Curriculum: Concepts, Nature and Purposes

Introduction

The concept of curriculum is as dynamic as the changes that occur in society. In its narrow sense,
curriculum is viewed merely as a listing of subject to be taught in school. In a broader sense, it refers to
the total learning experiences of individuals not only in schools but in society as well.

In the Philippines, recommendations of several educational initiatives like the

Philippine Commission to Survey Philippine Education (PCSPE),
Survey of the Outcomes of Elementary Education
( SOUTELE), and the
Philippine Commission for Educational Reforms(PCER) focused on curricular renewal or reforms. The
recently formulated
National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) became the anchor of reforms in education
from the basic to higher education.
• What is curriculum?
• What is its purpose?
• What is its nature?
These are the fundamental questions that will be addressed in this lesson.

Curriculum from Different Points of View

There are many definitions of curriculum. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is sometimes
characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. The definitions are influenced by modes of
thoughts, pedagogies, political as well as cultural experiences

1. Traditional Points of View of Curriculum

In the early years of 20th century, the traditional concepts held of the “curriculum is that it is a
body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the students to learn”. It was
synonymous to the “course of study” and “syllabus.”

a. Robert M. Hutchins
 views curriculum as “permanent studies” where the rule of grammar, reading, rhetoric and logic
and mathematics for basic education are emphasized.
 Basic Education should emphasize the 3 Rs and college education should be grounded on liberal
education.
b. Arthur Bestor

 as an essentialist, believe that the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence
curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and
writing. It should also include mathematics, science, history and foreign language.
c. Joseph Schwab
 This definition leads us to the view that discipline is the sole source of curriculum. Thus in our
education system, curriculum is divided into chunks of knowledge we call subject areas in basic
education such as English, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and others. In college, discipline
may include humanities, sciences, languages and many more.
2. Progressive Points of View of Curriculum
On the other hand, to a progressivist, a listing of school, subjects, syllabi, course of study, and
list of courses or specific discipline do not make a curriculum.
These can only be called curriculum if the written materials are actualized by the learner. Broadly
speaking, curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual.
a. John Dewey
 anchored on definition of experience and education. He believed that reflective thinking is a
means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not derived from action but tested by
application.
b. Caswell and Campbell
 viewed curriculum as “all experiences children have under the guidance of teachers”.
c. Smith, Stanley and Shores
 defined “curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set up in the schools for the purpose
of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting”
d. Marsh and Willis
 on the other hand view curriculum as all the “experiences in the classroom which are planned
and enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the students.

Points of View on Curriculum Development

From the various definitions and concepts presented, it is clear that curriculum is a dynamic
process. Development connotes changes which are systematic. A change for the better means
any alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive changes,
development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. This is how curriculum evolves.
a. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles.

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?
In summary, Tyler’s Model show that in curriculum development, the following consideration should be
made:
 Purposes of the school
 Educational experiences related to the purposes
 Organization of the experiences, and
 Evaluation of the experiences
b. Hilda Taba
 On the other hand, she improved on
Tyler’s Rationale by making a linear model. She believed that teachers who teach or implement the
curriculum should participate in developing it. Her advocacy was commonly called the grassroots
approach. She presented seven major steps to her model where teachers could have a major input.

These steps are as follows:

 Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society
 Formulation of learning objectives
 Selection of learning content
 Organization of Learning content
 Selection of learning experiences
 Organization of learning activities
  Determinations of what to evaluate and the
and the means of doing it.
Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools
From the various concepts given,
Allan Glatthorn (2000) describes seven types of curriculum operating in the schools.
1. Recommended curriculum- proposed by scholars and professional organizations.
2. Written curriculum- appears in school, district, division or country documents.
3. Taught curriculum- what teachers implement or deliver in the classrooms and schools
4. Supported curriculum- resources textbook computers, audio visual materials which support
and help in the implementation of the curriculum.
5. Assessed curriculum, that which is tested and evaluated.
6. Learned curriculum-what the students actually learn and what is measured and
7. Hidden curriculum- the unintended curriculum.

Major Foundations of Curriculum

Let us now look into the major foundations of a curriculum. Debates continue on what
curriculum is and its basic foundations. The commonly accepted foundations include
philosophical, historical, psychological and social

Major Foundations of Curriculum

• Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum
Educational Philosophy lays the foundation of any curriculum. A curriculum planner,
implementer and curriculum evaluator anchors his/her decision making process on a sound
philosophy.
Educational Philosophies
A. Perennialism
Aim: To educate the rational person; to cultivate the intellect
Role: Teachers help students think with reason
Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis and curriculum is constant
 Perennialism contend that people are rational animals having free will who learn to exercise
self-control when their minds are disciplined by basic education. Education implies teaching,
teaching implies knowledge, knowledge is truth, truth is the same everywhere; therefore
education should be the same everywhere. Perennialists prefer teacher-centered education; the
teacher is the authority who must possess both the knowledge and responsibility necessary to
educate young people.
Curriculum Trends: Use of great books and return to liberal arts
B. Essentialism
Aim: To promote the intellectual growth of the individual and educate a competent person
Role: The teacher is the sole authority in his or her subject area.
Focus: Essential skills of the 3 R’s and essential subjects of English, Science, History, Math
foreign Language
Trends: Excellence in education, back to basics and cultural literacy
 Essentialism – value centered, ideals that are essential to one’s culture should never be
forgotten.
C. Progressivism
Aim: To promote democratic and social living
Role: Knowledge leads to growth and development of lifelong learners who actively learn by
doing.
 Focus: Subjects are interdisciplinary integrative and interactive. Curriculum is focused students’
interest, human problems and affair.
Trends: School reforms, relevant and contextualized curriculum,humanistic education.
 Progressivism – Education must be flexible, emphasizes self-activity and child-centered
curriculum.
D. Reconstructionism
Aim: To improve and reconstruct society education for change
Role: Teachers act as agents of change and reform in various educational projects including
research
Focus: Focus on present and future trends and issues of national and international interests
Trends: Equality of educational opportunities in education, access to global education
 Reconstructionism = aims to develop the inherent powers of the learner, espoused a critical
re-examination and reconstruction of the current problems and situations to modify them. It
aims to transform the society through technological and scientific revolutions.
Historical Foundations of Curriculum
Historical Perspective of Curriculum Theorists
The historical development shows the different changes in the purposes, principles and content of the
curriculum.
Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)
* Curriculum as a science that emphasize on students’ need.
* Prepares students for adult life
* Objective with activities should be grouped and sequenced
Werret Charters (1875-1952)
* Curriculum is a Science. It gives emphasis on students’ needs
* Aligning objectives with content
* Subject matter and the activities are planned by the teacher
William Kilpatrick (1871-1965)
* Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-centered, for child growth and development
* Project Method is emphasized, where the teacher and student plan the activities
* Curriculum develops social relationships and small group interactions
Harold Rugg (1886-1960)
* Curriculum should develop the whole child.
* Curriculum should produce outcomes.
* Emphasized Social Studies and the teacher plan the curriculum in advance.
Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)
*Curriculum as organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and learner’s
interest.
* Curriculum is a set of experiences.
* Subject matter is developed around social functions and learners’ interests.
Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)
* Curriculum is a science and an extension of school’s philosophy.
* Curriculum is based on students’ needs and interests
* Curriculum is always related to instruction
* Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values.
* The process emphasizes problem solving.
* Curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists
Psychological Foundations of Curriculum
Psychology provides a basis for the teaching and learning process.
1. Behaviourist Psychology
* Connectionism of Edward Thorndike
* Classical Conditioning of Ivan Pavlov
* Operant Conditioning of B.F. Skinner
* Modeling and Observation Theory of
Albert Bandura
* Hierarchical learning of Robert Gagne
Learning Outcomes of Robert Gagne
1) intellectual skills or “knowing how” to categorize and use symbols, forming concepts, and
problem solving
2) information or “knowing what” knowledge about facts, dates and names
3) cognitive strategies or learning skills
4) motor skills
5) attitudes, feelings, and emotions learned through experiences
The listed learning outcomes overlap with the domains in the taxonomy of educational objectives which
are cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.
The Five Categories of Learning Outcomes
One of the themes of Gagné’s theory is distinguishing the types of outcomes that learning has: the
categories of learned capabilities - observed as human performances - that have common
characteristics. Gagné describes five categories of human performance established by learning:
1)Intellectual skills (“knowing how” or having procedural knowledge)
2)Verbal information (being able to state ideas, “knowing that”, or having declarative knowledge)
3)Cognitive strategies (having certain techniques of thinking, ways of analyzing problems, and having
approaches to solving problems)
4) Motor skills (executing movements in a number of organized motor acts such as playing sports or
driving a car)
5) Attitudes (mental states that influence the choices of personal actions)
The five categories of learning outcomes provide the foundation for describing how the conditions of
learning apply to each category.
Gagné (1985) postulates that if the five categories of learning outcomes and the ways of analyzing
learning requirements are combined in a rational and systematic manner, then it will be possible to
describe a set of ideas that make up a theory of instruction (p. 243). He adds that a theory of instruction
should attempt to relate the external events of instruction to the outcomes of learning by showing how
these events lead to appropriate support or enhancement of internal learning processes (p. 244).
The Nine Events of Instruction
The events of instruction are the external events that help learning occur, and are designed to achieve
each of the five different learning outcomes. Gagné numbers the instructional events from one to nine,
showing a sequential order.
 Gaining Attention
 Informing Learners of the Objective
 Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning
 Presenting the Stimulus
 Providing Learning Guidance
 Eliciting Performance
 Providing Feedback
  Assessing Performance
 Enhancing Retention and Transfer
A summary of each of the nine events of instruction is in the Main Elements of Gagné’s Learning Theory
section of this page.
Together, the conditions of learning, association learning, the five categories of learning outcomes, and
the nine events of instruction provide a description of the framework for Gagné’s conditions of learning
theory. The next section of this page provides detail of the five categories of learning outcomes and the
nine events of instruction.

2. Cognitive Psychology
To the cognitive theorists, learning constitutes a logical methods for organizing and interpreting
learning. Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter and is similar to the cognitive development
theory. Teachers use a lot of problem and thinking skills in teaching and learning. According to Cognitive
Theorists, insight and understanding are utilized in discovering the logical relationships of things and
situations which are then organized into a meaningful whole to solve a problem or difficulty.

These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery
learning and many others.
*Cognitive Development Stages of Jean Piaget
*Social Constructivism of Lev Vygostky
*Multiple Intelligences of Howard Gardner
*Learning Styles of Felder and Silverman
*Emotional Intelligences for Daniel Goleman
In his work Piaget identified the child's four stages of mental growth. In the sensorimotor stage,
occurring from birth to age 2, the child is concerned with gaining motor control and learning about
physical objects. In the preoperational stage, from ages 2 to 7, the child is preoccupied with verbal skills.
At this point the child can name objects and reason intuitively. In the concrete operational stage, from
ages 7 to 12, the child begins to deal with abstract concepts such as numbers and relationships. Finally,
in the formal operational stage, ages 12 to 15, the child begins to reason logically and systematically.
According to Vygotsky, sensitive adults are aware of a child’s readiness for new challenges, and they
structure appropriate activities to help the child develop new skills. Adults act as mentors and teachers,
leading the child into the zone of proximal development—Vygotsky’s term for the range of skills that the
child cannot perform unaided but can master with adult assistance. A parent may encourage simple
number concepts, for example, by counting beads with the child or measuring cooking ingredients
together, filling in the numbers that the child cannot remember. As children participate in such
experiences daily with parents, teachers, and others, they gradually learn the culture’s practices, skills,
and values.
Sociocultural theory highlights how children incorporate culture into their reasoning, social interaction,
and self-understanding. It also explains why children growing up in different societies are likely to have
significantly different skills. Theorists like Vygotsky are sometimes criticized, however, for neglecting the
influence of biological maturation, which guides childhood growth independently of culture.
In formulating his theory, Gardner placed less emphasis on explaining the results of mental tests than on
accounting for the range of human abilities that exist across cultures. He drew on diverse sources of
evidence to determine the number of intelligences in his theory. For example, he examined studies of
brain-damaged people who had lost one ability, such as spatial thinking, but retained another, such as
language. The fact that two abilities could operate independently of one another suggested the
existence of separate intelligences. Gardner also proposed that evidence for multiple intelligences came
from prodigies and savants. Prodigies are individuals who show an exceptional talent in a specific area at
a young age, but who are normal in other respects. Savants are people who score low on IQ tests—and
who may have only limited language or social skills—but demonstrate some remarkable ability, such as
extraordinary memory or drawing ability. To Gardner, the presence of certain high-level abilities in the
absence of other abilities also suggested the existence of multiple intelligences.
Gardner initially identified seven intelligences and proposed a person who exemplified each one.
Linguistic intelligence involves aptitude with speech and language and is exemplified by poet T. S. Eliot.
Logical-mathematical intelligence involves the ability to reason abstractly and solve mathematical and
logical problems. Physicist Albert Einstein is a good example of this intelligence. Spatial intelligence is
used to perceive visual and spatial information and to conceptualize the world in tasks like navigation
and in art. Painter Pablo Picasso represents a person of high spatial intelligence. Musical intelligence, the
ability to perform and appreciate music, is represented by composer Igor Stravinsky. Bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence is the ability to use one’s body or portions of it in various activities, such as dancing,
athletics, acting, surgery, and magic. Martha Graham, the famous dancer and choreographer, is a good
example of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Interpersonal intelligence involves understanding others and
acting on that understanding and is exemplified by psychiatrist Sigmund Freud. Intrapersonal
intelligence is the ability to understand one’s self and is typified by the leader Mohandas Gandhi. In the
late 1990s Gardner added an eighth intelligence to his theory: naturalist intelligence, the ability to
recognize and classify plants, animals, and minerals. Naturalist Charles Darwin is an example of this
intelligence. According to GardFelder and Silverman (1988) advocate that students learn in different
ways: by hearing and seeing; by reflecting and acting; reasoning either logically or intuitively; by
memorizing and visualizing and drawing analogies; and, either steadily or in small bits and large pieces
(p.674). They also advocate that teaching styles vary, such as an educator’s preference for lecturing or
demonstrating, or for focusing on principles or applications.
The Felder-Silverman model explores three issues: (1) the aspects of learning style that is significant in
engineering education, (2) the learning styles most preferred by students and the teaching styles most
favored by educators; and, (3) strategies that will reach students whose learning styles are not
addressed by regular engineering education methods (Felder & Silverman, 1988, p. 674).
They describe learning in a structured educational setting as a two step process involving the reception
and processing of information. Felder and Silverman (1988) explain that “in the reception step, external
information (observable through the senses) and internal information (arising introspectively) become
available to students, who then select the material they will process and what they will ignore. The
processing step may involve simple memorization or reasoning, reflection or action, and introspection or
interaction with others” (p.674).
Felder (1996) indicates that the Felder-Silverman model classifies students as fitting into one of the
following four learning style dimensions:
Sensing learners (concrete, practical, oriented towards facts and procedures) or intuitive learners
(conceptual, innovative, oriented towards theories and meanings);
Visual learners (prefer visual representations of presented material – pictures, diagrams, flow charts) or
verbal learners (prefer written and spoken explanations);
Active Learners (learn by trying thins out, working with others) or reflective learners (learn by thinking
things through, working alone);
Sequential learners (linear, orderly, learn in small incremental steps) or global learners (holistic, systems
thinkers, learn in large leaps) (Felder, 1996, p. 19).
emotional intelligence theory (EQ - Emotional Quotient)
Emotional Intelligence - EQ - is a relatively recent behavioural model, rising to prominence with Daniel
Goleman's 1995 Book called 'Emotional Intelligence'. The early Emotional Intelligence theory was
originally developed during the 1970s and 80s by the work and writings of psychologists Howard
Gardner (Harvard), Peter Salovey (Yale) and John 'Jack' Mayer (New Hampshire). Emotional Intelligence
is increasingly relevant to organizational development and developing people, because the EQ principles
provide a new way to understand and assess people's behaviours, management styles, attitudes,
interpersonal skills, and potential. Emotional Intelligence is an important consideration in human
resources planning, job profiling, recruitment interviewing and selection, management development,
customer relations and customer service, and more.
Emotional Intelligence links strongly with concepts of love and spirituality: bringing compassion and
humanity to work, and also to'Multiple Intelligence' theory which illustrates and measures the range of
capabilities people possess, and the fact that everybody has a value.
The EQ concept argues that IQ, or conventional intelligence, is too narrow; that there are wider areas of
Emotional Intelligence that dictate and enable how successful we are. Success requires more than IQ
(Intelligence Quotient), which has tended to be the traditional measure of intelligence, ignoring
essential behavioural and character elements. We've all met people who are academically brilliant and
yet are socially and inter-personally inept. And we know that despite possessing a high IQ rating, success
does not automatically follow.
Different approaches and theoretical models have been developed for Emotional Intelligence. This
summary article focuses chiefly on the Goleman interpretation. The work of Mayer, Salovey and David
Caruso (Yale) is also very significant in the field of Emotional Intelligence, and will in due course be
summarised here too.

emotional intelligence - two aspects

This is the essential premise of EQ: to be successful requires the effective awareness, control and
management of one's own emotions, and those of other people. EQ embraces two aspects of
intelligence:
Understanding yourself, your goals, intentions, responses, behaviour and all.
Understanding others, and their feelings.
emotional intelligence - the five domains
Goleman identified the five 'domains' of EQ as:
 Knowing your emotions.
 Managing your own emotions.
 Motivating yourself.
 Recognising and understanding other people's emotions.
 Managing relationships, i.e., managing the emotions of others.
Emotional Intelligence embraces and draws from numerous other branches of behavioural, emotional
and communications theories, such as NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming), Transactional Analysis, and
empathy. By developing our Emotional Intelligence in these areas and the five EQ domains we can
become more productive and successful at what we do, and help others to be more productive and
successful too. The process and outcomes of Emotional Intelligence development also contain many
elements known to reduce stress for individuals and organizations, by decreasing conflict, improving
relationships and understanding, and increasing stability, continuity and harmony.

3. Humanistic Psychology
Humanists psychologists are concerned with how learners can develop their human potential.
*Gestalt theory. It is a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the
student’s brain is holistic.
*Theory of Human Needs of for Self Actualizing Person of Abraham Maslow
* Non-directive lives of Carl Roger
Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)
Along with Kohler and Koffka, Max Wertheimer was one of the principal proponents of Gestalt theory
which emphasized higher-order cognitive processes in the midst of behaviorism. The focus of Gestalt
theory was the idea of "grouping", i.e., characteristics of stimuli cause us to structure or interpret a
visual field or problem in a certain way (Wertheimer, 1922). The primary factors that determine
grouping were: (1) proximity - elements tend to be grouped together according to their nearness, (2)
similarity - items similar in some respect tend to be grouped together, (3) closure - items are grouped
together if they tend to complete some entity, and (4) simplicity - items will be organized into simple
figures according to symmetry, regularity, and smoothness. These factors were called the laws of
organization and were explained in the context of perception and problem-solving.
Wertheimer was especially concerned with problem-solving. Werthiemer (1959) provides a Gestalt
interpretation of problem-solving episodes of famous scientists (e.g., Galileo, Einstein) as well as
children presented with mathematical problems. The essence of successful problem-solving behavior
according to Wertheimer is being able to see the overall structure of the problem: "A certain region in
the field becomes crucial, is focused; but it does not become isolated. A new, deeper structural view of
the situation develops, involving changes in functional meaning, the grouping, etc. of the items. Directed
by what is required by the structure of a situation for a crucial region, one is led to a reasonable
prediction, which like the other parts of the structure, calls for verification, direct or indirect. Two
directions are involved: getting a whole consistent picture, and seeing what the structure of the whole
requires for the parts." (p 212).
Application
Gestalt theory applies to all aspects of human learning, although it applies most directly to perception
and problem-solving. The work of Gibson was strongly influenced by Gestalt theory.
Example
The classic example of Gestalt principles provided by Wertheimer is children finding the area of
parallelograms. As long as the parallelograms are regular figures, a standard procedure can be applied
(making lines perpendicular from the corners of the base). However, if a parallelogram with a novel
shape or orientation is provided, the standard procedure will not work and children are forced to solve
the problem by understanding the true structure of a parallelogram (i.e., the figure can be bisected
anywhere if the ends are joined).
Principles
The learner should be encouraged to discover the underlying nature of a topic or problem (i.e., the
relationship among the elements).
Gaps, incongruities, or disturbances are an important stimulus for learning
Instruction should be based upon the laws of organization: proximity, closure, similarity and simplicity.
maslow's hierarchy of needs
Each of us is motivated by needs. Our most basic needs are inborn, having evolved over tens of
thousands of years. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs helps to explain how these needs motivate
us all.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the first, which
deals with the most obvious needs for survival itself.
Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we concerned
with the higher order needs of influence and personal development.
Conversely, if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no longer concerned
about the maintenance of our higher order needs.
Maslow's original Hierarchy of Needs model was developed between 1943-1954, and first widely
published in Motivation and Personality in 1954. At this time the Hierarchy of Needs model comprised
five needs. This original version remains for most people the definitive Hierarchy of Needs.
maslow's hierarchy of needs - free pdf diagram and free doc diagram
1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.
3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc.
4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige,
managerial responsibility, etc.
5. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and
peak experiences.

This is the definitive and original Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.

While Maslow referred to various additional aspects of motivation, he expressed the Hierarchy of Needs
in these five clear stages.
Here is a quick simple self-test based on the original Maslow's 5-level Hierarchy of Needs. It's not a
scientific or validated instrument - merely a quick indicator, which can be used for self-awareness,
discussion, etc.

1970s adapted hierarchy of needs model, including cognitive and aesthetic needs - free pdf
diagram and free doc diagram
1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.
3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc.
4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige,
managerial responsibility, etc.
5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc.
6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.
7. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and
peak experiences.

N.B. Although Maslow referred to additional aspects of motivation, 'Cognitive' and 'Aesthetic', he did
not include them as levels or stages within his own expression of the Hierarchy of Needs.

1990s adapted hierarchy of needs including transcendence needs - free diagramand free doc diagram
1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.
3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc.
4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige,
managerial responsibility, etc.
5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc.
6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.
7. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and
peak experiences.
8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization

CARL ROGERS SUMMARY

Nondirective," "client-centered," and "person-centered." are the terms Rogers used successively, at
different points in his career, for his method. This method involves removing obstacles so the client can
move forward, freeing him or her for normal growth and development. It emphasizes being fully present
with the client and helping the latter truly feel his or her own feelings, desires, etc.. Being "nondirective"
lets the client deal with what he or she considers important, at his or her own pace.

Avoidance of Argument. Rogers was willing state his own position clearly, and hear you out and listen to
your position carefully. He asked, "Can we learn from each other?" He was not interested in winning
arguments.

Case histories. Rogers was the first person to record and publish complete cases of psychotherapy.

Congruence. Open, authentic, communication in which the way I present myself to the world matches
what I think and feel at a deeper level. (Incongruence is similar to Jung's persona, or wearing a mask." It
may be conscious deception or unconscious self-deception.) Rogers writes, "I have found, in my
relations with persons, that in the long run it does not help to pretend to be something I am not."

Avoidance of Control; Responsibility for self. The person-centered therapist consciously avoids control
over, or decision-making, for the client, so that the client becomes responsible for himself or herself.
This changes the power relationship between therapist and client by putting the control over decision-
making, as well as the responsibility for decisions, in the hands of the client.

Curiosity. Rogers was deeply curious. He wanted to really sense, hear, and feel what life was like for the
other person. He had a phenomenological attitude.

Education. Rogers views our schools as generally rigid, bureaucratic institutions which are resistant to
change. Applied to education, his approach becomes "student-centered learning" in which the students
are trusted to participate in developing and to take charge of their own learning agendas. The most
difficult thing in teaching is to let learn.

Empathic understanding: to try to take in and accept a client's perceptions and feelings as if they were
your own, but without losing your boundary/sense of selve.

The facts are always friendly. If new evidence shows that our opinions, views, and hypotheses are
mistaken, it leads us closer to what is true. This is learning, and though sometimes painful, it leads to a
jore accurate way of seeing life.

Feelings. "A vitally important part of therapy is for the person to learn to recognize and express his
feelings as his own feelings, not as a fact about another person." For example, "I feel annoyed by what
you are doing," rather than, "What you are doing is all wrong."

The Fully-Functioning Person. Rogers' term for an "ideal personality." A person who is open to her own
experience, lives in the moment in an existential fashion, and is fully connected to her own stream of
consciousness, which is constantly changing. She trusts her organism and does what "feels right" in a
situation. To be "fully functioning" is not a finished state, but a direction we can be moving in.

Human nature. Rogers believed that at a basic level, human beings are good and trustworthy. The
more fully-functioning a person is, the more that basic nature will be evidence.

Inner Freedom. This involves freedom from such things as threat, and freedom to choose and be.
Judgment, evaluation, approval or disapproval of another person. "This tendency to react to any
emotionally meaningful statement by forming an evaluation of it from our own point of view is the
major barrier to interpersonal communication."

Learning. Significant learning is self-initiated, it has a quality of personal involvement, and it is evaluated
by the learner.
Meaningful learning is self-directed, experiential, and uses both intellectual and intuitive processes.
Listening. As a person learns to listen to himself he becomes more accepting of himself.

Living in the moment. If I say, "I am this," or "I am that," it is already past. For example, as soon as I can
say, "I'm being defensive," that itself changes things.

Organismic values. Basic positive human and social values that appear to be common to all people at a
deep level. These tend to emerge as a person becomes more open to his or her deep experience.

Personal growth. Rogers' clients tend to move away from facades, away from "oughts," and away
from pleasing others as a goal in itself. Then tend to move toward being real, toward self-direction,
and toward positively valuing oneself and one's own feelings. Then learn to prefer the excitement of
being a process to being something fixed and static. They c ome to value an openness to inner and
outer experiences, sensitivity-to and acceptance-of others as they are, and develop greater
abilityachieve close relationships.

Politics of relationships and therapy. How persons maneuver or position themselves for power and
control within relationships, both personal and therapeutic.

Politics in a broader sense. Applying Rogers' perspective, Assemblyman John Vasconcellos says, "The
basic struggle in politics is between those who think people should be free to control their own destiny,
and those who think everyone should be controlled."

Reflection, reflective listening, "active listening." A therapeutic technique in which the therapist mirrors
or repeats, in his or her own words, what the client has just said.

Research. Rogers was an early advocate for research on the effectiveness of therapeutic approaches.

Transparency involves expressing my deep feelings, as my feelings rather than as facts about another,
revealing myself as a person, real and imperfect as I am, in my relationship with another.

Unconditional positive regard. To give a client or person my full, caring attention without judging or
evaluating them. "It is a kind of liking which has strength, and which is not demanding."

What is most personal is most general. The most private, personal feelings are often those which, if
shared, would speak to others most directly.

Willingness for another to be separate: Allowing others to have different believs, feelings, values, and
goals than you do
Among the humanistic psychologists, curriculum is concerned with the process not the products;
personal needs not subject matter; psychological meaning and environmental situations
Social Foundations of Curriculum
Schools exist within the social context. Societal culture affects and shapes schools and their
curricula.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS of CURRICULUM

Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with framework for planning,
implementing and evaluating curriculum in schools. It helps in answering what school are for, what
subjects are important, how students should learn and what materials and methods should be
used. In decision making, philosophy provides the starting point and will be used for the succeeding
decision making.

7 Common concepts of curriculum

1. Scope and Sequence
2. Syllabus
3. Content Outline
4. Standers
5. Textbooks
6. Course of Study
7. Planned Experiences
BASIC ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM
• SUBJECT-MATTER:
Designation of what area of content, facts, arena of endeavor, that the curriculum deals with.
(This is a further elaboration of the "topic" description in the Aim.)
• INSTRUCTIONAL PLAN:
Describes the activities the learners are going to engage in, and the sequence of those activities.
Also describes what the TEACHER is to do in order to facilitate those activities. (This is like the
traditional "lesson plan" except for a curriculum it may include more than one lesson.)
• Aim: One sentences (more or less) description of overall purpose of curriculum, including
audience and the topic.
• Rationale: Paragraph describing why aim is worth achieving. This section would include
assessment of needs.
• Goals and objectives: List of the learning outcomes expected from participation in the
curriculum. This section includes a discussion of how the curriculum supports national, state,
and local standards.
• Audience and pre-requisites: Describes who the curriculum is for and the prior knowledge,
skills, and attitudes of those learners likely to be successful with the curriculum.
• MATERIALS: Lists materials necessary for successful teaching of the curriculum. Includes a list of
web pages. Often, the web site will NOT be the only materials needed by the students. They
may need books, tables, paper, chalkboards, calculators, and other tools. You should spell these
additional materials out in your teaching guide. Also includes the actual materials (worksheets
and web pages) prepared by the curriculum developer, any special requirements for classroom
setup and supplies, and a list of any specific hardware and software requirements
• INSTRUCTIONAL PLAN: Describes the activities the learners are going to engage in, and the
sequence of those activities. Also describes what the TEACHER is to do in order to facilitate
those activities. (This is like the traditional "lesson plan" except for a curriculum it may include
more than one lesson.)
 • PLANS FOR ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION: Includes plan for assessing learning and evaluating
the curriculum as a whole. May include description of a model project, sample exam questions,
or other elements of assessment. Also should include plan for evaluating the curriculum as a
whole, including feedback from learners.
How to improve Questioning Technique
The following are some points to consider to improve one’s questioning technique.
• Know your own style of questioning
• Request a colleague to critique your own style as to:
a.) kind of questions often asked,
b.) the type of responses required. Knowing your errors in questioning would make it easy to
effect the necessary changes. Too many “what” questions will be avoided.

• Increase your own repertoire of type questions. Training on employing divergent, high level
and open-ended questions improves your questioning technique. Fully aware of the
instructional objectives set for a particular lesson, you would be able to frame more interesting
and thought-provoking questions rather than the memory type.

• Consider the individual abilities and interest of the students. Experiencing success in giving
corrects answers promotes a feeling of confidence among them. Select the brighter ones to
respond to high level questions. An approving nod, a smile or praise for an answer given will
encourage them to volunteer own ideas.
• Spend time reflecting on the type of questions you ask. Improve on them.
Children are by nature curious. They think question about almost anything they see and hear around
them. They ask casual, intelligent and even funny questions. Neil Postman said, “they come to school as
question marks” but unfortunately “leave school as periods”.
The teacher’s reaction to their inquisitiveness can motivate or discourage them from asking more
question. Some may give honest answer, others may instantly stop them from attempting to ask more.
How can we encourage children to ask question? Here are some tips:
1) The teacher’s questioning technique is the key in encouraging students to ask correct, relevant
and high level question. Her question can serve as a good examples.
2) Attend to their question. Avoid dismissing irrelevant questions. Assist in clarifying or refocusing
in order to solicit correct responses.
3) Praise the correctly formulated questions. It develops confidence and makes knowledge search
easy and satisfying.
4) Allot an appropriate time slot for open questioning. This will encourage the slow thinker to
participate freely.