  a  particular  temperature  a  ferromagnetic  substance  is  converted  into  a 
paramagnetic substance. 
 
Curie’s temperature 
The  temperature  at  which  a  ferromagnetic  substance  can  be  converted  into  paramagnetic  substance  is 
called Curie’s temperature. 
 
MAGNETISATION CURVE (HYSTERESIS LOOP) 
Consider  a  solenoid  having  ferromagnetic  (Iron)  core  inside  it.  Current  in  it  is  to  be  increased  and 
decreased in the following steps.  
(1) To  start  with,  the  iron  core  is  placed  in  a  solenoid  having  no  current. 
Now,  current  flowing  in  the  solenoid  is  increased  in  steps,  so  that  the 
magnetic  field  inside  the  solenoid  increases  gradually.  This  magnetic 
field  is  known  as  magnetising  field  (H)  as  it  magnetises  the  iron  core. 
As  the  value  of  H  increases,  the  magnetic  flux  density  (B)  also 
increases.  The  variation  of  B  with  H  is  represented  by  a  curve  OA  as 
shown  in  fig.  Further  increase  in  current  in  the  solenoid  increases  the 
value  of  H  but  the  value  of  B  does  not change. Thus point A is known 
as saturation point. 
(2) Now,  reduce  the  value  of  current  in  the  solenoid  till  the  value  of  H  becomes  zero.  The  iron  core 
placed  inside  the  solenoid  begins  to  demagnetise  i.e.  the  value  of  B  decreases  along  the  path  AG. 
When  H  =  O,  B  ≠  O  but  B  =  OG.  It  shows  that  the  magnetic  material  9say  iron  core)  retains 
magnetism  even  of  the  magnetising  field  (H)  is  reduced  to  zero.  The  magnetism  retained  by  the 
magnetic  material  even  when  the  magnetising  field  is  reduced  to  zero is called residual magnetism 
of the material. 
  The  property  of  the  magnetic  material  to  retain  magnetism  even  in  the  absence  of  the  magnetising 
field is known as retentivity or remonence. 
(3) Now,  reverse  the  direction  of  flow  of  the  current  in  the  solenoid,  so  that  the  magnetising  field  (H) 
acts  in  the  opposite  direction  (say  along  negative  x-axis). The magnetic field   decreases along GC. 
 The  magnetic  field  B  becomes  zero  corresponding  to  the  value  of  H  =  OC.  This  magnetising  field 
(H) needed to completely demagnetise the magnetic material is known as ​coercivity. 
(4) The  value  of  current  in  the  solenoid  is  further  increased  in  the  same  direction,  so  the  value  of  H 
increases  further.  The  value  of  B  also  increases  in  the  reverse  direction.  In  other  words,  magnetic 
material  begins  to  magnetise  in  the  opposite  direction H​u ​it is completely magnetised. The variation 
of B with H is represented by the curve CD. 
(5) The  direction  of  the  current  is  again  reversed  till  the  value  of  H  =  O.  Corresponding  to  H=  O,  the 
residual magnetism of the material = OE. 
(6) In  completely  demagnetise  the  magnetic  material,  the  current  is increased till the magnetic field (B) 
becomes  zero.  The  material  is  demagnetises  along  EF.  On  the  further  increase  in  the  current  in  the 
solenoid,  value  of  H  increases  and  hence  value  of  B  also increases. The variation of B with H is also 
represented by FA. 
  The  curve  AGCDEFA  is  known  as  Hysteresis  loop  which  is  the  result  of  a  cycle  of  magnetisation 
and demagnetisation of the magnetic material. 
 
PERMANENT MAGNETS : 
The  magnets  which  retain  their  ferromagnetic  properties  for  a  long  time  at  room  temperature  are  called 
permanent magnets. 
They should have 
(1) High permeability 
  (2) High Coercivity 
(3) High retentivity 
ELECTROMAGNETS : 
A ferromagnetic material placed inside a current carrying solenoid acts as an electromagnet. 
Soft iron is a ferromagnetic substance and has high permeability and law retentivity. 
Factors deciding the strength of an electromagnet are 
(1) Nature of material 
(2) Electric current 
(3) Number of turns per unit length of solenoid 
(4) Temperature 
* * *